1.

Internet and WWW

1.1 Introduction to the internet
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and computer networks that
communicate using a standardized set of protocols. It allows the exchange of information and
data across the globe, enabling communication, collaboration, and access to a vast array of
resources. The Internet is built on a decentralized infrastructure, and it operates on the basis of
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), collectively known as
TCP/IP.

Key components of the internet include:

• Hardware Infrastructure: This includes servers, routers, switches, and other
networking equipment that form the physical backbone of the internet.
• Protocols: Standardized rules and conventions, such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol), govern how data is transmitted and received over the
internet.
• Addresses: Devices connected to the internet are assigned unique addresses, such as IP
addresses, to facilitate communication and data exchange.
• Software Applications: Various applications and services run on top of the internet
infrastructure, providing functionalities such as email, web browsing, social media, and
online gaming.

History of the internet

The history of the internet is a complex and fascinating journey that spans several decades. It
evolved through a series of technological developments, innovations, and collaborations
among researchers and engineers. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the history
of the internet:

1. 1960s: The Origins - ARPANET:

• The origins of the internet can be traced back to the 1960s when the U.S.
Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) initiated the
development of a research network called ARPANET.
• ARPANET aimed to create a decentralized communication network that could
withstand partial outages, making it more robust and resilient.

2. 1970s: TCP/IP and Email:

• The development of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP)
laid the foundation for a standardized communication protocol suite that became
essential for networking on the internet.
• Ray Tomlinson implemented the first networked email system, introducing the use
of the "@" symbol to separate the user's name from the computer's name.

3. 1980s: DNS and the World Wide Web:

• The Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced in the 1980s, allowing the use of
human-readable domain names instead of numeric IP addresses.
• Tim Berners-Lee, working at CERN, developed the World Wide Web (WWW) in
1989 and created the first web browser and server. This marked the beginning of a
user-friendly interface for accessing information on the internet.

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 4. 1990s: Commercialization and Global Expansion:
• The 1990s saw a rapid increase in internet usage, with the introduction of
commercial internet service providers (ISPs) and the World Wide Web becoming
accessible to the general public.
• The development of browsers like Netscape Navigator and the release of the Mosaic
browser contributed to the popularity of the web.

5. 2000s: Broadband and Social Media:

• Broadband internet became more widely available, allowing for faster and more
reliable connections.
• The rise of social media platforms like Friendster, MySpace, and later Facebook and
Twitter transformed the way people interacted and shared information online.

6. 2010s: Mobile Internet and Cloud Computing:

• The widespread adoption of smartphones and mobile devices led to increased
mobile internet usage.
• Cloud computing services, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Google
Cloud, became integral to internet-based applications and storage.

7. 2020s: Continued Innovation and Challenges:

• Ongoing developments include the deployment of 5G networks, the Internet of
Things (IoT), and advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning.
• Challenges related to privacy, cybersecurity, and digital divide continue to be
important issues in the internet landscape.

The history of the internet is a testament to the collaborative efforts of countless individuals,
organizations, and governments worldwide. It has evolved from a research project to a global
infrastructure that profoundly influences various aspects of modern life.

Application of Internet
Application areas of the internet are diverse and encompass a wide range of activities. Some
notable application areas include:

Communication:
1. Email: Electronic mail is a widely used form of communication for sending messages,
files, and documents.
• Instant Messaging: Platforms like WhatsApp, Telegram, and others facilitate real-
time text, voice, and video communication.
• Social Media: Websites and apps such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and
LinkedIn connect people and allow for the sharing of thoughts, pictures, and videos.

2. Information Retrieval:
• Search Engines: Google, Bing, and others help users find information on the
internet by indexing and organizing web pages.
• Online Encyclopedias: Websites like Wikipedia provide a vast repository of
knowledge contributed by users worldwide.

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 3. Entertainment:
• Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube allow users to
watch movies, TV shows, and user-generated content.
• Online Gaming: Multiplayer games connect players globally for interactive gaming
experiences.

4. E-commerce:
• Online Shopping: Websites like Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba enable users to buy
and sell goods and services over the internet.
• Digital Transactions: Electronic payment systems, such as PayPal and credit/debit
cards, facilitate online financial transactions.

5. Education:
• E-learning Platforms: Websites like Coursera, Khan Academy, and edX provide
online courses and educational resources.
• Research: Students and researchers can access academic journals, articles, and
databases for information.

6. Business and Collaboration:

• Remote Work: The internet enables telecommuting and virtual collaboration tools
like Zoom, Slack, and Microsoft Teams.
• Cloud Services: Platforms like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft OneDrive
allow users to store and share files online.

7. News and Information:

• Online News Outlets: Websites and apps of news organizations provide real-time
updates on current events.
• Blogs and Forums: Platforms like Reddit and Medium allow users to share
opinions, experiences, and information.

8. Social Networking:
• Professional Networking: Platforms like LinkedIn focus on professional
connections and job opportunities.
• Personal Connections: Facebook and Instagram allow users to connect with friends
and family.

9. Healthcare:
• Telemedicine: Internet-based communication enables remote medical consultations
and healthcare services.
• Health Information: Patients can access health-related information and resources
online.

