Differential effects of sauna-, diuretic-,

and exercise-induced hypohydration

JAY E. CALDWELL, ESA AHONEN, AND UNTO NOUSIAINEN

Kuopio Institute of Exercise Medicine and Department of Physiology, University of Kuopio,
and Departments of Clinical Physiology and Clinical Neurophysiology,
Kuopio University Central Hospital, 70211 Kuopio 21, Finland

CALDWELL,JAY E., ESAAHONEN,ANDUNTO NOUSIAINEN. these methods been compared as they are actually used
Differential effects of sauna-, diuretic-, and exercise-induced by athletes. Differences between separate treatments can
hypohydration. J. ~Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise modify physiological responses to hypohydration and
Physiol. 57(4): 1018-1023, 1984.-The physiological effects on explain the changes in ability to perform in a competi-
submaximal and maximal exercise of three methods commonly tion.
used by athletes for achieving rapid weight loss were determined
by measuring cardiorespiratory variables in 62 nonendurance The purpose of the present study was to examine the
athletes. A mean weight loss of 4.1% was achieved by those weight loss methods commonly practiced by Finnish
who followed either a sauna (SAU), diuretic (DIU), or exercise athletes. It was hypothesized that sauna-, diuretic-, and
(ACT) protocol, compared with the average weight loss of 1.2% exercise-induced weight reduction limit physical per-
in the control group. At maximal exercise O2 consumption, 02 formance, that this limitation is not attributable to hy-
pulse, blood lactate concentration, and work load decreased in pohydration alone, and that it also depends on the nature
SAU and DIU groups relative to the ACT group, whereas only of selected treatments. We studied the effects of these
a few differences were observed at the aerobic threshold. Weight methods on cardiorespiratory variables related to aerobic
loss achieved over a 48-h period was less detrimental to an power and endurance in wrestlers, boxers, judoka, and
athlete than was a more rapid (24-h) weight reduction achieved weight lifters.
through sauna bathing or the use of diuretics. We conclude
that not only the quantity of weight loss but also the method
itself may limit physical performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS

