Computer Memory

The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to

process raw data and produce output. The computer memory is
divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each cell has
a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.

Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile

(ROM). The secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not
memory.

But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four

types:

o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory

Register Memory

Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It

is not a part of the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form
of registers, which are the smallest data holding elements. A register
temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions, and memory
address that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions that are
currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass through
registers before it can be processed. So, they are used by CPU to
process the data entered by the users.

Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The

speed of a CPU depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of
registers that are built into the CPU. Registers can be of different types
based on their uses. Some of the widely used Registers include
Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the Address Register or AR,
Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.

Types and Functions of Computer Registers:

o Data Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store

operands (variables) to be operated by the processor. It
 temporarily stores data, which is being transmitted to or received
from a peripheral device.
o Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory
location of the next instruction, which is to be fetched after the
current instruction is completed. So, it is used to maintain the
path of execution of the different programs and thus executes the
programs one by one, when the previous instruction gets
completed.
o Instructor Register: It is a 16-bit register. It stores the
instruction which is fetched from the main memory. So, it is used
to hold instruction codes, which are to be executed. The Control
Unit takes instruction from Instructor Register, then decodes
and executes it.
o Accumulator Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to
store the results produced by the system. For example, the results
generated by CPU after the processing are stored in the AC
register.
o Address Register: It is a 12-bit register that stores the address
of a memory location where instructions or data is stored in the
memory.
o I/O Address Register: Its job is to specify the address of a
particular I/O device.
o I/O Buffer Register: Its job is to exchange the data between an
I/O module and the CPU.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but

faster than the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more
quickly than the primary memory. So, it is used to synchronize with
high-speed CPU and to improve its performance.
Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part
of the main memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the
data and programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes
sure that the data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU
needs this data. In other words, if the CPU finds the required data or
instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to access the
primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer between RAM and
CPU, it speeds up the system performance.

Types of Cache Memory:

L1: It is the first level of cache memory, which is called Level 1 cache
or L1 cache. In this type of cache memory, a small amount of memory
is present inside the CPU itself. If a CPU has four cores (quad core
cpu), then each core will have its own level 1 cache. As this memory is
present in the CPU, it can work at the same speed as of the CPU. The
size of this memory ranges from 2KB to 64 KB. The L1 cache further
has two types of caches: Instruction cache, which stores instructions
required by the CPU, and the data cache that stores the data required
by the CPU.

L2: This cache is known as Level 2 cache or L2 cache. This level 2

cache may be inside the CPU or outside the CPU. All the cores of a CPU
can have their own separate level 2 cache, or they can share one L2
cache among themselves. In case it is outside the CPU, it is connected
with the CPU with a very high-speed bus. The memory size of this
cache is in the range of 256 KB to the 512 KB. In terms of speed, they
are slower than the L1 cache.

L3: It is known as Level 3 cache or L3 cache. This cache is not present

in all the processors; some high-end processors may have this type of
cache. This cache is used to enhance the performance of Level 1 and
Level 2 cache. It is located outside the CPU and is shared by all the
cores of a CPU. Its memory size ranges from 1 MB to 8 MB. Although
it is slower than L1 and L2 cache, it is faster than Random Access
Memory (RAM).

How does cache memory work with CPU?

When CPU needs the data, first of all, it looks inside the L1 cache. If it
does not find anything in L1, it looks inside the L2 cache. If again, it
does not find the data in L2 cache, it looks into the L3 cache. If data is
found in the cache memory, then it is known as a cache hit. On the
contrary, if data is not found inside the cache, it is called a cache miss.

If data is not available in any of the cache memories, it looks inside the
Random Access Memory (RAM). If RAM also does not have the data,
then it will get that data from the Hard Disk Drive.

So, when a computer is started for the first time, or an application is

opened for the first time, data is not available in cache memory or in
RAM. In this case, the CPU gets the data directly from the hard disk
drive. Thereafter, when you start your computer or open an
application, CPU can get that data from cache memory or RAM.

Primary Memory

Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions

permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and
instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you
shut down the computer the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or
programs that are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a
permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions
needed to perform important tasks like the boot process.

Secondary Memory

The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or
connected to the computer are known as a secondary memory of the
computer. It is also known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output

operations. It is non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even
when the computer is turned off or until this data is overwritten or
deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First,
the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the
CPU can access it.

Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described

below:

1) Hard Disk:

It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently

stores data and is located within a drive unit.

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc
that stores data permanently, as it is a non-volatile storage device. The
hard disk is located within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard
and comprises one or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing.
The data is written on the platters by moving a magnetic head over the
platters as they spin. The data stored on a computer's hard drive
generally includes the operating system, installed software, and the
user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text
documents, etc.

Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator,

read/write actuator arm, read/write head, platter, and spindle. A
circuit board, which is called the disk controller or interface board, is
present on the back of a hard drive. It allows the hard drive to
communicate with the computer.

2) Solid-state Drive:

SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is

used to hold and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it does not have
moving components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as
faster access time, noiseless operation, less power consumption, and
more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement
for a standard hard drive in desktop and laptop computers. It is also
suitable for notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

3) Pen drive:

Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a

USB flash drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It connects to a
computer via a USB port. It is commonly used to store and transfer
data between computers. For example, you can write a report using a
computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen drive. Later, you can
connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You
can also store your important documents and pictures, music, videos
in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.

Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated

circuit memory chip that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a
plastic or aluminium casing. The data storage capacity of the pen drive
generally ranges from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and
play device as you don't need additional drives, software, or hardware
to use it.

4) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in

portable and mobile devices such as smartphones and digital cameras.
You can remove it from your device and see the things stored in it
using a computer with a card reader.

There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data;
it does not have moving parts. SD cards are not created equal, so they
may differ from each other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and
capacity. For example, standard SD cards, mini SD cards, and micro
SD cards.

5) Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a
round medium disk. It is made of polycarbonate plastic. The concept
of CD was co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was
created on 17 August 1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings,
later it was used for various purposes such as for storing documents,
audio files, videos, and other data like software programs in a CD.

Physical characteristics of a CD/ Structure of CD:

A standard CD is around 5 inches in diameter and 0.05 inches in

thickness. It is made of a clear polycarbonate plastic substrate, a
reflective metallic layer, and a clear coating of acrylic plastic. These
thin circular layers are attached one on top of another as described
below:

o A polycarbonate disc layer at the bottom has the data encoded by

creating lands and pits.
o The polycarbonate disc layer is coated with a thin aluminium
layer that reflects the laser.
o The reflective aluminium layer is coated with a lacquer layer to
prevent oxidation in order to protect the below layers. It is
generally spin coated directly on the top of the reflective layer.
o The label print is applied on the lacquer layer, or artwork is
screen printed on the top of the disc on the lacquer layer by offset
printing or screen printing.

How Does a CD Work?

The data or information is stored or recorded or encoded in CD

digitally using a laser beam that etches tiny indentations or bumps on
its surface. The bump is called a pit, which represents the number 0.
Space, where the bump is not created, is called land, and it represents
the number 1. Thus, the data is encoded into a compact disc by
creating pits (0) and lands (1). The CD players use laser technology to
read the optically recorded data.

6) DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type
of optical media used for storing optical data. Although it has the same
size as a CD, its storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is
widely used for storing and viewing movies and to distribute software
programs as they are too large to fit on a CD. DVD was co-developed
by Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.
Types of DVDs:

DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:

o DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with

media already recorded on them, such as movie dvds. As the
name suggests, data on these discs cannot be erased or added, so
these discs are known as a read-only or non-writable DVD.
o DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write
information to the DVD. However, you can write information
only once as it becomes a read-only DVD once it is full.
o DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can
be erased, written, or recorded multiple times.

Memory Units

Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the
commonly used memory units are:

1) Bit: The computer memory units start from bit. A bit is the smallest
memory unit to measure data stored in main memory and storage
devices. A bit can have only one binary value out of 0 and 1.

2) Byte: It is the fundamental unit to measure data. It contains 8 bits

or is equal to 8 bits. Thus a byte can represent 2*8 or 256 values.

3) Kilobyte: A kilobyte contains 1024 bytes.

4) Megabyte: A megabyte contains 1024 kilobytes.

5) Gigabyte: A gigabyte contains 1024 megabyte.

6) Terabyte: A terabyte contains 1024 gigabytes.

Electronic Components and their Functions

An electronic component is any basic discrete device in an electronic

system used to affect electrons or their associated fields. They are the
elements of circuit which helps in its functioning. Electronic
components have a number of electrical terminals. These terminals
connect to other electrical components to create an electronic circuit.

Classification of Electronic Components: Components can be

classified as passive, active, or electro-mechanic components.