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Application of Internet:
Application areas of the internet are diverse and encompass a wide range of activities. Some
notable application areas include:

1. Communication: Email, instant messaging, and voice/video calls allow individuals and
businesses to communicate globally in real-time.
2. Information Retrieval: Search engines like Google enable users to find and access
vast amounts of information on the web
3. Social Networking: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram connect people
globally, facilitating social interactions, sharing of content, and collaboration.
4. E-Commerce: Online shopping platforms like Amazon and eBay enable individuals
and businesses to buy and sell goods and services over the internet.
5. Education: Online learning platforms and educational resources provide access to
educational materials, courses, and programs.
6. Entertainment: Streaming services for music, movies, and TV shows, as well as online
gaming platforms, offer entertainment options over the internet.
7. Business and Collaboration: Many businesses leverage the internet for
communication, collaboration, and remote work. Tools like video conferencing, project
management software, and cloud computing services enhance productivity.
8. Information Sharing: Blogs, forums, and content-sharing platforms allow individuals
and organizations to publish and share information with a global audience.
9. Healthcare: Telemedicine services enable remote consultations and medical advice,
while health information can be accessed online.
10. Government Services: Many government services, from tax filing to obtaining official
documents, can be accessed and processed online.

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for
accessing, using, managing, or participating in the Internet. ISPs can be organized in various
forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs can include internet access, internet transit,
domain name registration, web hosting, and colocation.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) play a crucial role in facilitating access to the internet
for individuals, businesses, and other organizations. Their primary duties revolve around
providing the necessary infrastructure and services to connect users to the global network.
Here are some key aspects of their duties:

1. Internet Connectivity: ISPs are responsible for delivering internet connectivity to end-
users. This involves establishing and maintaining the physical and logical connections
that allow data to be transmitted between users and the broader internet.
2. Infrastructure Setup: ISPs deploy and maintain the necessary infrastructure, which
can include fiber-optic cables, copper lines, wireless networks, and other technologies.
The infrastructure is designed to cover specific geographical areas and ensure reliable
connectivity.

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 3. Data Transmission: ISPs transmit data between users and the internet. They manage
the routing of data packets, ensuring that information is efficiently and securely
delivered from its source to its destination.
4. Bandwidth Provision: ISPs offer different levels of bandwidth to their customers.
Bandwidth represents the capacity for data transmission, and users can subscribe to
various plans based on their speed and data usage requirements.
5. Network Management: ISPs engage in network management activities to ensure the
smooth functioning of their networks. This includes monitoring for congestion,
optimizing traffic flow, and addressing issues that may affect the quality of service.
6. IP Address Allocation: ISPs are responsible for assigning IP addresses to their
customers. IP addresses are unique identifiers that allow devices to communicate over
the internet. ISPs manage the distribution and assignment of these addresses to ensure
proper connectivity.
7. Customer Support: ISPs provide customer support services to address technical issues,
billing inquiries, and other concerns that users may have. This involves maintaining
help desks, online support resources, and sometimes on-site assistance.
8. Compliance with Regulations: ISPs must adhere to local and international regulations
governing internet services. This includes compliance with privacy laws, net neutrality
principles, and other regulations that may vary by region.
9. Security Measures: ISPs implement security measures to protect their networks and
users from cyber threats. This can include firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and
other security protocols to safeguard the integrity of the network.
10. Billing and Account Management: ISPs handle billing and account management for
their customers. This involves invoicing, payment processing, and managing user
accounts, including the provisioning and deactivation of services.
11. Quality of Service (QoS): ISPs strive to maintain a high quality of service for their
customers. This includes minimizing downtime, optimizing network performance, and
delivering consistent and reliable internet connectivity.

In summary, ISPs serve as the gateway to the internet, providing the infrastructure and
services necessary for users to access and utilize online resources. Their duties encompass a
wide range of responsibilities, from network infrastructure management to customer support
and regulatory compliance.

Some Major ISP/s of Nepal

1. WorldLink Communications
2. Nepal Telecom
3. Classic Tech
4. Vianet Communications
5. Subisu
6. DishHome
7. Websurfer Nepal Communications
8. Techminds Network
9. Broadlink Communications
10. CG communications

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Domain name server
DNS, or Domain Name System, is a system that translates human-readable domain names
(like www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on a
network. This process makes it easier for people to remember and use domain names instead
of dealing with numerical IP addresses.
DNS, or Domain Name System, is a hierarchical system that translates human-readable
domain names into numerical IP addresses, which are used by computers to locate and identify
each other on the internet. The primary function of DNS is to provide a way to map easily
memorable domain names (like www.example.com) to their corresponding IP addresses (such
as 192.168.1.1).
Here's a detailed explanation of how DNS works, along with an example:

1. Domain Names:
A domain name is a human-readable address that represents a specific location on the
internet. It consists of two main parts: the top-level domain (TLD), like .com, .org, or
.net, and the second-level domain (SLD), like "example" in www.example.com.
2. DNS Hierarchy:
The DNS system is organized hierarchically, resembling an inverted tree or pyramid. At
the top of the hierarchy are the root DNS servers, followed by the top-level domain
(TLD) servers, authoritative name servers, and finally, the individual domain's
authoritative name server.
3. DNS Resolution Process:
When you enter a domain name into your browser (e.g., www.example.com), your
computer initiates a DNS resolution process to find the corresponding IP address.
◦ Step 1: Local DNS Resolver: Your computer checks its local DNS resolver cache.
If it has the IP address for the requested domain, the process ends.
◦ Step 2: Recursive Query:If the local DNS resolver doesn't have the information, it
sends a recursive query to the root DNS servers. The root DNS servers respond with
a referral to the appropriate TLD server for the specific domain.
◦ Step 3: TLD DNS Server:The local DNS resolver then sends a query to the TLD
DNS server (e.g., the .com TLD server) specified in the referral. The TLD server
responds with a referral to the authoritative name server for the second-level
domain.
◦ Step 4: Authoritative Name Server:The local DNS resolver queries the
authoritative name server for the specific domain (e.g., example.com). The
authoritative name server provides the IP address for the requested domain.
◦ Step 5: Caching:The local DNS resolver caches the IP address for a specified time
(TTL - Time to Live). This caching helps to reduce the load on the DNS
infrastructure and speeds up future queries for the same domain.
◦ Step 6: Response to Client: The IP address is finally returned to the client's
application (e.g., web browser), and the client can establish a connection with the
server using the obtained IP address.

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1.2 Protocols used in internet
Network protocols are a set of rules outlining how connected devices communicate
across a network to exchange information easily and safely. They constitute a set of rules for
routing and addressing packets of data, allowing them to travel across networks and reach their
correct destinations. Protocols serve as a common language for devices, enabling
communication regardless of differences in software, hardware, or internal processes.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one
computer to another on the internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the internet has at
least one IP address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the internet.
Data traversing the Internet is divided into smaller pieces called packets. IP information
is attached to each packet, helping routers send packets to the correct destination. Every device
or domain connecting to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are directed to
the IP address attached to them, data arrives where it is needed.
Once the packets reach their destination, they are handled differently depending on the
transport protocol used in combination with IP. The most common transport protocols are TCP
and UDP.
IP is the defining set of protocols that enable the modern internet. It was initially
defined in May 1974 in a paper titled "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication,"
published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and authored by Vinton Cerf
and Robert Kahn.

Some protocols used in internet are described below

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, is
one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, providing reliable,
connection-oriented communication between devices on a network. TCP ensures the
successful and ordered delivery of data packets between applications running on
devices across a network. It breaks data into packets, sends them, and then ensures they
are received correctly.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): The IP protocol, or Internet Protocol, is a fundamental
communication protocol that facilitates the transmission of data between devices on a
network. It is a key component of the Internet Protocol Suite, commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. The IP protocol provides a standardized set of rules for addressing and routing
data packets across networks.
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP, or Hypertext Transfer Protocol, is the
foundation of data communication on the World Wide Web. It is an application layer
protocol that facilitates the transfer of information between a client (such as a web
browser) and a server. HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning that each request from a
client to a server is independent and doesn't retain any information about previous
requests. HTTP typically uses port 80 for communication
4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP.
It adds a layer of encryption through SSL/TLS protocols to ensure the confidentiality
and integrity of data during transmission. HTTPS URLs begin with "https://" and uses
port 443 for communication.
Security Features:
• Encryption: HTTPS encrypts the data being transmitted, making it more difficult for
unauthorized parties to intercept and decipher.
• Data Integrity: It ensures that the data remains unchanged during transmission,

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 preventing tampering or modification by attackers.
• Authentication: HTTPS provides a way for the user's browser to verify the identity
of the website's server, helping to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks.
5. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol, and it is a
standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another over a TCP-
based network, such as the internet. It is commonly used for uploading and
downloading files between a client and a server.
6. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol. It is a communication protocol widely used for electronic mail (email)
transmission over the internet. SMTP is the set of rules governing the interaction
between the mail servers to send and receive emails.
7. User Datagram Protocol : UDP, or User Datagram Protocol, is a connectionless
transport protocol that operates at the transport layer of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite.
Unlike TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP does not establish a reliable,
connection-oriented communication channel before data transfer. Instead, it provides a
lightweight, best-effort delivery mechanism for sending data between devices on a
network.
8. Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): These
protocols are used by email clients to retrieve messages from a mail server. POP is
known for downloading emails to the local device, while IMAP allows users to manage
emails directly on the server.
9. Domain Name System (DNS): Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that allows
us to use human readable names to communicate over networks, rather than having to
manage and memorize IP addresses. DNS translates human-readable domain names
into IP addresses. It is crucial for locating resources on the Internet by associating
domain names with numeric IP addresses.
10. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): DHCP is used to automatically
assign IP addresses and other network configuration information to devices on a
network.
11. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): BGP is a routing protocol used to exchange routing
and reachability information between different autonomous systems on the Internet.
12. WebSocket: WebSocket is a communication protocol that provides full-duplex
communication channels over a single TCP connection. It is commonly used in web
applications for real-time communication.

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1.3 World Wide web and its evolution
The World Wide Web (WWW or the Web) is a system of interconnected documents and
resources that are accessed through the Internet. It allows users to navigate between web pages
by following hyperlinks, which are typically highlighted text or images that, when clicked,
lead to other relevant content. The Web is a crucial component of the internet and has played a
pivotal role in transforming the way information is shared and accessed globally.