dehydration; aerobic threshold; training; aerobic capacity Sixty-two male athletes from four top Finnish sport
clubs (15 weight lifters, 19 wrestlers, 12 judoka, and 16
boxers) took part in the study. Th .eir anthropometric and
IT IS WELL ESTABLISHED that hypohydration limits phys- physiological measurements are presented in Table 1.
ical performance (4, 15, 22-24). This limitation appears The athletes were randomly divided into three experi-
to have both anaerobic and aerobic components, includ- mental subgroups and a control group. Base-line values
ing decrements in peak power (16),strength (1,3), lactate of these groups are expressed in Table 2. All athletes
production (24), and 02 consumption (10). It has been were asked to follow a low-calorie low-fluid diet such as
reported, however, that strength (27, 30) and aerobic they would normally consume before competition. Mem-
power (2, 16, 24), are unchanged following hypohydra- bers of the experimental groups then attempted to lose
tion. Nonetheless, except as reported in some studies 5% of their body weight by one of three prescribed
(12, 27), physical work capacity< (or endurance) is de- methods. 1) Diuretic group (DIU, n = 15). After base-
creased with increasing hypohydration. line testing each subject received furosemide (1.7 mg/kg
A variety of methods has been used to induce weight total) in two equal doses, the first 16 h and the second 4
loss: heat exposure (1, 4, 6, 22, 24), exercise (21, 24), h before follow-up testing. No electrolyte supplement
exercise during heat exposure (8, lo), diuretics (5, 22), was provided. Urine volume was measured during the
and restriction of food and water alone or in combination ensuing 24-h period. No other treatment was provided,
with the other methods (16,30). All of these methods for and the athletes were asked not to exercise. 2) Sauna
weight reduction are commonly practiced by athletes who group (SA U, n = 16). After base-line testing each athlete
are competing within weight divisions. The common had 24 h to achieve the prescribed weight loss. Sauna
denominator of these methods is hypohydration. When exposure was performed in the experimental sauna of
the various methods of hypohydration have been com- the University of Kuopio in which the temperature (at
pared, exercise has been shown to have the most unfa- head level) was maintained at 80°C and the humidity at
vorable effect because of lowered glycogen stores, ele- 50% by means of an automatic water injection system.
vated core temperature, contracted plasma volume, and The interval between the last sauna and the follow-up
altered concentrations of blood components (22). Sauna- testing was at least 2 h. 3) Active exercise group (ACT, n
and diuretic-induced hypohydration have been reported = 16). Each athlete was given 48 h to achieve the pre-
to have fewer side effects (22).Only in a few studies have scribed weight loss through increased exercise (training,
1018 0161-7567/84 $1.50 Copyright 0 1984 the American Physiological Society
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HYPOHYDRATION AND PERFORMANCE 1019
TABLE 1. Base-line anthropometric and they had not engaged in competition. During the
and physiological measurements by sport week before the tests they were asked not to change their
regular routines and to consume their usual diets. At the
Weight Wrestlers Judoka Boxers time of testing all athletes were in good health and free
Variable Lifters
(n = 15) (n = 19) (n = 12) (n = 16) of injury. All tests were conducted over a 4-wk period, so
that each club was tested on a separate weekend. All
Age 22.6 k 5.5 22.6 k 4.2 24.1 k 6.1 19.6 z!z 3.4
measurements were performed by the same persons
Yr
Ht, 173.6 ,t 8.7 172.4 ,t 6.7 174.6 ,t 6.1 177.0 ,t 6.6 throughout the study period.