1. Active components are devices that can amplify an electric

signal and produce power. An active component functions as an
alternating current circuit in devices. This helps the device to
augment power and voltage. This component can execute its
operations because it is powered by a source of electricity. All
active components necessitate some source of energy which
commonly is extracted from a DC circuit. Any characteristic
active component will comprise an oscillator, transistor or an
integrated circuit.
2. Passive components can’t introduce net energy into the
circuit. They also can’t rely on a source of power, except for what
is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a
consequence they can’t amplify (increase the power of a signal),
although they may increase a voltage or current (such as is done
by a transformer or resonant circuit). Passive components
 include two-terminal components such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, and transformers.
3. Electromechanical component is one that uses an electrical
signal to cause some kind of mechanical change, such as motor
turning. These normally use an electrical current to create a
magnetic field which causes a physical movement. All types of
relays and switches are available in this category.
Electromechanical devices have both electrical and mechanical
processes. A manually operated switch is an electromechanical
component due to the mechanical movement causing an
electrical output.

When building electronic circuits, you will work with a number of

basic electronic components, including resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors, inductors and integrated circuits. Below is a brief
overview of the components and their functions.

1. Resistors: A resistor is one of the components you will come

across in an integrated circuit. Like the name suggests, the device
resists the flow of current. Resistors are graded based on their
power ratings (amount of power they can handle without
exploding) and resistance values (capacity to resist current). The
measurement is done in units know as ohms. The electronic
symbol of the unit is O.
2. Capacitors: These components can store electric charge
temporarily. The components come in different varieties, with
the most common ones being electrolytic and ceramic disk. The
capacity of a component is usually measured in microfarads
(µF).
3. Diodes: Diodes allow electric current to flow in a single
direction only. Each diode has two terminals known as the anode
and cathode. When the anode is charged with positive voltage
and the cathode with a negative one, electric current can flow.
Reversing these voltages will prevent the current from flowing.
4. Transistors: These components are easy to identify through
their three terminals. For the components to work, voltage has to
be applied to one of them; the base terminal. The base can then
control current flow in the two other terminals (the emitter and
collector).
5. Inductors: These are passive components that store energy in
form of a magnetic field. An inductor simply consists of a coil of
wire wound around some kind of core. The core could be a
magnet or air. When current passes through the inductor, a
magnetic field is created around it. The magnetic field is stronger
if a magnet is used as the core.
6. Integrated Circuits: An integrated circuit refers to a special
device that has all the components required in an electronic
circuit. The component has diodes, transistors, and other
devices, all of which are etched on a tiny piece of silicon. The
components are used in many electronic devices, including
watches and computers.
7. Microcontrollers: Microcontrollers are small computers used
to control a multitude of devices, such as power tools, remote
controls, medical equipment and office machines.
8. Transformers: Built with two coils of wire, transformers are
commonly used to step up or step down power.
 9. Batteries: Batteries convert chemical energy to electrical
energy. The two different cells of a battery are anode (+) and
cathode (-).
10. Fuses: Fuses help preserve components from overloading
with excessive current. A fuse consists of connection body,
support, contacts, and metal-fuse material such as zinc or
copper.
11. Relays: These electromechanical switches shut power on
or off. A relay includes an electromagnet, an armature, a series of
electrical contacts and a spring.
12. Switches: Switches interrupt current. The four types of
switches are: single pole single throw (SPST), single pole double
throw (SPDT), double pole single throw (DPST), and double pole
double throw (DPDT).
13. Motors: Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Key components include a rotor, stator, bearings,
conduit box, enclosure, and eye bolt.
14. Circuit Breakers: As a protective device, a circuit
breaker can be controlled with a remote switch. It is designed to
protect the circuit from overloading or a short circuit.

Applications of Electronic Components.

An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric

current to perform various functions including signal amplification,
computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different
components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and
diodes.
1. Consumer Electronics: Office Gadgets such as calculators,
Personal computers, Scanners and Printers, FAX machine, Front
Projector etc. Home appliances such as Washing Machine,
Refrigerator, Air Conditioner, Microwave Oven, Vacuum Cleaner
etc. Audio and Video Systems such as Headphone, VCRs, DVD
players, Color TVs, Microphone and Loudspeaker, Video game
consoles. Advanced Consumer Devices such as Setup Box, ATM,
Dishwasher, Smart Phones, PDA (personal digital assistant),
Barcode Scanners, POS terminals. Storage Devices for optical
playback and taping, and portable infotainment. Examples are
DVDs, HDD jukebox, Portable MP3 player.
2. Industrial Electronics: Electronic components are used for
Industrial automation and motion control, Machine learning,
motor drive control, Mechatronics and robotics, Power
converting technologies, Photo voltaic systems, Renewable
energy applications, Power electronics, and Biomechanics.
Smart grid systems: Smart electric systems collect information
from the communication technology and react accordingly based
on power consumption. It is an application of intelligence,
computing, and networked electricity systems. Industrial
automation and motion control: Machines are replacing humans
these days with increased productivity, time and cost. Moreover,
safety is also considered for unmanageable works. Hence to
delegate the human’s, automation has become the preferable
choice for industries.
3. Medical applications: Advanced sophisticated instruments
are being developed for data recording and physiological
analysis. They are proven to be more useful in diagnosing
 diseases and for healing purpose. Electronic components are
being used in some of the medical devices and equipment are:
Respiration Monitors for knowing the patient condition due to
change in body temperature, pulse, respiration and blood flow.
Defibrillator causes electrical shock to heart muscles and brings
backs the heart to the normal working condition. Glucose meter
for measuring sugar levels in the blood. Pace Maker for reducing
and increasing the count of the heartbeat and many more.
4. Defense and Aerospace:Defense and Aeronautical
applications include: Missile Launching systems, Rocket
Launchers for space, Aircraft systems, Cockpit controllers,
Military Radars, Boom barrier for military applications
5. Automotive: Anti-collision unit, Infotainment console, Anti-
lock braking system, Cruise control, Traction control, Window
regulators, Electronic Control Unit (ECU) and Airbag control.

Questions & answers on basic electronic components

1. Define electronic component.
Electronic components are the basic building blocks of electronic
system or electronic circuit.
2. List different types of electronic components
 Electronic components are mainly classified into two types:
 Passive components
 Active components
3. Define passive component.
A passive component is an electronic component that consumes
energy in the form of voltage but does not supply energy.
4. What are the characteristics of passive components?
 Passive components cannot increase the power of an
electrical signal.
 Passive components temporarily store the electrical energy
in the form of electric field or magnetic field.
 Passive components do not depend on the external source
of voltage to perform a specific task.
5. What are the characteristics of active components?
 Active components control the electric current flowing
through them.
 Active components depend on the external voltage or
current to work.
 Active components amplify the power of an electrical signal.
6. Define active component.
Active component is an electronic component that consumes
energy in the form of voltage or current and supplies energy in
the form of voltage or current.
7. List different types of passive components
The different types of passive components include:
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductors
8. List different types of active components
The different types of active components include:
 Diode
 Transistor
 Integrated circuit
9. Define resistor.
 Resistor is a passive component that restricts the flow of electric
current.
10. Define capacitor.
Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electrical energy
in the form of static electric field.
11. Define inductor.
Inductor is an electronic component that stores electrical energy
in the form of magnetic field.
12. Define diode.
A diode is a two terminal device that allows electric current in
one direction and blocks electric current in another direction.
13. Diode allows electric current when it is
Forward biased
14. Diode blocks electric current when it is
Reverse biased
15. Define transistor.
Transistor is an electronic component that amplifies electrical
signals.
16. Who invented transistor.
Transistor was invented by three scientists named Walter
Brattain, J. Bardeen and William Shockley.
17. Which types of materials are used to construct
transistors?
Silicon and germanium materials are most commonly used to
construct transistors.
18. Define integrated circuit (IC)
 An integrated circuit (IC) is a small semiconductor chip on which
millions of electronic components such as resistors, capacitors
and transistors are fabricated.
19. Who invented integrated circuit?
Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce invented integrated circuit.
20. Define resistance.
Restricting or reducing the flow of electric current to certain level
is called resistance.

21. .What is the ohm's law equation for resistance?

The amount of electric current reduced by the resistor is
determined by using the ohm's law equation.

 Where R = Resistance
 V = Voltage
 I = Electric current

The electric current flowing through the resistor

increases with increasing the voltage (if resistance is
held constant) and decreases with increasing the
resistance of a resistor (if applied voltage is held
constant).

22. What is the basic unit used to measure the

resistance of a resistor?
Ohm is the basic unit used to measure the resistance of a resistor.
23. What are the advantages of resistors?
  Resistors are very small in size.
 It is very easy to carry resistors from one place to
another place.
 Resistors are very cheap.