Here's a brief overview of the evolution of the World Wide Web:

1. Origins (1989-1991): The concept of the World Wide Web was proposed by Sir Tim
Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist, in 1989. He developed the first web browser
(WorldWideWeb, later renamed Nexus) and the first web server. In 1991, the first
website went live, marking the official birth of the World Wide Web.
2. Early Growth and Development (1991-1995): In the early 1990s, the Web gained
momentum as more websites were created, and new browsers were developed. The
introduction of the Mosaic browser in 1993 significantly contributed to the
popularization of the Web. This period saw the emergence of basic HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language) for creating web pages.
3. Commercialization and Expansion (1995-2000): The mid-1990s witnessed a surge in
the commercial use of the Web. Companies like Netscape and Microsoft released
popular web browsers, and e-commerce started to take off. HTML evolved, and
technologies like JavaScript were introduced, allowing for more interactive and
dynamic web pages.
4. Dot-com Boom and Bust (late 1990s-early 2000s): The late 1990s saw the rise of the
dot-com era, characterized by a rapid increase in internet-related businesses. However,
this period also experienced a significant crash in 2000 when many dot-com companies
went bankrupt. Despite the setbacks, the Web continued to grow, and lessons learned
during this time paved the way for more sustainable business models.
5. Web 2.0 (early 2000s): Coined around 2004, the term "Web 2.0" represents a shift
towards more dynamic and user-centric websites. This phase emphasized user-
generated content, social media, and interactive online experiences. Notable examples
include the rise of platforms like Wikipedia, YouTube, and social networking sites.
6. Mobile and Responsive Design (2010s): With the widespread adoption of
smartphones and tablets, web developers focused on creating websites that could adapt
to different screen sizes. Responsive web design became a standard practice, ensuring a
seamless user experience across various devices.
7. Web 3.0 and Beyond (ongoing): The concept of Web 3.0 refers to the next phase of
the Web, often associated with increased interconnectivity, machine learning, and
semantic understanding of data. It envisions a more intelligent and personalized web
experience.
The World Wide Web has continually evolved, driven by technological advancements,
changing user needs, and innovations in web development. It has become an integral part of
everyday life, influencing communication, commerce, education, and various other aspects of
society.

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Uniform Resource Locator
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is a reference or address used to access
resources on the internet. A URL is a string of characters that provides a means to identify and
locate a resource, such as a webpage, document, image, or any other file, on the World Wide
Web.
A URL, short for a uniform resource locator is a web address pointing to a specific
website, a web page, or a document on the internet.

URL Syntax:
protocol://subdomain.domain-name.domain-extension/path-to-resource?parameters

1. Protocol : HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure) are network communication protocols between web servers and web browsers. They
transmit messages, retrieve information through the domain name system (DNS), and return it
to the browser.
The difference between HTTP and HTTPS is that the latter encrypts the data
transmission process. This security protocol protects a website better and is an essential factor
in improving ranking on search results.
Another difference is that HTTPS uses the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) port number 443 encrypted by Transport Layer Security (TLS). Meanwhile,
an HTTP URL uses TCP/IP port number 80.

2. Subdomain : A subdomain consists of any words or phrases that come before a URL’s first
dot. Referring to the world wide web, www is the most common type. It indicates that a
website is accessible through the internet and uses HTTP/HTTPS to communicate.
Furthermore, site owners can use any word as a subdomain for website organization
purposes as it points to a specific directory from the primary domain.
e.g. Https://support.hostinger.com
here “ support” is the subdomain

3. Domain Name: A domain name is what users type into their browser’s address bar to reach
a website. It consists of a site name and an extension, for example, hostinger.com.
Here “hostinger” is the second level domain and “.com” is the extension or Top Level Domain
(TLD)
Every name is unique, and they represent their corresponding IP addresses. This unique
IP address points to the website’s server. In other words, it helps users access websites easily.

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Domain Extension : Also called a top-level domain (TLD), is the bit following a website
name. Used for around 53% of all websites, .com is the most popular extension.
Here are types of TLD extensions to consider using:
i. Generic TLD (gTLD): This category includes most of the popular extensions,
including .com, .org, .net.
ii. Country Code TLD (ccTLD): As the name suggests, this TLD indicates a country, a
territory, or a geographical area. ccTLD consists of two letters based on the
international country codes, such as .mx, .in, or .at.
iii. Sponsored TLD (sTLD): This type of extension is sponsored and used for specific
organizations. For example, Tralliance Registry Management Company, LLC
sponsors .travel, and DotAsia Organization Ltd. sponsors .asia.
iv. New gTLD (nTLD): It’s a new generation of domain extensions. Basically, any TLD
launched after 12 January 2012 are new gTLD, including .online, .store, and .tech.

4. Path to the Resource: A path to the resource is the part to the right of the TLD. It’s often
referred to as the folder structure of the website.
A path to the resource gives extra information to a web server, enabling it to lead users
to a specific location. A series of paths to resources may point to a specific page, post, or file.
A URL can have more than one path to resources. When that happens, the forward-
slash sign (/) will separate each of them. The more paths to resources a URL contains, the
more specific the location is.
e.g. “/tutorials/what-is-a-url” in “https://www.hostinger.com/tutorials/what-is-a-url” is path to
resource.