cm Members of the control and exercise groups were
W. 77.2 t 12.1 72.5 It 10.0 72.7 t 7.9 66.3 t 10.0 t est ed on the afternoons of days 1 and 3, and the sauna
kg and diuretic groups were tested on the mornings of days
Fat, % 15.0 15.1 13.8 11.2
Hematocrit, % 48.6 & 2.3 48.1 t 1.8 48.4 zk 2.3 47.8 zk 2.7 2 and 3. The order of testing was as follows: underwater
Hemoglobin, 165.1 t 7.1 162.5 z!z 7.4 161.3 t 7.4 160.8 t 9.3 densitometry, anthropometry, venous blood sampling,
Vitalg/l capacity, 4.66 zk 0.74 4.87 k 0.59 4.85 & 0.43 4.78 + 0.66 muscle biopsy (weight lifters and wrestlers only), power
tests, and cycle ergometry. The details of the various
liters
‘($0 2-, bin 3.90 t 0.71 4.05 t 0.49 4.04 t 0.49 3.86 t 0.60 physiological tests are described below.
00 2-, m l* 51.1 AI 8.7 56.1 2 4.0 55.8 t 6.5 58.4 2 6.4 Anthropometry. Height and weight were determined
kg-l. min’l before the physiological testing and after the weight loss.
Pulse (max), 181.5 -c- 5.4 183.3 t 8.9 184.0 t 9.6 181.3 * 9.0 Skinfold measurements were made according to the
. _
beats/min
Aerobic 28.8 Z!E7.3 32.7 t 7.2 33.2 t 3.3 31.9 & 5.9 method of Durnin and Womersley (13) with-a Lange
threshold, skinfold caliper. Body fat percentages were interpolated
ml kg-l - l from the Durnin-Womersley tables. Vital capacity was
min-’ measured on a Godart water-seal Expirograph with the
Aerobic 56.2 t, 9.9 57.5 t 10.3 60.1 zk 8.1 54.5 & 9.9 athlete in a standing position.
threshold, %
VO 2 max
Hematology and blood chemistry. Hematocrit, hemo-
globin, and sodium and potassium concentrations were
Values are means t SD. 00 2max, maximum 02 consumption.
measured in blood obtained from a stasis-free antecubital
TABLE 2. Base-line anthropometric vein before exercise testing. Blood hematocrit (Hct) was
and physiological measurements by experimental group corrected for trapped plasma (0.96 x Hct), and hemoglo-
bin was measured by cyanohemoglobin spectrophotom-
Group etry. Changes in plasma volume were determined by the
Variable ACT SAU DIU CON
Total
(n = 62)
calculations introduced by Dill and Costill (11).Concen-
(n = 16) (n = 16) (n = 15) (n= 15) trations of sodium and potassium in serum were deter-
Age, 21.4 21.7 23.0 22.3 22.1 mined by flame photometry.
Yr t6.2 k3.0 k4.1 k6.0 24.9 A&& biopsy. Under local anesthesia (4 ml lidocaine
Ht, 172.8 177.4 174.4 172.4 174.3 without epinephrine) -50 mg of tissue were obtained
cm k 6.9 t 7.4 k 8.1 t 5.6 ‘k 7.2 from the vastus lateralis muscle using a, 1.2 x 70 mm
wt 66.6 74.1 74.1 73.7 71.5
zk 9.3 z!z 9.3 2 11.1 zk 12.0 * 10.3
Trucat biopsy needle; each sample was immediately fro-
kg
Fat, % 13.6 13.4 13.6 15.0 14.2 zen in liquid nitrogen. Glycogen was measured in glucose
Hematocrit, % 48.4 48.0 48.3 48.1 48.2 units (mmol/mg wet wt), using a photometric method
zk 2.5 k 2.3 -c- 1.9 t 2.2 zk 2.2 modified by Hultman (17).
Hemoglobin, g/l 163.8 163.2 161.9 160.8 162.5
t 7.5 t 7.2
Ergometry. Ergometry was performed on a Siemens
* 8.6 k 8.3 zk 7.8
Vital capacity, 4.36 4.94 5.03 4.85 4.79 380B cycle-ergometer in a well ventilated room. During
liters t 0.56 t 0.61 t 0.59 & 0.50 zk 0.61 the test cardiac activity was monitored continuously and
VO 2 max9 bin 3.61 4.25 4.15 3.84 3.96 the heart rate recorded at the end of every minute. Direct
k 0.61 k 0.50 t 0.38 t 0.57 zk 0.57 02 and CO2 concentrations and gas volume measure-
00 2-, ml kg-l l l 54.7 57.6 56.8 52.5 55.4
ments were made using a Mijnhardt Oxycon-2 system
mine1 k 8.5 t 5.3 k 6.7 k 5.8 I!z 6.8
Pulse (max), 181.5 182.3 183.9 182.4 182.4 and were recorded every minute. Pollowing an unloaded
beats/min k 8.9 k 7.3 t 8.4 rt 9.0 zk 8.2 period of 5 min the athletes were fitted with rubber
Aerobic threshold, 31.0 31.3 31.5 32.2 31.6 facemask assemblies for gas collection. The test began
ml kg-’ mine1 t 8.3 t 5.1 k 6.6 k 5.2 f: 6.4
l l