24. List different types of resistors

Resistors are mainly classified into two types:
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors
25. Define fixed resistor.

Fixed resistor is a type of resistor which provides fixed resistance

to the electric current.

26. Define variable resistor.

Variable resistor is a type of resistor which controls (increases or

decreases) the flow of electric current by changing its resistance.
27. List different types of fixed resistors
The different types of fixed resistors include:
 Carbon film resistor
 Carbon composition resistor
 Metal film resistor
 Metal oxide film resistor
 Wire wound resistor
 Thick film resistor
 Thin film resistor
 Metal glaze resistor
 Foil resistor
28. List different types of variable resistors

The different types of variable resistors include:

  Rheostat
 Potentiometer
 Trimmer
29. List various applications of variable resistors

The various applications of variable resistors are:

 Oscillators
 Audio control
 TV receivers
 Transducers
30. Potentiometer is a type of variable resistor in which
the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of
electric current.List various applications of
potentiometers
The various applications of potentiometers are
 Television
 Computer
 Frequency attenuation
 Changing loudness
 Audio equipments
31. Define rheostat.

Rheostat is a type of variable resistor which is used to control the

flow of electric current by manually increasing or decreasing its
resistance. List various applications of rheostat
 Rheostats are used to increase or decrease the volume of a
radio.
 Rheostats are used in dim lights to change the intensity of
light.
  Rheostats are used to increase or decrease the speed of an
electric motor.
32. Define thermistor.

Thermistoris a type of resistor in which the resistance changes

rapidly with small change in temperature. List different type of
thermistors
Thermistors are classified into two types
 Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC) thermistors
 Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors

33. Define capacitor.

A capacitor is a two terminal device that store energy in the form
of electric field.
34. Define electric charge.
Electric charge is the physical property of particles such as
electrons and protons which causes them to experience attractive
or repulsive force.
35. Define capacitance.
The ability of an object to store electric charge is called
capacitance.
36. What is the SI unit of capacitance?
Farads (F)
37. What is the basic construction of a capacitor?
A basic capacitor is made of two electrodes separated by a
dielectric medium or material. The electrodes or conductive
plates are good conductors of electricity. So they easily allow
electric current through them. The dielectric medium or material
present between the conductive plates is poor conductor of
electricity. So it does not allow electric current through it.
 The electric charges that try to move from one plate to another
plate will be trapped within the electrode or plate because of the
strong opposition from the dielectric.
As a result, electric charge is builds up on the electrodes.
38. When capacitor starts charging?
When voltage is applied to the capacitor, it starts charging.
39. When capacitor stops charging?
When external voltage source is removed from the circuit, the
capacitor stops charging. However, the electric charge stored in
the capacitor cannot be removed unless it is connected to an
external device.
40. When capacitor starts discharging?
When capacitor is connected to any device such as electric bulb,
it starts discharging.
41. Define fixed capacitor.
The capacitor which stores fixed amount of electric charge is
called fixed capacitor.
SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
Introduction

However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with

respect to the applied voltage as it has an exponential I-V relationship
and therefore cannot be described simply by using Ohm’s law as we do
for resistors.

Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only

allow current to flow through them in one direction only, acting more
like a one-way electrical valve, (Forward Biased Condition). But,
before we have a look at how signal or power diodes work we first need
to understand the semiconductors basic construction and concept.

Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material

which has a positive “P-region” at one end and a negative “N-region”
at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that
of a conductor and an insulator. But what is a “Semiconductor”
material? firstly let’s look at what makes something either a
Conductor or an Insulator.

Resistivity

The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or

device is generally defined as being the ratio of the voltage difference
across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohm´s Law
principals. The problem with using resistance as a measurement is
that it depends very much on the physical size of the material being
measured as well as the material out of which it is made. For example,
if we were to increase the length of the material (making it longer) its
resistance would also increase proportionally.
Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it fatter) its
resistance value would decrease. So we want to be able to define the
material in such a way as to indicate its ability to either conduct or
oppose the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size
or shape happens to be.

The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called

Resistivity and is given the Greek symbol of ρ, (Rho). Resistivity is
measured in Ohm-metres, ( Ω-m ). Resistivity is the inverse to
conductivity.

If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be

classified into three main groups, Conductors, Insulators and Semi-
conductors as shown below.

Resistivity Chart
Notice that there is a very
small margin between the
resistivity of the conductors
such as silver and gold,
compared to a much larger
margin for the resistivity of the
insulators between glass and
quartz.

Note also that the resistivity of

all materials at any one time
also depends upon their
 ambient temperature because
metals are also good
conductors of heat.

Conductors

From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have
very low values of resistivity, usually in the micro-ohms per metre.
This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to
there being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic
atom structure. But these electrons will only flow through a conductor
if there is something to spur their movement, and that something is
an electrical voltage.

When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free

electrons” leave their parent atom and travel together through the
material forming an electron drift, more commonly known as a
current. How “freely” these electrons can move through a conductor
depends on how easily they can break free from their constituent
atoms when a voltage is applied. Then the amount of electrons that
flow depends on the amount of resistivity the conductor has.

Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper,

Aluminium, Silver or non-metals such as Carbon because these
materials have very few electrons in their outer “Valence Shell” or ring,
resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit. This
allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up with
other atoms, producing a “Domino Effect” through the material
thereby creating an electrical current. Copper and Aluminium is the
main conductor used in electrical cables.

Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as

they have very small resistance values, usually in the region of micro-
ohms per metre. While metals such as copper and aluminium are very
good conducts of electricity, they still have some resistance to the flow
of electrons and consequently do not conduct perfectly.

The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current,

appears in the form of heat which is why conductors and especially
resistors become hot. Also the resistivity of conductors increases with
ambient temperature because metals are also generally good
conductors of heat.

Insulators

Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors.

They are made of materials, generally non-metals, that have very few
or no “free electrons” floating about within their basic atom structure
because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted
by the positively charged inner nucleus.

In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and cannot
move around freely so if a potential voltage is applied to the material
no current will flow as there are no “free electrons” available to move
and which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre,
and are generally not affected by normal temperature changes
(although at very high temperatures wood becomes charcoal and
changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good
insulators are marble, fused quartz, p.v.c. plastics, rubber etc.

Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic

circuits, because without them electrical circuits would short together
and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or porcelain are
used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables
while epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit
boards, PCB’s etc. while PVC is used to insulate electrical cables as
shown.

Semiconductor Basics

Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and

gallium arsenide (GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the
middle, between those of a “conductor” and an “insulator”. They are
not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-
conductors). They have very few “free electrons” because their atoms
are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal
lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under special
conditions.

The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly

improved by replacing or adding certain donor or acceptor atoms to
this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than
holes or vice versa. That is by adding a small percentage of another
element to the base material, either silicon or germanium.
On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic
semiconductors, that is they are chemically pure, containing nothing
but semi-conductive material. But by controlling the amount of
impurities added to this intrinsic semiconductor material it is possible
to control its conductivity. Various impurities called donors or
acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to produce free
electrons or holes respectively.

This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor

atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of
the semiconductor) is called Doping. The as the doped silicon is no
longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred
to as “impurities”, and by doping these silicon material with a
sufficient number of impurities, we can turn it into a semi-conductor.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is

silicon. Silicon has four valence electrons in its outermost shell which
it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to form full orbital’s of
eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon
atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour
making the bond very stable.

As there are very few free electrons available to move around the
silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon (or germanium) are therefore
good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.

Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making

them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon
dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no
impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not
enough to extract an electric current from it. To do that we need to
create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon allowing
electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These
poles are created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a ‘normal’ pure
crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to

introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus
into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are
added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost
orbital to share with neighbouring atoms and are commonly called
“Pentavalent” impurities.

This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its
neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one “free electron” to become
mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each
impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are
generally known as “donors”.
Antimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently
used as a pentavalent additive to the silicon as they have 51 electrons
arranged in five shells around their nucleus with the outermost orbital
having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has
an excess of current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge,
and is therefore referred to as an N-type material with the electrons
called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are called
“Minority Carriers”.

When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed

from the silicon atoms by this stimulation are quickly replaced by the
free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms. But this
action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around
the doped crystal making it negatively charged.

Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor

density is greater than its acceptor density, in other words, it has more
electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole as shown.

Antimony Atom and Doping

 The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor
impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron)

impurity into the crystalline structure, such as Aluminium, Boron or
Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their
outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed.
Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the
semiconductor material an abundance of positively charged carriers
known as holes in the structure of the crystal where electrons are
effectively missing.

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is

attracted to it and will try to move into the hole to fill it. However, the
electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This
in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole
behind it, and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving
as a positive charge through the crystal structure (conventional
current flow).

This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon

turning the entire doped crystal into a positive pole. As each impurity
atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as
“Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free
electrons.

Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has

only five electrons arranged in three shells around its nucleus with the
outermost orbital having only three electrons. The doping of Boron
atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers
resulting in a P-type material with the positive holes being called
“Majority Carriers” while the free electrons are called “Minority
Carriers”.

Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its

acceptor density is greater than its donor density. Therefore, a P-type
semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor
impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms

(Donors) added and conduct by “electron” movement and are
therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.

In N-type semiconductors there are:

 1. The Donors are positively charged.

  2. There are a large number of free electrons.
 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free
electrons.
 4. Doping gives:
o positively charged donors.
o negatively charged free electrons.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o negatively charged free electrons.
o positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms

(Acceptors) added and conduct by “hole” movement and are therefore
called, P-type Semiconductors.

In these types of materials are:

 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

 2. There are a large number of holes.
 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of
holes.
 4. Doping gives:
o negatively charged acceptors.
o positively charged holes.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o positively charged holes.
o negatively charged free electrons.
and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their
own.

Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used
doping agents as they are more feely available compared to other types
of materials. They are also classed as “metalloids”. However, the
periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical
elements all with either three, or five electrons in their outermost
orbital shell making them suitable as a doping material.

These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a

base material of either Silicon (S) or Germanium (Ge) to produce
different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in electronic
semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell
applications. These additional semiconductor materials are given
below.

Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13 Elements Group 14 Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer 4-Electrons in Outer 5-Electrons in Outer
Shell Shell Shell
(Positively Charged) (Neutrally Charged) (Negatively Charged)
(5) (6)
Boron ( B ) Carbon ( C )
(13) (14) (15)
Aluminium ( Al ) Silicon ( Si ) Phosphorus ( P )
(31) (32) (33)
Gallium ( Ga ) Germanium ( Ge ) Arsenic ( As )
 (51)
Antimony ( Sb )

In the next tutorial about semiconductors and diodes, we will look at

joining the two semiconductor basics materials, the P-type and the N-
type materials to form a PN Junction which can be used to produce
diodes.

PN Junction Theory

In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor

material by doping a silicon atom with small amounts of Antimony
and also how to make a P-type semiconductor material by doping
another silicon atom with Boron.

This is all well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type
semiconductor materials do very little on their own as they are
electrically neutral. However, if we join (or fuse) these two
semiconductor materials together they behave in a very different way
merging together and producing what is generally known as a “PN
Junction“.

When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials

are first joined together a very large density gradient exists between
both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some of the free
electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this
newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material
producing negative ions.

However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction

from the N-type silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind
positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now the
holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the
opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of
free electrons.

As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled
with negatively charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of
the N-type along the junction becomes positive. This charge transfer
of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion.
The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each side is
doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.

This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons
which have crossed the junction
have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more
charge carriers from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of
equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a
“potential barrier” zone around the area of the junction as the donor
atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.

Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a

potential barrier, the regions on either sides of the junction now
become completely depleted of any more free carriers in comparison
to the N and P type materials further away from the junction. This area
around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and

opposite to maintain a neutral charge condition around the junction.
If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore must
therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive
side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship
between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to maintain charge
neutrality also called equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance
As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes,
the N-type material has become positive with respect to the P-type.
Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause
an electric field to be established across this region with the N-side at
a positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem now is that a free
charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now
exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction.

This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-
in potential difference” across the junction with an open-circuit (zero
bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of

26mV at room temperature, ND and NA are the impurity
concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.

A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two

ends of the PN junction can supply the free electrons and holes with
the extra energy. The external voltage required to overcome this
potential barrier that now exists is very much dependent upon the type
of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.

Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer

for silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 –
0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is
not connected to any external power source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it
opposes both the flow of holes and electrons across the junction and
is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a PN junction is
formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply
joining or fusing together two separate pieces.

The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying

current–voltage (IV or I–V) characteristics. Electrical contacts are
fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an electrical
connection to be made to an external circuit. The resulting electronic
device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction Diode or
simply Signal Diode.

Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or

diffusing together differently doped semiconductor materials to
produce an electronic device called a diode which can be used as the
basic semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all types of transistors,
LED’s, solar cells, and many more such solid state devices.

In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the
most interesting applications of the PN junction is its use in circuits
as a diode. By adding connections to each end of the P-type and the N-
type materials we can produce a two terminal device called a PN
Junction Diode which can be biased by an external voltage to either
block or allow the flow of current through it.

PN Junction Diode
The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any
external voltage being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in
the junction being in a state of equilibrium.

However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both

the N-type and the P-type materials and then connect them to a
battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome the
potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free
electrons being able to cross the depletion region from one side to the
other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential
barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal
device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices

around, and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one
direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave
linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage (I-V) relationship and therefore we
cannot describe its operation by simply using an equation such as
Ohm’s law.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two

ends of the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the
extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the
depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges

being pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer
width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing
the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking
current flow through the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of

a reverse voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a
forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical
properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical
changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as seen
in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics.
Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the
polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a

rectifying device we need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a
voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias”
refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential
barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is
said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing”

conditions for the standard Junction Diode and these are:

 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN

junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-
ve) to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type
 material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the
PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive,
(+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type
material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the
PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external

potential energy is applied to the PN junction. However if the diodes
terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the
P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier
will move across the junction against this barrier potential. This is
known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers),

find this situation favourable and move across the junction in the
opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth
across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any
more majority carriers across the junction. However, the potential
barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and
few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.

Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the

majority carriers are equal and both moving in opposite directions, so
that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this
occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic
Equilibrium“.

The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy

so this state of equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature
of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of minority
carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an
electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the
PN junction.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive

voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is
applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons

towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the
holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction
towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of
electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an
insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction

and practically zero current flows through the junction diode with an
increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does
flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, (
μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is
increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the diode’s
PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result
in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step
downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage

stabilising circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the
diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum
value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These
types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are
discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative

voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is
applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater
than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and
0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards

the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with
the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction
by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero
current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static
curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little
increase in the external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode

results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which
represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase
in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics
curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN

junction allowing very large currents to flow through the diode with
only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the
depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as
it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in
series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum
forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more
power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following

important characteristics:

 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers,

Holes and Electrons.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively
charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as
Antimony (N-type doping), so that it contains mobile charges
which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as
Boron (P-type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which
are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as
the depletion region.
 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that
varies with the applied voltage.
  When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is
applied and a natural Potential Barrier is developed across a
depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the
depletion region reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit
allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the
depletion region increases and the diode acts like an open circuit
blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage current).

We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear
device whose I-V characteristic are polarity dependent as depending
upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode is either
Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can
model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode
and for a real diode.
RESISTOR COLOR CODES

What is a Resistor?

Special components called resistors are made for the express purpose
of creating a precise quantity of resistance for insertion into a circuit.
They are typically constructed of metal wire or carbon and engineered
to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of
environmental conditions.

Unlike lamps, they do not produce light, but they do produce heat as
electric power is dissipated by them in a working circuit. Typically,
though, the purpose of a resistor is not to produce usable heat, but
simply to provide a precise quantity of electrical resistance.

Standard Resistor Values and Color

Components and wires are coded with colors to identify their value
and function. Resistor Color Coding uses colored bands to quickly
identify a resistors resistive value and its percentage of tolerance with
the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating.

Generally, the resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating

are printed on the body of a resistor as numbers or letters when the
resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large power
resistors.

But when a resistor is smaller (example: 1/4 watt carbon or film type),
the print is too small to read, so the specifications must be shown in
another way.

If the color is found on the 3rd band for a 4-band type or the 4th band
for a 5-band and 6-band type, then it's a multiplier.
The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance
codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored
tolerance band.

The blank (20%) “band” is only used with the “4-band” code (3 colored
bands + a blank “band”).

The Resistor Colour Code Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

 Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

Then we can summarize the different weighted positions of each

coloured band which makes up the resistors colour code above in the
following table:

3 4 5
Number 6 Coloured
Coloured Coloured Coloured
of Bands
Bands Bands Bands
Coloured (E96
(E6 (E12 (E48
Bands Series)
Series) Series) Series)

1st Band 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit

2nd Band 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit

3rd Band Multiplier Multiplier 3rd Digit 3rd Digit

4th Band – Tolerance Multiplier Multiplier

5th Band – – Tolerance Tolerance

Temperature
6th Band – – –
Coefficient
Calculating Resistor Values

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need
to understand how to apply it in order to get the correct value of the
resistor. The “left-hand” or the most significant coloured band is the
band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded
bands being read from left-to-right as follows:

Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω)

For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;

Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold Color Code

A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 kΩ with a

tolerance of +/- 5%.

