Building

Structures
Primer
■ft
 Building
Structures
Primer
2ND EDITION

JAMES AMBROSE
Professor of Architecture
University of Southern California

A WlLEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New York • Chichester • Brisbane • Toronto
Copyright © 1981 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work

beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the
1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission
of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for
permission or further information should be addressed to
the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Ambrose, James E.
Building structures primer.

“A Wiley-Interscience publication.”
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Structural engineering. I. Title.

TA633.A4 1981 624.1 81-4336

ISBN 0-471-08678-9 AACR2

Printed in the United States of America

10 987654321
 Preface to
the Second Edition
The intention of this revised and expanded hension. Emphasis has been placed on the
edition remains the same as that stated in use of illustrations and the text has been
the preface to the first edition: to provide trimmed to a minimum.
an involvement with the subject of building The exercise section has been expanded
structures accessible to persons who lack and developed for use by instructors who
formal training in the usual background intend to employ the book as a text. I am
courses of applied mechanics, structural indebted to the vast number of students at
analysis, and structural design. Consider¬ the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
ing the trends in architectural education, and the University of Southern California
this access has become increasingly desir¬ whose responses over the intervening years
able, and the trends in both the education have helped to sharpen my focus on the
for and the practice of structural engineer¬ material. I am also once again indebted to
ing have made it the only feasible access for my wife, Peggy, still there after all these
many people. Although considerable new years and still giving invaluable help.
material has been added—most notably
the chapter on architectural functions—an James Ambrose
effort has been made to keep the book
small in order to encourage its use by those Westlake Village, California
who approach the subject with some appre¬ April 1981
 Preface to
the First Edition
This book results from my desire to reach a For the architecture student this work
particular audience—those persons who hopes to be neither “too little too late” nor
are interested in structures but who have “too much too soon,” but rather a quick
not yet had the opportunity or never expect immersion in the totality of the subject—to
to pursue a thorough sequence of study in serve as both an orientation and as a
engineering analysis and design. Actually stimulation to more extensive and ana¬
this is my third work on this subject. The lytical study. I believe that this work will
first was a set of dittoed notes for a series of also be useful to others interested in this
lectures for beginning architectural design subject, such as the industrial designer, the
students at the University of Illinois. The structural engineer majoring in building
second was a small booklet entitled “Struc¬ design, and persons undertaking various
tures Primer,” published in 1963 and since courses of study in building design, con¬
used by nine schools of architecture in their struction, and administration.
early design courses. As this current book Although the subject is immense, it has
has developed I have conceived of it as a been my intent to make this work as brief as
springboard into more thorough and de¬ possible—the more to encourage its read¬
tailed work in the subject and I have, ing! Nothing has been assumed with regard
therefore, adopted a different tone from to the reader’s background preparation
that traditionally used. Emphasis has been except an interest in the subject. Through¬
placed not on the development of engineer¬ out the book doors are opened a tiny crack,
ing design skills, but on the understanding and as soon as the reader’s toe is inserted
of fundamental concepts and the visualiza¬ they are slammed shut—and on to another
tion of the nature and function of struc¬ door. For the reader who is really interested
tures. Using this approach there is no limit in the subject, and who feels a desire and a
to the subject involvement, no matter how need for more detail on various aspects of
complex or difficult the analysis involved. I the subject, this will develop a sense of
believe this is the direction that the educa¬ frustration and an unappeased hunger for
tion of the architectural student in techno¬ more information. I hope that some of this
logical studies must take and I am contin¬ frustration may be sublimated into motiva¬
ually striving to find ways to pursue this tion and appreciation for the need for more
approach. exhaustive study, to be accomplished in the

Vll
viii Preface to the First Edition

formal sequence of courses for the architec¬ work. Most of all I am indebted to the
ture student. For the possible use of the students at the University of Illinois, the
student in architecture—but more for those University of Southern California, and
not undertaking such a program—a section Chouinard Art School, whose reception
at the end of the book is devoted to sources and reactions to this material have helped
of further information in the form of other to shape its content and approach. I am
books. also indebted to Carl Nelson and Don
The manner in which this book may be Sporleder, who first invited me to attempt
used as a text is left to the ingenuity of the something of this nature in the beginning
teacher. Some suggestions for assignments, design courses at the University of Illinois.
examinations, and class projects are givep Finally, I must acknowledge my indebted¬
at the end of the text as possible aids in this ness to the one person without whose help
regard. Portions of this book (or even the and encouragement this book would never
whole book, because of its brevity) may be have become a fact—my wife Peggy.
inserted into existing courses, or the book
may be used in a whole new course in basic
fundamentals in all areas of interest for the James Ambrose
student.
I am indebted to many people for their Los Angeles, California
encouragement and contributions to this May 1967
 Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 2.4.2 Ground Level Roof, 23
2.4.3 Partially Submerged
1.1 Concern for Structure, 1 Building, 24
1.2 Safety, 1 2.4.4 Grade Level Floor, 25
2.4.5 Above-Ground Building,
1.3 Feasibility, 4
27
1.4 Economy, 5
2.5 Adjacency Conditions, 27
1.5 Optimization, 5
1.6 Integration, 7
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONS 30