with a O-W load. At the end of each 1-min stage the load
Aerobic threshold, 57.1 53.9 55.4 60.8 57.0
%VO,mm k 12.0 z!r 7.6 t 9.9 t 8.3 k 9.6 was increased by 25 W until the subject complained of
fatigue or until the requisite pedal cadence (60 rpm)
Values are means & SD. ACT, active exercise group; SAU, sauna
group; DIU, diuretics group; CON, control group. 302-, maximum O2 could not be sustained. Criteria for a maximal test were
consumption. a respiratory exchange ratio (RER) > 1.0 and either a
plateau or a decrease in O2 consumption (TO,). From the
running, or swimming). 4) Control group (CON, n = 15). test data ventilation was plotted against I702 to deter-
This group continued normal training during the 48-h mine the aerobic-anaerobic transition point. The aerobic
test period. threshold was defined according to Wasserman et al.
Before the testing period all athletes had been follow- (31).
ing a regular training schedule for their respective sports, Lactate measurements. Arterialized capillary blood

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1020 CALDWELL, AHONEN, AND NOUSIAINEN

samples were obtained from a fingertip before and after TABLE 4. Changes in physiological variables
the warm-up period, at the end of the 225-W stage, and at aerobic threshold after hypohydration
4 min after completion of the test. Blood was also ob-
tained from the wrestlers every 2 min during the test. ACT+
ACT SAU DIU SAU + CON
Blood lactate values determined from these samples were Variable (n = 16) (n = 16) (n = 15) DIU (n = 15)
used to corroborate the aerobic thresholds determined (n = 47)
from the expired minute ventilation vs.-V02 curves. The VO 2mart,
n&kg-‘0 0.2 -1.3c -2.8' -1.5' -1.0
concentration of lactate in blood was measured using the min-’ t3.0 k4.4 zk4.3 k4.0 k4.0
method described by Gutmann and Wahlefeld (14). Pulse, beats/min 0.8 8.3 2.4 3.8= 1.0
Statistics. Comparison of initial values of the experi- k1.0 t14.5 k11.2 kl2.2 kO.7
mental groups with those of the control group was made O2 pulse, ml/beat -o.73e -2.294d -1.31"" -1.454d -0.35
k1.26 t1.64 k1.28 k1.51 k0.78
using the two-tailed Student’s t test for groups. Compar- Ventilation, l/min 1.0 -0.4 -5.1Cvd -1.7 1.9
ison of those variables before and after the weight loss t6.2 kg.8 t8.8 k8.7 k7.0
was made using the one-tailed Student’s t tests for pairs. Respiratory rate, 0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.1 0.2
Differences were expressed as changes from the initial beats/min k0.8 - kO.6 k0.6 *0.9 20.7
Tidal volume, 0.01 -0.19= -0.18 -0.12 0
values. Comparisons between experimental groups and liters kO.19 zkO.27 k0.36 kO.29 to.30
the control group were made using one-tailed Student’s Respiratory 4.1 -4.5 -2.9 -1.2 0.5
t tests for groups and analysis of variance and covariance, efficiency, %
so that the effect of weight loss was standardized for Tidal 02, ml/beat -2.2 -1.1 -1.9 -1.6 -0.5
comparison of methods. In the tables results are ex- k4.7 k2.6 zk3.9 k4.2 k4.4
Work load, W -15.6' -15.1* -26.9'$ -19.1a -5.0
pressed as changes after the hypohydration procedures. t22.3 k28.5 t28.7 k26.6 t19.7
RER, % -6.44b -0.5 -4.gc -3.Pd 1.0
RESULTS Values are means & SD. Respiratory efficiency, tidal volume/vital
capacity; tidal 02, V02/respiratory rate; RER, respiratory exchange
Base-line measurements of the athletes after the ratio. Other abbreviations as in Table 2. aP < 0.001 after