5. Parameters: Parameters are query strings or URL variables. They’re the portion of a URL
following a question mark.
Parameters contain keys and values separated by the equal sign (=). Furthermore, a
URL can have multiple variables. In that case, the ampersand symbol (&) will separate each.
Example: https://www.bpradip.com.np/blog/what-is-dns?page=documentation&type=single

Web Server
A web server is a combination of software application and hardware device that serves content
to users over the internet. It processes incoming network requests over the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) and delivers web pages, files, or other resources to clients, such as web
browsers. Here are the key components and functions of a web server:

1. HTTP Protocol Handling:Web servers primarily use the HTTP protocol to

communicate with clients. HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning each request from a
client is independent, and the server doesn't retain information about previous requests.
2. Request Handling:
• When a user makes a request by entering a URL in a web browser or clicking a link,
the browser sends an HTTP request to the web server.
• The web server processes this request, interprets the URL, and determines the
appropriate action to take.

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 3. Resource Retrieval:
• Web servers retrieve requested resources such as HTML files, images, stylesheets,
JavaScript files, etc., from the file system or other sources.
• Dynamic content may be generated on-the-fly by interacting with a database or
other server-side technologies.
4. Content-Type Negotiation: Web servers determine the type of content being requested
based on the file extension or other metadata. Common content types include HTML,
CSS, JavaScript, images, and more.
5. Response Generation:
• After processing the request and retrieving the necessary resources, the web server
generates an HTTP response.
• The response includes a status code (indicating success, redirection, or an error) and
the requested content.
6. Connection Handling: Web servers manage multiple connections simultaneously.
They use mechanisms like connection pooling to efficiently handle incoming requests
without creating a new process or thread for each one.
7. Security:
• Web servers often include security features to protect against common threats, such
as denial-of-service attacks, cross-site scripting (XSS), and SQL injection.
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or its successor, Transport Layer Security (TLS), may
be used to encrypt data during transmission, ensuring secure communication
between the client and server.
8. Logging and Monitoring: Web servers log information about incoming requests,
errors, and other relevant data. These logs are useful for troubleshooting, performance
monitoring, and security analysis.
9. Configuration: Web servers are configurable to suit the specific needs of the
applications they serve. Configuration settings include options for performance tuning,
security, and defining how requests are handled.
10. Examples of Web Servers:
a) Apache HTTP Server: Developed by Apache Software Foundation, it is a free and
open source web server for Windows, Mac OS X, Unix, Linux, Solaris and other
operating systems; it needs the Apache license.
b) Nginx: A popular open source web server for administrators because of its light
resource utilization and scalability. It can handle many concurrent sessions due to its
event-driven architecture. It can also be used as a proxy server and load balancer.
c) Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS): Web server developed by
Microsoft for Windows Server. It is not open sourced, but widely used.
d) Lighttpd : A free web server that comes with the FreeBSD operating system. It is
seen as fast and secure, while consuming less CPU power.
e) Sun Java System Web Server: A free web server from Sun Microsystems that can
run on Windows, Linux and Unix. It is well-equipped to handle medium to large
websites.
In summary, a web server plays a crucial role in the delivery of web content by

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 handling client requests, retrieving resources, generating responses, and ensuring the
security and efficiency of the communication process. Different web servers may have
varying features and configurations, but they all serve the fundamental purpose of
facilitating the exchange of data between clients and servers on the internet.

Web Browser
The web browser is an application software to explore the World Wide Web (www) for
accessing websites and the Internet. When a user requests a web page from a particular
website, the browser retrieves its files from a web server and then displays the page on the
user's screen. It provides an interface between the server and the client, and it requests web
documents and services from the server. It works as a compiler to render HTML, which is
used to design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the browser loads
a web page written in HTML, including text, links, images, and other items such as style
sheets and JavaScript functions. Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari
are examples of web browsers. In 2020, an estimated 4.9 billion people used a browser. The
most used browser is Google Chrome, with a 65% global market share on all devices, followed
by Safari with 18%.

History of Web Browser.

The first web browser World Wide Web was invented in the year of 1990 by Tim Berners-Lee.
Later, it becomes Nexus. In the year of 1993, a new browser Mosaic was invented by Mark
Andreessen and their team. It was the first browser to display text and images at a time on the
device screen. He also invents another browser Netscape in 1994. Next year Microsoft
launched a web browser Internet Explorer which was already installed in the Windows
operating system. After this many browsers were invented with various features like Mozilla
Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari, Opera, etc.

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1.4 Search Engine, Meta Search Engine
A search engine is a software system designed to retrieve information from the World Wide
Web (WWW) or other online sources in response to user queries. The primary purpose of a
search engine is to help users find relevant information quickly and efficiently. Search engines
play a crucial role in organizing and indexing vast amounts of information available on the
internet, making it accessible to users.
Here's a detailed explanation of the key components and processes involved in a search
engine:
1. Web Crawling:
• Search engines use automated programs called web crawlers or spiders to
systematically browse the web and discover new or updated content.
• Crawlers start by visiting a set of known web pages (seed URLs) and then follow
links on those pages to discover new pages.
• The crawling process is continuous, allowing search engines to keep their index up-
to-date with the latest information.
2. Indexing:
• Once the web crawler fetches web pages, the search engine indexes the content to
create a searchable database.
• Indexing involves extracting information such as keywords, titles, headings, and
links from the web pages.
•The index is organized in a way that facilitates quick retrieval of information based
on user queries.
3. Ranking Algorithm:
• When a user enters a search query, the search engine uses a ranking algorithm to
determine the relevance of web pages to that query.
• Search engines consider various factors, including keyword relevance, page quality,
user engagement metrics, and link popularity, to rank the results.
• Algorithms are often proprietary and continuously refined to improve the quality of
search results.
4. User Query Processing:
• When a user submits a search query, the search engine processes the query to
understand the user's intent.
• This involves analyzing the query terms, understanding synonyms, and considering
context to provide more accurate and relevant results.
5. Search Results Page:
• The search engine displays the results on a search results page (SERP), typically
with the most relevant results at the top.
• Each result is usually accompanied by a title, snippet (brief description), and URL.
• Users can click on the results to access the full content of the web page.
6. Web Page Retrieval:
• When a user clicks on a search result, the search engine retrieves the corresponding