Green-Red-Gold-Silver Color Code

A resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver would be 5.2 Ω with a

tolerance of +/- 10%.

White-Violet-Black Color Code

A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance

of +/- 20%. When you see only three color bands on a resistor, you
know that it is actually a 4-band code with a blank (20%) tolerance
band.
Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet Color Code

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3

kΩ with a tolerance of +/- 0.1%.

Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red Color Code

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω

with a tolerance of +/- 2%.

Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue Color Code

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 Ω

with a tolerance of +/- 0.25%.

The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage
tolerance of the resistor. Resistor tolerance is a measure of the
resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a
consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a
percentage of its “nominal” or preferred value.

Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10%

while carbon resistors have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with
tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors with the or
lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.
Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of
either 1% or 2% while most of the four band resistors have tolerances
of 5%, 10% and 20%. The colour code used to denote the tolerance
rating of a resistor is given as:

Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %

If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance

would be at 20%.

It is sometimes easier to remember the resistor colour code by using

short, easily remembered sentences in the form of expressions,
rhymes, and phrases, called an acrostic, which have a separate word
in the sentence to represent each of the Ten + Two colours.

The resulting mnemonic matches the first letter of each word to each
colour which makes up the resistors colour code by order of increasing
magnitude and there are many different mnemonic phrases which can
be used. However, these sayings are often very crude but never the less
effective for remembering the resistor colours. Here are just a few of
the more “cleaner” versions but many more exist:

 Big Boys Race Our Young Girls But Violet Generally

Wins

 Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Wrong

Individual resistors can be connected together in either a series

connection, a parallel connection or combinations of both series and
parallel, to produce more complex resistor networks whose equivalent
resistance is the mathematical combination of the individual resistors
connected together.
A resistor is not only a fundamental electronic component that can be
used to convert a voltage to a current or a current to a voltage, but by
correctly adjusting its value a different weighting can be placed onto
the converted current and/or the voltage allowing it to be used in
voltage reference circuits and applications.

Resistors in series or complicated resistor networks can be replaced

by one single equivalent resistor, REQ or impedance, ZEQ and no matter
what the combination or complexity of the resistor network is, all
resistors obey the same basic rules as defined by Ohm’s Law and
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws.

If the color is found on the 3rd band for a 4-band type or the 4th band
for a 5-band and 6-band type, then it's a multiplier.

The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance
codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored
tolerance band.

The blank (20%) “band” is only used with the “4-band” code (3 colored
bands + a blank “band”).
Electronic Components and their Functions

An electronic component is any basic discrete device in an electronic

system used to affect electrons or their associated fields. They are the
elements of circuit which helps in its functioning. Electronic
components have a number of electrical terminals. These terminals
connect to other electrical components to create an electronic circuit.

Classification of Electronic Components: Components can be

classified as passive, active, or electro-mechanic components.

4. Active components are devices that can amplify an electric

signal and produce power. An active component functions as an
alternating current circuit in devices. This helps the device to
augment power and voltage. This component can execute its
operations because it is powered by a source of electricity. All
active components necessitate some source of energy which
commonly is extracted from a DC circuit. Any characteristic
active component will comprise an oscillator, transistor or an
integrated circuit.
5. Passive components can’t introduce net energy into the
circuit. They also can’t rely on a source of power, except for what
is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a
consequence they can’t amplify (increase the power of a signal),
although they may increase a voltage or current (such as is done
by a transformer or resonant circuit). Passive components
include two-terminal components such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, and transformers.
 6. Electromechanical component is one that uses an electrical
signal to cause some kind of mechanical change, such as motor
turning. These normally use an electrical current to create a
magnetic field which causes a physical movement. All types of
relays and switches are available in this category.
Electromechanical devices have both electrical and mechanical
processes. A manually operated switch is an electromechanical
component due to the mechanical movement causing an
electrical output.

When building electronic circuits, you will work with a number of

basic electronic components, including resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors, inductors and integrated circuits. Below is a brief
overview of the components and their functions.

15. Resistors: A resistor is one of the components you will

come across in an integrated circuit. Like the name suggests, the
device resists the flow of current. Resistors are graded based on
their power ratings (amount of power they can handle without
exploding) and resistance values (capacity to resist current). The
measurement is done in units know as ohms. The electronic
symbol of the unit is O.
16. Capacitors: These components can store electric charge
temporarily. The components come in different varieties, with
the most common ones being electrolytic and ceramic disk. The
capacity of a component is usually measured in microfarads
(µF).
17. Diodes: Diodes allow electric current to flow in a single
direction only. Each diode has two terminals known as the anode
 and cathode. When the anode is charged with positive voltage
and the cathode with a negative one, electric current can flow.
Reversing these voltages will prevent the current from flowing.
18. Transistors: These components are easy to identify
through their three terminals. For the components to work,
voltage has to be applied to one of them; the base terminal. The
base can then control current flow in the two other terminals (the
emitter and collector).
19. Inductors: These are passive components that store
energy in form of a magnetic field. An inductor simply consists of
a coil of wire wound around some kind of core. The core could be
a magnet or air. When current passes through the inductor, a
magnetic field is created around it. The magnetic field is stronger
if a magnet is used as the core.
20. Integrated Circuits: An integrated circuit refers to a
special device that has all the components required in an
electronic circuit. The component has diodes, transistors, and
other devices, all of which are etched on a tiny piece of silicon.
The components are used in many electronic devices, including
watches and computers.
21. Microcontrollers: Microcontrollers are small computers
used to control a multitude of devices, such as power tools,
remote controls, medical equipment and office machines.
22. Transformers: Built with two coils of wire, transformers
are commonly used to step up or step down power.
23. Batteries: Batteries convert chemical energy to electrical
energy. The two different cells of a battery are anode (+) and
cathode (-).
 24. Fuses: Fuses help preserve components from overloading
with excessive current. A fuse consists of connection body,
support, contacts, and metal-fuse material such as zinc or
copper.
25. Relays: These electromechanical switches shut power on
or off. A relay includes an electromagnet, an armature, a series of
electrical contacts and a spring.
26. Switches: Switches interrupt current. The four types of
switches are: single pole single throw (SPST), single pole double
throw (SPDT), double pole single throw (DPST), and double pole
double throw (DPDT).
27. Motors: Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Key components include a rotor, stator, bearings,
conduit box, enclosure, and eye bolt.
28. Circuit Breakers: As a protective device, a circuit
breaker can be controlled with a remote switch. It is designed to
protect the circuit from overloading or a short circuit.

Applications of Electronic Components.

An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric

current to perform various functions including signal amplification,
computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different
components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and
diodes.

6. Consumer Electronics: Office Gadgets such as calculators,

Personal computers, Scanners and Printers, FAX machine, Front
Projector etc. Home appliances such as Washing Machine,
 Refrigerator, Air Conditioner, Microwave Oven, Vacuum Cleaner
etc. Audio and Video Systems such as Headphone, VCRs, DVD
players, Color TVs, Microphone and Loudspeaker, Video game
consoles. Advanced Consumer Devices such as Setup Box, ATM,
Dishwasher, Smart Phones, PDA (personal digital assistant),
Barcode Scanners, POS terminals. Storage Devices for optical
playback and taping, and portable infotainment. Examples are
DVDs, HDD jukebox, Portable MP3 player.
7. Industrial Electronics: Electronic components are used for
Industrial automation and motion control, Machine learning,
motor drive control, Mechatronics and robotics, Power converting
technologies, Photo voltaic systems, Renewable energy
applications, Power electronics, and Biomechanics. Smart grid
systems: Smart electric systems collect information from the
communication technology and react accordingly based on power
consumption. It is an application of intelligence, computing, and
networked electricity systems. Industrial automation and motion
control: Machines are replacing humans these days with increased
productivity, time and cost. Moreover, safety is also considered for
unmanageable works. Hence to delegate the human’s, automation
has become the preferable choice for industries.
8. Medical applications: Advanced sophisticated instruments are
being developed for data recording and physiological analysis. They
are proven to be more useful in diagnosing diseases and for healing
purpose. Electronic components are being used in some of the
medical devices and equipment are: Respiration Monitors for
knowing the patient condition due to change in body temperature,
pulse, respiration and blood flow. Defibrillator causes electrical
 shock to heart muscles and brings backs the heart to the normal
working condition. Glucose meter for measuring sugar levels in the
blood. Pace Maker for reducing and increasing the count of the
heartbeat and many more.
9. Defense and Aerospace: Defense and Aeronautical applications
include: Missile Launching systems, Rocket Launchers for space,
Aircraft systems, Cockpit controllers, Military Radars, Boom
barrier for military applications
10. Automotive: Anti-collision unit, Infotainment console, Anti-
lock braking system, Cruise control, Traction control, Window
regulators, Electronic Control Unit (ECU) and Airbag control.
 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can