weight loss are presented in Table 3. The experimental hypohydration. bP c 0.001 when compared with controls. "PC
groups all lost significantly more weight (2.3-3.5 kg, P c 0.01 after hypohydration. dP < 0.01 when compared with
0.001)than did the control group. The sauna and diuretic controls. *P C 0.05 after hypohydration. fP < 0.005 when
compared with controls.
groups achieved a greater weight loss than did the active
group. Those in the active group experienced no statis-
crit (5.3 and 7.2%, respectively). In the sauna group,
tically significant alterations in plasma volume, although
their concentrations of sodium in serum increased which lost weight via production of a hypotonic sweat
slightly (1.2%).On the other hand, the sauna and diuretic (9), the concentration of sodium in serum increased.
groups underwent marked decreases in plasma volume Functional vital capacity (FVC) decreased only in the
(10.3and 14.1%,respectively) and increases in hemato- diuretic group. Muscle glycogen showed no marked
changes in any of the test groups.
The changes in the physiological variables at the
TABLE 3. Changes in base-line measurements aerobic
. threshold are shown in Table 4. The values of
after hypohydration vo 2 m-9 02 pulse, and ventilation in the active exercise
group resembled those of the controls, while these vari-
ACT + ables showed significant decreases in other experimental
ACT SAU DIU SAU + CON
Variable (n = 16) (n = 16) (n = 15) DIU (n = 15) groups. The work load decreased in all exberimental
(n = 47) groups, and the respiratory exchange ratio decreased in
the active exercise and diuretic groups. The tidal volume
w kg -2.34b -3Jasb -3.1"tb -304b -O.Ba
and the exercise respiratory efficiency (the fraction of
to.8 to.8 to.8 a0:9 k1.0
Vital capacity, 0.04 -0.10 -0.27Cpd -o.13c -0.03 vital capacity used with each breath) in all test groups
liters kO.19 to.29 k0.36 kO.30 to.18 remained almost unchanged.
Aerobic threshold, -1.3 -0.1 0 -0.5 -5.9 Changes of physiological variables at maximal work
%Vo2-
Hematocrit, % 0.13 2.634b 3.6Pb 2.0Pb -0.87' intensity are shown in Table 5. Moderate decreases in
t2.45 t1.93 k2.23 *2.62 Al.46 maximal ventilation were observed in each of the exper-
Hemoglobin, g/l 1.7 10.34b 14.74b 8.74b -2.3 imental groups. The maximal frequency of respiration
zk7.9 k6.8 k8.6 k9.4 k5.6 increased slightly in all the groups but most clearly in
Plasma volume, % -0.9 -10.3b X4.1b -8.3b 3.3
Serum Na+, 1.74d 3.54b 0.6 2 04b -0.3 the controls. The decrease in tidal volume was most
mmol/l a.7 &2.5 a.9 -c-2:3 ~1.8 noticeable in the sauna and diuretic groups, and therefore
Serum K+, mmol/l 0.10 0.29" 0.14d 0.09 0.11 the decreases in VO 2 m-3 tidal 02, and 02 pulse were most
kO.35 kO.33 *0.33 to.37 kO.36 marked in these test groups. The work load in maximal
Muscle glycogen, -0.31 0.21 0.37 0.09 -1.58 exercise decreased in all experimental groups, the sauna
mm01 glucose/ -t-3.77 zk1.46 a.92 k2.48 k4.70
mg wet wt and diuretic groups having the largest reduction.
Differences beween the methods estimated by analysis
Values are means k SD. Abbreviations as in Table 2. Students t test
was used for pairs and groups. *P c 0.001 after hypohy- of covariance are summated in Table 6. The effect of
dration. bP < 0.001 when compared with controls. cP < 0.01 amount of weight reduction was eliminated, and the
after hvpohvdration. d P < 0.01 when compared with controls. differences evaluated were thus due to the methods alone.