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 web page from its index and serves it to the user.
• The process involves fetching the content of the page and presenting it to the user's
browser.
7. User Feedback and Relevance Improvement:
• Search engines continuously collect data on user behavior, such as click-through
rates and dwell time, to improve the relevance of search results.
• Feedback mechanisms help search engines refine their algorithms and provide better
results for future queries.
Popular search engines, such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo, have evolved over the years,
incorporating advanced technologies like machine learning and natural language processing to
enhance their capabilities. The efficiency and accuracy of search engines contribute
significantly to the accessibility of information on the internet.

Meta Search Engine

A meta search engine, also known as a metasearch engine or aggregator, is a specialized type
of search engine that retrieves results from multiple individual search engines, directories, and
databases simultaneously. Instead of maintaining its own database and index of web pages, a
meta search engine acts as an intermediary, sending a user's query to various other search
engines and compiling the results into a single list. Meta search engines aim to provide a
broader and more diverse set of results by leveraging multiple search engines simultaneously.

Here's how a meta search engine generally works:

1. User Query Submission: When a user enters a search query into a meta search engine,
the meta search engine does not have its own index to retrieve results from. Instead, it
sends the query to multiple other search engines.
2. Query Distribution: The meta search engine distributes the user's query to a
predefined set of individual search engines. These can include popular search engines
like Google, Bing, Yahoo, and others.
3. Results Compilation: The meta search engine gathers the results returned by each
individual search engine and compiles them into a single list. This list typically includes
results from various sources.
4. Elimination of Duplicates: To improve the user experience, duplicate results from
different search engines are often removed or de-duplicated in the final list. This
ensures that the user sees a concise and diverse set of results.
5. Presentation to the User: The meta search engine presents the compiled results to the
user, usually on a single search results page. Each result is accompanied by a source
label indicating which search engine provided it.
6. User Navigation: Users can click on the search results to visit the original pages
retrieved from the different search engines.

Advantages of Meta Search Engines:

1. Comprehensive Results: Meta search engines fetch results from various sources,
offering users a more comprehensive and diverse set of results. This can be particularly

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 useful when looking for information that may not be indexed by a single search engine.
2. Time-Saving: Users can save time by submitting a query to a meta search engine rather
than conducting separate searches on multiple search engines. The meta search engine
consolidates results in one place, making it more convenient for users.
3. Reduced Bias: Different search engines may have varying algorithms and biases in
ranking results. Meta search engines can help mitigate bias by presenting a broader
range of results from multiple sources.
4. Increased Privacy: Meta search engines may provide a level of privacy since they do
not store personal information or search history directly. Users can access information
without being tracked by individual search engines.
5. Global Coverage: Meta search engines can access search engines from different
regions, languages, and countries, providing a more global perspective on search
results.

Disadvantages of Meta Search Engines:

1. Incomplete Indexing: Meta search engines may not have access to the complete
indexes of the individual search engines they query. This can result in some web pages
being excluded from the results.
2. Inconsistent Ranking: Each search engine has its own ranking algorithm, and
combining results from multiple sources can lead to inconsistencies in ranking. Users
may find it challenging to determine the relevance of results.
3. Delayed Updates: Meta search engines depend on the indexes of other search engines,
and there may be a delay in incorporating updates. If a search engine has not crawled
and indexed new content, the meta search engine may not display the most recent
information.
4. Limited Advanced Features: Meta search engines may lack some of the advanced
features offered by individual search engines. Users looking for specific functionalities
or advanced search options may prefer using dedicated search engines.
5. Overhead on Search Engines: Meta search engines send queries to multiple search
engines, increasing the load on those engines. Some search engines may block or limit
the access of meta search engines, affecting the quality of results.
In summary, meta search engines offer a trade-off between the convenience of aggregated
results and potential limitations in completeness and consistency. Users should consider their
specific needs and preferences when deciding whether to use a meta search engine or
individual search engines.

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1.5 Domain name and its hierarchy, issues related to domain name
registration, DNS concept.

Domain Name
A domain name is a human-readable address that represents a specific location on the
internet. It consists of two main parts: the top-level domain (TLD), like .com, .org, or .net, and
the second-level domain (SLD), like "example" in www.example.com.
A domain name is a string of text that maps to an alphanumeric IP address, used to
access a website from client software. In plain English, a domain name is the text that a user
types into a browser window to reach a particular website. For instance, the domain name for
Google is ‘google.com’.
A domain name can be a maximum of sixty-three characters with one character
minimum, and is entered after the protocol in the URL.