be used for switching or amplification
Unlike semiconductor diodes which are made up from two pieces of
semiconductor material to form one simple PN-junction. The bipolar
transistor uses one more layer of semiconductor material to produce
a device with properties and characteristics of an amplifier.
If we join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will
give us two PN-junctions connected together in series which would
share a common Positive, (P) or Negative, (N) terminal. The fusion of
these two diodes produces a three-layer, two junction, three terminal
device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor,
or BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different
semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a
conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor’s
ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic
functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification”
(analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to
operate within three different regions:
 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier
and Ic = β*Ib
 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch
and Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch
and Ic = 0
 A Typical
Bipolar Transistor
The word Transistor is a combination of the two words Transfer
Varistor which describes their mode of operation way back in their
early days of electronics development. There are two basic types of
bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically
describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-
junctions producing three connecting terminals with each terminal
being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B )
and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the
amount of current flowing through them from the Emitter to the
Collector terminals in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage
applied to their base terminal, thus acting like a current-controlled
switch. As a small current flowing into the base terminal controls a
much larger collector current forming the basis of transistor action.
The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN,
is exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the
polarity of the power supply for each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both
the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given above with the arrow in
the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional
current flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The
direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to
the negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same
as for the standard diode symbol.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are
basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit
with one terminal being common to both the input and output signals.
Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal
within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with
each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no
Current Gain.
 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and
Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain
but no Voltage Gain.
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base
configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input
signal AND the output signal. The input signal is applied between the
transistors base and the emitter terminals, while the corresponding
output signal is taken from between the base and the collector
terminals as shown. The base terminal is grounded or can be
connected to some fixed reference voltage point.
The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum
of both the base current and collector current respectively therefore,
the collector current output is less than the emitter current input
resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of “1” (unity) or less,
in other words the common base configuration “attenuates” the input
signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage

amplifier circuit, in that the signal voltages Vin and Vout are “in-
phase”. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common due
to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input
characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode while the
output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of
output to input resistance or more importantly “load” resistance ( RL )
to “input” resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of “Resistance Gain”. Then
the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is therefore
given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha ( α ) and RL/Rin is the
resistance gain.
The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage
amplifier circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio
frequency ( Rƒ ) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency
response.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the
input signal is applied between the base and the emitter, while the
output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown.
This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for
transistor based amplifiers and which represents the “normal”
method of bipolar transistor connection.
The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest
current and power gain of all the three bipolar transistor
configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as
it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the output
impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN-junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor

must be equal to the currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter
current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected in series with the collector,
the current gain of the common emitter transistor configuration is
quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors current gain is given
the Greek symbol of Beta, ( β ).
As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined
as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek
symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than
unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three
currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the physical construction of
the transistor itself, any small change in the base current ( Ib ), will
result in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ).
Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control
the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value
between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors. So if a
transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then one electron will flow from
the base terminal for every 100 electrons flowing between the emitter-
collector terminal.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the
mathematical relationship between these parameters and therefore
the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is
the current flowing into the base terminal and “Ie” is the current
flowing out of the emitter terminal.
Then to summarise a little. This type of bipolar transistor
configuration has a greater input impedance, current and power gain
than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is
much lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting
amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output signal has a
180o phase-shift with regards to the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the
collector is connected to ground through the supply, thus the collector
terminal is common to both the input and the output. The input signal
is connected directly to the base terminal, while the output signal is
taken from across the emitter load resistor as shown. This type of
configuration is commonly known as a Voltage
Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful
for impedance matching applications because of its very high input
impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of Ohms while
having a relatively low output impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately

equal to the β value of the transistor itself. However in the common
collector configuration, the load resistance is connected in series with
the emitter terminal so its current is equal to that of the emitter
current.
As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the
base current combined, the load resistance in this type of transistor
configuration also has both the collector current and the input current
of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is
given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit
in that the signal voltages of Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. The
common collector configuration has a voltage gain of about “1” (unity
gain). Thus it can considered as a voltage-buffer since the voltage gain
is unity.
The load resistance of the common collector transistor receives both
the base and collector currents giving a large current gain (as with the
common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good current
amplification with very little voltage gain.
Having looked at the three different types of bipolar transistor
configurations, we can now summarise the various relationships
between the transistors individual DC currents flowing through each
leg and its DC current gains given above in the following table.

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

Note that although we have looked at NPN Bipolar
Transistor configurations here, PNP transistors are just as valid to use
in each configuration as the calculations will all be the same, as for the
non-inverting of the amplified signal. The only difference will be in the
voltage polarities and current directions.

Bipolar Transistor Summary

Then to summarise, the behaviour of the bipolar transistor in each one
of the above circuit configurations is very different and produces
different circuit characteristics with regards to input impedance,
output impedance and gain whether this is voltage gain, current gain
or power gain and this is summarised in the table below.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

with the generalised characteristics of the different transistor

configurations given in the following table:

Common Common Common

Characteristic
Base Emitter Collector

Input Impedance Low Medium High

Output Impedance Very High High Low

Phase Shift 0o 180o 0o

Voltage Gain High Medium Low

Current Gain Low Medium High

Power Gain Low Very High Medium

In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors, we will look at

the NPN Transistor in more detail when used in the common emitter
configuration as an amplifier as this is the most widely used
configuration due to its flexibility and high gain. We will also plot the
output characteristics curves commonly associated with amplifier
circuits as a function of the collector current to the base current.
NPN TRANSISTOR

NPN Transistors are three-terminal, three-layer devices that can

function as either amplifiers or electronic switches
In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar
Transistor or BJT, comes in two basic forms. An NPN (Negative-
Positive-Negative) configuration and a PNP (Positive-Negative-
Positive) configuration. That is: an NPN transistor and a PNP
transistor types.
The most commonly used transistor configuration is the NPN
Transistor. We also learnt that the junctions of the bipolar transistor
can be biased in one of three different ways – Common
Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector.
In this tutorial about bipolar transistors we will look more closely at
the “Common Emitter” configuration using the Bipolar NPN
Transistor with an example of the construction of a NPN transistor
along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given below.

A Bipolar NPN Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “out”
for a Bipolar NPN Transistor.)

The construction and terminal voltages for a bipolar NPN transistor

are shown above. The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is
positive at the Base and negative at the Emitter because for an NPN
transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the
Emitter. The Collector supply voltage must also be more positive with
respect to the Emitter ( VCE ).
Therefore, for a bipolar NPN transistor to conduct correctly, the
Collector must always more positive with respect to both the Base and
the Emitter terminals.

NPN Transistor Connection

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as
shown. The Collector is connected to the supply voltage VCC via the
load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the maximum current flowing
through the device.
The Base supply voltage VB is connected to the Base resistor RB, which
again is used to limit the maximum Base current.
So in a NPN Transistor it is the movement of negative current carriers
(electrons) through the Base region that constitutes transistor action,
since these mobile electrons provide the link between the Collector
and Emitter circuits. This link between the input and output circuits
is the main feature of transistor action because the transistors
amplifying properties come from the consequent control which the
Base exerts upon the Collector to Emitter current.
Then we can see that the transistor is a current operated device (Beta
model) and that a large current ( Ic ) flows freely through the device
between the collector and the emitter terminals when the transistor is
switched “fully-ON”. However, this only happens when a small biasing
current ( Ib ) is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor at the
same time thus allowing the Base to act as a sort of current control
input.
The current in a bipolar NPN transistor is the ratio of these two
currents ( Ic/Ib ), called the DC Current Gain of the device and is
given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, ( β ).
The value of β can be large up to 200 for standard transistors, and it
is this large ratio between Ic and Ib that makes the bipolar NPN
transistor a useful amplifying device when used in its active region
as Ib provides the input and Ic provides the output. Note that Beta has
no units as it is a ratio.
Also, the current gain of the transistor from the Collector terminal to
the Emitter terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, ( α ), and is a function of
the transistor itself (electrons diffusing across the junction).
As the emitter current Ie is the sum of a very small base current plus a
very large collector current, the value of alpha (α), is very close to
unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges
from about 0.950 to 0.999
α and β Relationship in a NPN Transistor

By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two

mathematical expressions that gives the relationship between the
different currents flowing in the transistor.