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HYPOHYDRATION AND PERFORMANCE 1021

TABLE 5. Changes in physiological variables in the sauna (P < 0.02) and diuretic (P < 0.07) groups
at maximal exercise after hypohydration when compared with the active exercise group, probably
due to different relationships between the decreases of
ACT + CON body weight and VOWm-0 Heart rate and respiratory rate
ACT SAU DIU SAU + (n = 15)
Variable (n = 16) (n=16) (n = 15) DIU did not indicate any significant difference between meth-
(n = 47) ods at maximal work intensity.
vo2 -, ml gkg-’ 1.1 -2.34b -4.5 -1 84b 2.7e
min’l
l

k3.7 k4.3 k4.3 -1-4:6 k3.6 DISCUSSION

Pulse, beats/min 0.6 2.3 1.5 1.5’ 3.7c
In the present study differences in maximal work
*7.2 k5.3 t4.8 k5.8 k4.5
02 pulse, ml/beat -0.22 -2.254d -2.424b -l.614d 0.39 capacity appear to arise from the specific nature of the
kl.26 kl.88 H.24 kl.78 kl.69 treatment used to achieve rapid weight loss of power
Ventilation, l/min Al.5 -9.1bvC -9 4b*e -6.64b 12.v athletes and not merely from differences in hypohydra-
HO.4 kl2.9 *17:3 kl3.9 k12.3 tion. A weight reduction carried out by increased physical
Respiratory rate, 2Je 1.8’ 1.3 1.1”” 5.1C
beats/min *5.5 k6.3 k6.0 k5.0 k6.0 activity was more favorable than the diuretic- and sauna-
Tidal volume, -O.lle -0.3Pb -o.294b 00.23~~ 0.01 induced weight loss. There were a few changes in some
liters ,tO.l$ kO.20 dEo.15 kO.20 kO.15 variables at the aerobic threshold, but most changes
Respiratory -2.7 -7.2cvd -5.5es -5.1” 1.2 occurred at maximal work intensity.
efficiency, %
Tidal 02, ml/beat -4.8 -ll.3c -12.SG -9.6* -7.8
In agreement with other reports on the effects of
t7.7 HO.7 kll.3 HO.4 k9.7 hypohydration, we found marked decreases in maximal
Work load, W -6 gb -22 84b -21.34b -16.94b 15.0C physical work capacity. Changes in 02 pulse occurred
+15:8 *17:4 kl7.7 kl8.1 217.2 both at the aerobic threshold and at maximal exercise.
Lactate, mmol/l -1 OSb,’ -1 2gbsc -l.504e -1 284b 0.75” Hypohydration has been shown to increase heart rate
*1:30 fl:68 zk3.39 -e2:24 kl.63
RER, % -4.3b*c -l.Of -5 .84b -3 . 84b 2.4’ values during exercise in comfortable (4,X) and hot (21)
-L

environments. In this study slight increases in heart rate

Values are means k SD. Respiratory efficiency, Tidal volume/vital
capacity; Tidal 02, VOJRespiratory rate; RER, respiratory exchange occurred at the aerobic threshold, therefore the O2 pulse
ratio. Other abbreviations as in Table 2. *P C 0.001 after decreased in all three experimental groups. For the sauna
hypohydration. bP < 0.001 when compared with controls. cP < and diuretic groups, these decrements were statistically
0.01 after hypohydration. dP < 0.01 when compared with significant when compared with those of the controls.
controls. *P < 0.05 after hypohydration. fP < 0.05 when The aerobic threshold occurs while exercise perform-
compared with controls.
ance is still submaximal. At that submaximal level the
athletes still have available a cardiorespiratory reserve
TABLE 6. Comparison of methods that is reflected in the slightly increased submaximal
at aerobic threshold and maximal exercise heart and respiratory rates. In the present study the
Aerobic Threshold changes seen at the aerobic threshold were generally less
Variable
than the changes seen at maximal work capacity, sug-
ACT-SAU ACT-DIU SAU-DIU All
Groups gesting that considerable functional reserve remained at
submaximal exercise intensity. The cause of the lower
Pulse, beats/min NS NS NS NS respiratory efficiency is not apparent, but it may be
Respiratory rate, beats/ NS NS * *
min related to the diminished strength and endurance of the
7$02 -, ml. kg-’ min” l NS NS NS NS respiratory musculature. Torranin et al. (29) have shown
O2 pulse, ml/beat NS NS NS that such changes do occur in skeletal muscles with
Work load, W & NS NS NS hypohydration, and recently Loke and his colleagues (20)
Maximal Exercise have noted respiratory muscle fatigue without changes
Variable in FVC after marathon. In any case simultaneously de-
ACT-SAU ACT-DIU SAU-DIU All
Groups creased vital capacity and increased blood viscosity may
Pulse, beats/min NS NS NS NS alter the pulmonary ventilation-perfusion balance, lim-
Respiratory rate, beats/ NS NS NS NS iting 02 uptake (Table 3).
min Costill et al. (7, 8) showed that 4-6s hypohydration
VO 2-, ml kg-l. mine1 * NS NS
l