Domain name hierarchy

Domain name hierarchy is a system that organizes domain names on the internet in a
hierarchical manner, providing a structured way to navigate and locate resources. It is essential
for the Domain Name System (DNS) to function effectively. The hierarchy is represented from
right to left in a domain name, with the top-level domain (TLD) at the far right and the specific
host or resource name at the far left. Following figure explains the domain name hierarchy.

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Breakdown of the domain name hierarchy:
1. Root Domain: At the top of the hierarchy is the root domain, represented by a dot (.) in
DNS notation. The root domain doesn't have a name but serves as the starting point for
all domain names on the internet.
2. Top-Level Domain (TLD): Below the root domain are the top-level domains. These
are the rightmost segments of a domain name and are broadly categorized into two
types:
• Generic Top-Level Domains (gTLDs): Examples include .com, .org, .net, .info,
and newer extensions like .app, .blog, etc.
• Country Code Top-Level Domains (ccTLDs): These are specific to individual
countries or territories, such as .us (United States), .uk (United Kingdom), .ca
(Canada), etc.
3. Second-Level Domain (SLD): The next level down in the hierarchy is the second-level
domain. This is the part of the domain name to the left of the TLD. For example, in the
domain name "craigslist.org," "craigslist" is the second-level domain.
4. Subdomain: Additional levels can be added to the hierarchy to create subdomains.
Subdomains allow further organization and delegation of specific services or sections of
a website. For instance, in the domain “saltlakecity.craigslist.org”, "saltlakecity" is a
subdomain of "craigslist.org ."
5. Host Name: The leftmost segment of the domain is the host name, representing a
specific machine or service within the domain. In the domain name "www.mit.edu",
"www" is typically used to denote the World Wide Web service.
When we type a domain name into a web browser, the DNS system resolves the hierarchical
structure to locate the IP address associated with that domain, allowing us to access the desired
website or service on the internet.

Issues related to domain name registration

Domain name registration is a crucial process for establishing an online presence, and while it
is generally straightforward, there are several issues and challenges that individuals and
organizations may encounter during the registration process. Some of the common issues
related to domain name registration include:
1. Availability: The desired domain name may already be registered by someone else.
Finding an available domain name, especially a short and memorable one, can be
challenging.
2. Domain Squatting: Some individuals or entities register domain names with the
intention of reselling them at a higher price to the rightful owner. This is known as
domain squatting or cybersquatting and can lead to disputes.
3. Typosquatting: Typosquatting is a form of cybercrime that involves registering
domains, generally by hackers, with deliberately misspelled names of well-known
websites. These sites are usually filled with paid advertising links that generate revenue
for the typosquatter. Additionally, the web surfer has been tricked into believing they
are on the correct site. This diverts traffic away from the intended site. Hackers engage
in this practice to lure unsuspecting visitors to alternative websites, typically for

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 malicious purposes.
4. Trademark Issues: Registering a domain that infringes on someone else's trademark
can lead to legal issues. It's important to check for existing trademarks before
registering a domain to avoid potential legal conflicts.
5. Expired Domains and Redemption Period: If a domain owner forgets to renew their
domain, it may enter a redemption period during which the original owner can still
reclaim it. This can cause delays for those interested in registering an expired domain.
6. Domain Privacy Concerns: When registering a domain, personal information such as
name, address, and phone number is often required and becomes publicly accessible
through WHOIS databases. Some registrants may be concerned about privacy and
potential misuse of this information. Its good practice to safeguard your personnel
information using “who is privacy” feature while purchasing domain.
7. Renewal Issues : Forgetting to renew a domain before its expiration date can result in
the loss of the domain. Some registrars may offer a grace period, while others may
immediately release the domain for others to register.
8. Transfer Restrictions and Locks: Some registrars impose restrictions or locks on
domain transfers to prevent unauthorized transfers. While this is a security feature, it
can complicate the process for legitimate domain owners.
9. Technical Configuration Challenges: Configuring DNS settings, name servers, and
other technical aspects correctly can be challenging for individuals who are not familiar
with these technical details.
10. Disputes and Resolution: Disputes between parties over the ownership or use of a
domain name may arise. These disputes can be resolved through legal means,
arbitration, or the Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP) for
generic top-level domains.

DNS Concept
(check domain name server in above topic 1.1)

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1.6 Client server architecture, cross browser communication
Client Server Architecture
Client-server architecture is a computing model that divides the functionality of a system into
two distinct components: the client and the server. These components communicate over a
network, such as the internet or an intranet, to achieve a specific task or provide a service. This
architecture is prevalent in various computing systems, including web applications, databases,
and enterprise networks.
Here's an overview of the key components and their roles in a client-server architecture:
1. Client:
• The client is the user interface or application that interacts with the end-user.
• It requests services or resources from the server.
• Clients can be software applications running on a user's device (e.g., web browsers,
mobile apps) or hardware devices (e.g., IoT devices).

2. Server:
• The server is a powerful computer or a set of computers responsible for providing
services or resources requested by clients.
• It is equipped with specialized software and hardware to handle specific tasks or
services.
• Servers are often optimized for performance, reliability, and scalability.