The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power
transistors to well over 1000 for high frequency low power type
bipolar transistors. The value of Beta for most standard NPN
transistors can be found in the manufactures data sheets but generally
range between 50 – 200.
The equation above for Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the
subject, and with a zero base current ( Ib = 0 ) the resultant collector
current Ic will also be zero, ( β*0 ).
Also note that when the base current is high the corresponding
collector current will also be high resulting in the base current
controlling the collector current. One of the most important properties
of the Bipolar Junction Transistor is that a small base current can
control a much larger collector current. Consider the following
example.
NPN Transistor Example No1
A bipolar NPN transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200.
Calculate the base current Ib required to switch a resistive load of
4mA.

Therefore, β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib = 20µA.

One other point to remember about Bipolar NPN Transistors. The
collector voltage, ( Vc ) must be greater and positive with respect to
the emitter voltage, ( Ve ) to allow current to flow through the
transistor between the collector-emitter junctions. There is also a
voltage drop between the Base and the Emitter terminal of about 0.7V
(one diode volt drop) for silicon devices as the input characteristics of
an NPN Transistor are of a forward biased diode.
Then the base voltage, ( Vbe ) of a NPN transistor must be greater than
this 0.7V otherwise the transistor will not conduct with the base
current given as.

Where: Ib is the base current, Vb is the base bias voltage, Vbe is the
base-emitter volt drop (0.7v) and Rb is the base input resistor.
Increasing Ib, Vbe slowly increases to 0.7V but Ic rises exponentially.

NPN Transistor Example No2

An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input
base resistor, Rb of 100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current
into the transistor.

Therefore, Ib = 93µA.

The Common Emitter Configuration.

As well as being used as a semiconductor switch to turn load currents
“ON” or “OFF” by controlling the Base signal to the transistor in either
its saturation or cut-off regions, Bipolar NPN Transistors can also
be used in its active region to produce a circuit which will amplify any
small AC signal applied to its Base terminal with the Emitter
grounded.
If a suitable DC “biasing” voltage is firstly applied to the transistors
Base terminal thus allowing it to always operate within its linear active
region, an inverting amplifier circuit called a single stage common
emitter amplifier is produced.
One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN
transistor is called a Class A Amplifier. A “Class A Amplifier” operation
is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased in such a way as
to forward bias the Base-emitter junction.
The result is that the transistor is always operating halfway between
its cut-off and saturation regions, thereby allowing the transistor
amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and negative halves of
any AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage.
Without this “Bias Voltage” only one half of the input waveform would
be amplified. This common emitter amplifier configuration using an
NPN transistor has many applications but is commonly used in audio
circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages.
With reference to the common emitter configuration shown below, a
family of curves known as the Output Characteristics Curves,
relates the output collector current, ( Ic ) to the collector voltage,
( Vce ) when different values of Base current, ( Ib ). Output
characteristics curves are applied to the transistor for transistors with
the same β value.
A DC “Load Line” can also be drawn onto the output characteristics
curves to show all the possible operating points when different values
of base current are applied. It is necessary to set the initial value
of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to vary both up and down
when amplifying AC input signals and this is called setting the
operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-point for short and this is
shown below.

Single Stage Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Output Characteristics Curves of a Typical Bipolar
Transistor

The most important factor to notice is the effect of Vce upon the
collector current Ic when Vce is greater than about 1.0 volts. We can
see that Ic is largely unaffected by changes in Vce above this value and
instead it is almost entirely controlled by the base current, Ib. When
this happens we can say then that the output circuit represents that of
a “Constant Current Source”.
It can also be seen from the common emitter circuit above that the
emitter current Ie is the sum of the collector current, Ic and the base
current, Ib, added together so we can also say that Ie = Ic + Ib for the
common emitter (CE) configuration.
By using the output characteristics curves in our example above and
also Ohm´s Law, the current flowing through the load resistor, ( RL ),
is equal to the collector current, Ic entering the transistor which in
turn corresponds to the supply voltage, ( Vcc ) minus the voltage drop
between the collector and the emitter terminals, ( Vce ) and is given
as:

Also, a straight line representing the Dynamic Load Line of the

transistor can be drawn directly onto the graph of curves above from
the point of “Saturation” ( A ) when Vce = 0 to the point of “Cut-off”
( B ) when Ic = 0 thus giving us the “Operating” or Q-point of the
transistor. These two points are joined together by a straight line and
any position along this straight line represents the “Active Region” of
the transistor. The actual position of the load line on the
characteristics curves can be calculated as follows:

Then, the collector or output characteristics curves for Common

Emitter NPN Transistors can be used to predict the Collector
current, Ic, when given Vce and the Base current, Ib. A Load Line can
also be constructed onto the curves to determine a suitable Operating
or Q-point which can be set by adjustment of the base current. The
slope of this load line is equal to the reciprocal of the load resistance
which is given as: -1/RL
Then we can define a NPN Transistor as being normally “OFF” but
a small input current and a small positive voltage at its Base ( B )
relative to its Emitter ( E ) will turn it “ON” allowing a much large
Collector-Emitter current to flow. NPN transistors conduct when Vc is
much greater than Ve.
In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors, we will look at the
opposite or complementary form of the NPN Transistor called the
PNP Transistor and show that the PNP Transistor has very similar
characteristics to the bipolar NPN transistor except that the polarities
(or biasing) of the current and voltage directions are reversed.

PNP TRANSISTOR

The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN

Transistor device we looked at in the previous tutorial.
Basically, in this type of PNP transistor construction, the two
interconnected diodes are reversed with respect to the previous NPN
transistor. This produces a Positive-Negative-Positive type of
configuration, with the arrow which also defines the Emitter terminal
pointing inwards in the PNP transistor symbol.
Also, all the polarities for a PNP transistor are reversed which means
that it “sinks” current into its Base as opposed to the NPN transistor
which “sources” current through its Base. The main difference
between the two types of transistors is that holes are the more
important carriers for PNP transistors, whereas electrons are the
important carriers for NPN transistors.
Then, PNP transistors use a small base current and a negative base
voltage to control a much larger emitter-collector current. In other
words for a PNP transistor, the Emitter is more positive with respect
to the Base and also with respect to the Collector.
The construction of a “PNP transistor” consists of two P-type
semiconductor materials either side of an N-type material as shown
below.

A PNP Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “in”
for a PNP transistor.)

The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are

shown above. The PNP Transistor has very similar characteristics
to their NPN bipolar cousins, except that the polarities (or biasing) of
the current and voltage directions are reversed for any one of the
possible three configurations looked at in the first tutorial, Common
Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector.

PNP Transistor Connection

The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is now negative at
the Base and positive at the Emitter because for a PNP transistor, the
Base terminal is always biased negative with respect to the Emitter.
Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the Collector
( VCE ). So for a PNP transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more
positive with respect to both the Base and the Collector.
The voltage sources are connected to a PNP transistor are as shown.
This time the Emitter is connected to the supply voltage VCC with the
load resistor, RL which limits the maximum current flowing through
the device connected to the Collector terminal. The Base
voltage VB which is biased negative with respect to the Emitter and is
connected to the Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the
maximum Base current.
To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs
to be more negative than the Emitter (current must leave the base) by
approx 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3 volts for a germanium device
with the formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current or
Collector current are the same as those used for an equivalent NPN
transistor and is given as.
We can see that the fundamental differences between a NPN
Transistor and a PNP Transistor is the proper biasing of the
transistors junctions as the current directions and voltage polarities
are always opposite to each other. So for the circuit above: Ic = Ie –
Ib as current must leave the Base.
Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in most
electronic circuits, the only difference is the polarities of the voltages,
and the directions of the current flow. PNP transistors can also be used
as switching devices and an example of a PNP transistor switch is
shown below.

A PNP Transistor Circuit

The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very

similar to those for an equivalent NPN transistor except that they are
rotated by 180o to take account of the reverse polarity voltages and
currents, (that is for a PNP transistor, electron current flows out of the
base and collector towards the battery). The same dynamic load line
can be drawn onto the I-V curves to find the PNP transistors operating
points.

Transistor Matching
Complementary Transistors
You may think what is the point of having a PNP Transistor, when
there are plenty of NPN Transistors available that can be used as an
amplifier or solid-state switch?. Well, having two different types of
transistors “PNP” and “NPN”, can be a great advantage when
designing power amplifier circuits such as the Class B Amplifier.
Class-B amplifiers uses “Complementary” or “Matched Pair” (that is
one PNP and one NPN connected together) transistors in its output
stage or in reversible H-Bridge motor control circuits where we want
to control the flow of current evenly through the motor in both
directions at different times for forward and reverse motion.
A pair of corresponding NPN and PNP transistors with near identical
characteristics to each other are called Complementary
Transistors for example, a TIP3055 (NPN transistor) and the
TIP2955 (PNP transistor) are good examples of complementary or
matched pair silicon power transistors. They both have a DC current
gain, Beta, ( Ic/Ib ) matched to within 10% and high Collector current
of about 15A making them ideal for general motor control or robotic
applications.
Also, class B amplifiers use complementary NPN and PNP in their
power output stage design. The NPN transistor conducts for only the
positive half of the signal while the PNP transistor conducts for
negative half of the signal.
This allows the amplifier to drive the required power through the load
loudspeaker in both directions at the stated nominal impedance and
power resulting in an output current which is likely to be in the order
of several amps shared evenly between the two complementary
transistors.