* * (achieved by exercise in heat) decreased the plasma

O2 pulse, ml/beat NS IiS
Work load, W t * NS * volume and interstitial fluid more than the intracellular
Lactate (maximal), * * NS * fluid. They postulated that redistribution of water, which
mmol/l had been released from hydrated glycogen, may partially
Statistics were carried out by analysis of covariance. NS, nonsig- account for this imbalance. This slight disturbance in
nificant. Other abbreviations as in Table 2. "P < 0.05. tp < intracellular milieu would be due to the smaller changes
0.01. at the aerobic threshold, which are markedly influenced
by intracellular events. In our study not only was maxi-
Comparison of the methods at the aerobic threshold mal O2 consumption diminished in all three experimental
showed only a few differences. However, there were groups, ventilation and maximal lactate production were
marked decreases of O2 pulse, maximal work load, and also decreased. Further fluid loss took place during the
blood lactate values at maximal exercise in the sauna posthypohydration test, probably during the second half
and diuretic groups. The decrease in VOWmm was greater of the test. Thus the effect of hypohydration at maximal

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Copyright © 1984 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
1022 CALDWELL, AHONEN, AND NOUSIAINEN

work intensity in the second test was probably greater duction of lactate. However, the decrease in maximal
than at the aerobic threshold. work load was less than the decrease in maximal blood
Dysfunction of thermoregulation probably plays an lactate in the experimental groups, possibly due to the
important role in the effects which we have described. exponential increase of blood lactate concentration at
The increase in core temperature during hypohydration the final stage of the exercise test.
has been attributed to plasma hyperosmolality and hy- In conclusion, it can be stated that, although the effects
povolemia (see DISCUSSION of ref. 25),which contributes of hypohydration are evident at low exercise intensities,
to a decrease in sweat rate response and cutaneous blood the full impact of hypohydration is felt at maximal work
flow. Diuretics have been reported to cause isosmotic intensity when cardiorespiratory reserves can no longer
hypovolemia (5, 21), which could elicit different physio- be tapped. A 3-5% weight loss by active exercise, diuret-
logical responses than a hyperosmotic hypovolemia (25). ics, or sauna bathing is unfavorable for the athlete pre-
It has also been shown that in hypohydrated subjects paring for competition. With respect to the effects of the
heat acclimatization decreases thermoregulatory and different treatments, measurements at maximal work
cardiovascular strain in a comfortable environment, but intensity indicated that the active exercise group did the
only cardiovascular strain decreases in hot environments best. Interaction of physical exercise and food and fluid
(25). Nadel (21) has shown that during hypohydration a restriction, which was allowed for the test groups, may
slow increase in skin blood flow begins at a higher core explain the different responses. On the other hand, the
temperature and then characteristically stops at a members in the active exercise group lost the weight in
slightly higher temperature. This thermoregulatory dys- 48 h, which allowed them more time than was available
function occurs at submaximal exercise levels and is for the subjects in the diuretic and sauna groups to
accompanied by hemoconcentration in those not accli- compensate for hypohydration-induced changes in phys-
mated to heat. Senay and Kok (26) have shown that iological responses.
hemoconcentration begins when the intensity of the
exercise exceeds about 50% of the aerobic threshold. This work was supported by a grant from the Finnish Olympic
Some differences noted after hypohydration are prob- Committee and by the Kuopio Institute of Exercise Medicine. We
express our gratitude to medical students Jarmo Heikkinen, Eija Hut-
ably not primary, e.g., the decrease in maximal lactate tunen, Raija Seuri, and Erkki Vehmanen, without whose able assistance
production. It is known that lactate production is reduced this work could not have been completed. Aija Finne performed the
when the muscle glycogen stores are diminished (18),but laboratory analyses and Raija Holopainen the graphical work. We also
in our biopsy samples glycogen content was not reduced. thank Prof. Osmo Hanninen and Dr. Esko Lansimies for reviewing the
Furthermore, there was no correlation between the level manuscript.
of glycogen in individual muscles and the maximal pro- Received 21 June 1982; accepted in final form 20 April 1984.

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HYPOHYDRATION AND PERFORMANCE 1023
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