3. Communication:
• Clients and servers communicate with each other over a network. This
communication can be established through various protocols, such as HTTP,
HTTPS, TCP/IP, or other application-specific protocols.
• Requests from clients and responses from servers are typically transmitted in a
standardized format, often using protocols like JSON or XML.

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Roles and Responsibilities:
Client Responsibilities:
• User interface: The client provides the interface through which users interact with the
application or access services.
• User input processing: Clients handle user inputs and transmit relevant requests to the
server.
• Presentation logic: In some cases, clients may have some presentation logic,
particularly in the case of web applications where client-side scripts run in the user's
browser.

Server Responsibilities:
• Business logic: The server is responsible for executing the application's business rules
and processing requests from clients.
• Data storage and management: Servers manage and store data, often in databases,
and provide access to this data when requested by clients.
• Application logic: The server executes application-specific logic, ensuring the correct
functioning of the overall system.

Advantages of Client-Server Architecture:

• Scalability: The architecture allows for easy scaling by adding more servers to handle
increased demand.
• Centralized management: Centralized servers make it easier to manage and update
software, data, and security policies.
• Resource optimization: Specialized servers can be optimized for specific tasks,
improving overall system performance.

Disadvantages of Client-Server Architecture:

• Dependency on server: Clients are dependent on the server's availability and
performance.
• Network latency: Communication over a network introduces latency, affecting the
response time of the system.
• Scalability challenges: Scaling the server infrastructure may present challenges in
certain situations.

Types of Client-server Architecture

1. 1-tier architecture
2. 2-tier architecture
3. 3-tier architecture
4. n-tier architecture.

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Cross Browser Communication
In software development, creating a program for multiple computer platforms is termed
a cross-platform program. Similarly, when a website is developed for multiple browsers, it's
known as a cross-browser website. Although browsers share similarities in design and
function, they often have small differences in how they recognize and display websites. For
instance, Apple's Safari uses a different HTML rendering engine than Internet Explorer,
resulting in slight variations in page and text formatting.
When developing a website, compatibility across different web browsers is crucial. If a
page appears correctly in Firefox but not in Internet Explorer, developers often adjust the
formatting to ensure it works seamlessly in both browsers. The simplest solution for browser
incompatibility issues is adopting a basic coding technique that functions well universally.
In cases where a universal coding technique isn't feasible, developers may resort to
adding code that identifies the browser type and then outputs customized HTML or JavaScript
for that specific browser. Creating a cross-browser compatible site is usually straightforward
for basic websites. However, for complex sites featuring extensive HTML formatting and
JavaScript, additional coding may be necessary to ensure compatibility with various browsers.
In some instances, developers may go as far as generating entirely distinct pages
tailored to each browser. Despite the improvements brought by CSS formatting in
standardizing the appearance of web pages across multiple browsers, inconsistencies still
persist among web browsers. Consequently, cross-browser design remains an essential
consideration in web development.

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 Evolution of the World Wide Web
The terms Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 refer to different stages in the evolution of the
World Wide Web, each characterized by distinct features and trends. These stages represent
the progression of technology, user interaction, and the overall functionality of the web. It's
important to note that these terms are somewhat informal and not universally defined, but they
are commonly used to describe the evolving nature of the web.
1. Web 1.0: The Static Web (1990s - early 2000s)
• Characteristics:
• Information was primarily static and one-way, with websites serving as online
brochures or catalogs.
• Limited user interaction; users were mainly consumers of content.
• Websites were mainly built using HTML, and there was a lack of dynamic
content.
• Search engines were basic and relied on simple algorithms.
• Characteristics:
• Early websites with static pages.
• Portals like Yahoo!, which served as directories.
2. Web 2.0: The Social Web (mid-2000s - late 2000s)
• Characteristics:
• Emergence of dynamic, interactive content and user-generated contributions.
• Social media platforms, blogs, and wikis became popular, enabling users to
create, share, and collaborate on content.
• The shift towards a more participatory and collaborative web.
• Development of richer user experiences with technologies like AJAX.
• Search engines evolved, and algorithms became more sophisticated.
• Examples:
• Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn.
• User-generated content platforms like Wikipedia.
• Blogs and forums where users could actively participate.
3. Web 3.0: The Semantic Web (late 2000s - ongoing)
• Characteristics:
• Focus on making web content more understandable by machines through
semantic technologies.
• Greater emphasis on artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to enhance
data analysis and user experiences.
• Interconnected data and better integration across platforms and applications.
• Enhanced personalization of services based on user preferences and behavior.
• Potential for decentralized technologies like blockchain.

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 • Examples (as of the knowledge cutoff in 2022):
• Improved search engines and recommendation systems that understand user
intent.
• Smart assistants like Siri and Google Assistant that use natural language
processing.
• Applications utilizing blockchain for decentralized and secure data storage.
It's worth noting that the transition between these stages is not always clear-cut, and aspects of
each stage may persist even as new features and technologies are introduced. Additionally, the
concept of Web 3.0 is still evolving, and its precise definition and implementation may
continue to change over time.

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References:
- https://www.techtarget.com/searchunifiedcommunications/definition/Internet-Protocol
- https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/network-layer/internet-protocol/
- https://www.hostinger.com/tutorials/what-is-a-url
- https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/web-browser/
- https://aashrayanand01.medium.com/8-bits-only-dns-namespaces-and-domain-resolution-in-
action-b459bc40f32c

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