Identifying the PNP Transistor

We saw in the first tutorial of this transistors section, that transistors
are basically made up of two Diodes connected together back-to-back.
We can use this analogy to determine whether a transistor is of the
PNP type or NPN type by testing its Resistance between the three
different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By testing each pair of
transistor leads in both directions with a multimeter will result in six
tests in total with the expected resistance values in Ohm’s given below.
 1. Emitter-Base Terminals – The Emitter to Base should act like
a normal diode and conduct one way only.
 2. Collector-Base Terminals – The Collector-Base junction
should act like a normal diode and conduct one way only.
 3. Emitter-Collector Terminals – The Emitter-Collector should
not conduct in either direction.

Then we can define a PNP Transistor as being normally “OFF” but

a small output current and negative voltage at its Base ( B ) relative to
its Emitter ( E ) will turn it “ON” allowing a much large Emitter-
Collector current to flow. PNP transistors conduct when Ve is much
greater than Vc.
In other words, a Bipolar PNP Transistor will ONLY conduct if
both the Base and Collector terminals are negative with respect to the
Emitter
In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors instead of using the
transistor as an amplifying device, we will look at the operation of the
transistor in its saturation and cut-off regions when used as a solid-
state switch.
Bipolar transistor switches are used in many applications to switch a
DC current “ON” or “OFF”, from LED’s which require only a few
milliamps of switching current at low DC voltages, or motors and
relays which may require higher currents at higher voltages.
Transistor as a Switch

Transistor switches can be used to switch a low voltage DC device (e.g.

LED’s) ON or OFF by using a transistor in its saturated or cut-off state
When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing
voltage is applied in such a way that it always operates within its
“active” region, that is the linear part of the output characteristics
curves are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar
transistors can be made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid state
switch by biasing the transistors Base terminal differently operating
the transistor as a switch.
Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of
transistor to switch a DC output “ON” or “OFF”. Some output devices,
such as LED’s only require a few milliamps at logic level DC voltages
and can therefore be driven directly by the output of a logic gate.
However, high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps,
often require more power than that supplied by an ordinary logic gate
so transistor switches are used.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the
biasing of the transistor, either NPN or PNP is arranged to operate the
transistor at both sides of the ” I-V ” characteristics curves we have
seen previously.
The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as
the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region. This means then
that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider
circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch
by driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and
“fully-ON” (saturation) regions as shown below.

Operating Regions
 The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-
off” region while the blue area to the left represents the “Saturation”
region of the transistor. Both these transistor regions are defined as:

1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base
current ( IB ), zero output collector current ( IC ) and maximum
collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large depletion layer and no
current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is
switched “Fully-OFF”.

Cut-off Characteristics

 • The input and Base are

grounded ( 0v )
 • Base-Emitter
voltage VBE < 0.7v
 • Base-Emitter junction is
reverse biased
 • Base-Collector junction is
reverse biased
 • Transistor is “fully-OFF” (
Cut-off region )
 • No Collector current flows
( IC = 0 )
 • VOUT = VCE = VCC = “1”
  • Transistor operates as an
“open switch”

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a
bipolar transistor as a switch as being, both junctions reverse
biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter
potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base
current is applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in
the minimum collector emitter voltage drop which results in the
depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched
“Fully-ON”.

Saturation Characteristics

 • The input and Base are

connected to VCC
 • Base-Emitter
voltage VBE > 0.7v
 • Base-Emitter junction is
forward biased
 • Base-Collector junction is
forward biased
 • Transistor is “fully-ON” (
saturation region )
 • Max Collector current flows
( IC = Vcc/RL )
 • VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
 • VOUT = VCE = “0”
 • Transistor operates as a
“closed switch”

Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using
a bipolar transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the
Emitter potential must be positive with respect to the Base.
Then the transistor operates as a “single-pole single-throw” (SPST)
solid state switch. With a zero signal applied to the Base of the
transistor it turns “OFF” acting like an open switch and zero collector
current flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the
transistor it turns “ON” acting like a closed switch and maximum
circuit current flows through the device.
The simplest way to switch moderate to high amounts of power is to
use the transistor with an open-collector output and the transistors
Emitter terminal connected directly to ground. When used in this way,
the transistors open collector output can thus “sink” an externally
supplied voltage to ground thereby controlling any connected load.
An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a
relay is given below. With inductive loads such as relays or solenoids
a flywheel diode is placed across the load to dissipate the back EMF
generated by the inductive load when the transistor switches “OFF”
and so protect the transistor from damage. If the load is of a very high
current or voltage nature, such as motors, heaters etc, then the load
current can be controlled via a suitable relay as shown.

Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

The circuit resembles that of the Common Emitter circuit we looked

at in the previous tutorials. The difference this time is that to operate
the transistor as a switch the transistor needs to be turned either fully
“OFF” (cut-off) or fully “ON” (saturated).
An ideal transistor switch would have infinite circuit resistance
between the Collector and Emitter when turned “fully-OFF” resulting
in zero current flowing through it and zero resistance between the
Collector and Emitter when turned “fully-ON”, resulting in maximum
current flow.
In practice when the transistor is turned “OFF”, small leakage currents
flow through the transistor and when fully “ON” the device has a low
resistance value causing a small saturation voltage ( VCE ) across it.
Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, in both the cut-off
and saturation regions the power dissipated by the transistor is at its
minimum.
In order for the Base current to flow, the Base input terminal must be
made more positive than the Emitter by increasing it above the 0.7
volts needed for a silicon device. By varying this Base-Emitter
voltage VBE, the Base current is also altered and which in turn controls
the amount of Collector current flowing through the transistor as
previously discussed.
When maximum Collector current flows the transistor is said to
be Saturated. The value of the Base resistor determines how much
input voltage is required and corresponding Base current to switch the
transistor fully “ON”.

Transistor as a Switch Example No1

Using the transistor values from the previous tutorials of: β = 200, Ic
= 4mA and Ib = 20uA, find the value of the Base resistor (Rb) required
to switch the load fully “ON” when the input terminal voltage
exceeds 2.5v.

The next lowest preferred value is: 82kΩ, this guarantees the
transistor switch is always saturated.

Transistor as a Switch Example No2

Again using the same values, find the minimum Base current required
to turn the transistor “fully-ON” (saturated) for a load that
requires 200mA of current when the input voltage is increased to
5.0V. Also calculate the new value of Rb.
Transistor Base current:

Transistor Base resistance:

Transistor switches are used for a wide variety of applications such as

interfacing large current or high voltage devices like motors, relays or
lamps to low voltage digital IC’s or logic gates like AND gates
or OR gates.
Here, the output from a digital logic gate is only +5v but the device to
be controlled may require a 12 or even 24 volts supply. Or the load
such as a DC Motor may need to have its speed controlled using a
series of pulses (Pulse Width Modulation). transistor switches will
allow us to do this faster and more easily than with conventional
mechanical switches.

Digital Logic Transistor Switch

The base resistor, Rb is required to limit the output current from the
logic gate.

PNP Transistor Switch

We can also use the PNP Transistors as a switch, the difference this
time is that the load is connected to ground (0v) and the PNP
transistor switches the power to it. To turn the PNP transistor
operating as a switch “ON”, the Base terminal is connected to ground
or zero volts (LOW) as shown.

PNP Transistor Switching Circuit

The equations for calculating the Base resistance, Collector current

and voltages are exactly the same as for the previous NPN transistor
switch. The difference this time is that we are switching power with a
PNP transistor (sourcing current) instead of switching ground with an
NPN transistor (sinking current).

Transistor as a Switch Summary

Then to summarise when using a Transistor as a Switch the
following conditions apply:
 Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps,
relays or even motors.
 When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either
“fully-OFF” or “fully-ON”.
 Transistors that are fully “ON” are said to be in
their Saturation region.
 Transistors that are fully “OFF” are said to be in their Cut-
off region.
 When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current
controls a much larger Collector load current.
 When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays
and solenoids, a “Flywheel Diode” is used.
  When large currents or voltages need to be
controlled, Darlington Transistors can be used.
In the next tutorial about Transistors, we will look at the operation
of the junction field effect transistor known commonly as an JFET. We
will also plot the output characteristics curves commonly associated
with JFET amplifier circuits as a function of Source voltage to Gate
voltage.