2 ARCHITECTURAL 3.1 Loads, 30

CONSIDERATIONS 8 3.1.1 Load Sources, 30
3.1.2 Live and Dead Loads, 31
2.1 Usage Requirements, 8 3.1.3 Static Versus Dynamic
2.1.1 Shelter and Enclosure, 8 Loads, 31
2.1.2 Interior Space Division, 9 3.1.4 Load Dispersion, 32
2.1.3 Generating Unobstructed 3.1.5 Wind, 33
Space, 9 3.1.6 Earthquakes, 34
3.1.7 Load Combinations, 36
2.2 Architectural Elements, 11
2.2.1 Walls, 11 3.2 Reactions, 36
2.2.2 Roofs, 13 3.3 Internal Forces, 38
2.2.3 Floors, 14 3.3.1 Cause and Effect: External
2.3 Form-Scale, 14 Versus Internal Force, 38
2.3.1 Single Space, 14 3.3.2 Stability, 39
2.3.2 Multiple Horizontal 3.3.3 Strength, 41
Space—Linear, 16 3.3.4 Stiffness, 42
2.3.3 Multiple Horizontal 3.3.5 Equilibrium of Structures,
Space—Two-Way, 16 42
2.3.4 Multilevel Space, 17 3.3.6 Types of Internal Force, 44
3.3.7 Combinations of Internal
2.4 The Building-Ground
Forces, 48
Relationship, 23
2.4.1 Subterranean Building, 23 3.4 Stress and Strain, 48
ix
X Contents

3.4.1 Stress-Strain Relations, 49 5.2 Categorization of Structural

3.4.2 Stress Combinations, 51 Systems, 78
3.4.3 Thermal Stresses, 53 5.3 Structural Walls, 79
3.4.4 Composite Structures, 55
5.4 Post and Beam, 83
3.4.5 Time-Related Stress and
Strain, 56 5.5 Rigid Frame, 88
3.5 Dynamic Effects, 57 5.6 Flat Spanning Systems, 91
3.6 Design for Structural Behavior, 60 5.7 Truss Systems, 95
3.7 Investigation of Structural 5.8 Arch, Vault, and Dome Systems,
Behavior, 61 » 100
5.9 Tension Structures, 102

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS 62 5.10 Surface Structures, 103

5.11 Special Systems, 106
4.1 General Considerations, 62
4.2 Wood, 63
6 FROM THE GROUND UP 117
4.3 Steel, 63
4.4 Concrete, 66 6.1 The Ground, 117
4.5 Aluminum, 68 6.2 Foundation Systems, 117
4.6 Masonry, 69 6.3 Above-Ground Supports, 119
4.7 Plastics, 69
4.8 Soil, 72 Glossary, 121
4.9 Miscellaneous Materials, 72
Exercises, 127

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 76 Sources for Further Study, 131

5.1 Attributes of Structural Systems, Index, 135

76
 Building
Structures
Primer
 _ CHAPTERONE _

Introduction
Most structures exist for a simple purpose: the general problem of design for all phys¬
to hold things up. This implies three basic ical objects, including buildings. It is not
considerations. What is the thing that possible to understand fully why buildings
needs to be held up? What is holding it up? are built the way they are without having
What is trying to make it fall down? some understanding of the problems of
For building structures the thing that their structures. While the detailed design
needs to be held up is the building or some of structural parts and the actual construc¬
part of it. What is holding it up is the tion of buildings are usually assigned to
structural system of the building. What is others, the building designer cannot func¬
trying to make the building fall down is a tion in an intelligent manner without some
combination of natural forces (gravity, comprehension of the basic concepts of
wind, earthquakes, etc.) and forces gener¬ structures.
ated in the use of the building (people
walking, vehicles moving, machinery vi¬
1.2 SAFETY
brating, etc.).
The purpose of this book is to explain
The concept of safety is a major concern in
and illustrate all of the considerations just
building structures. The two prime safety
mentioned in terms of their relationship to
concerns are for resistance to fires and for a
the design of structures for buildings. Spe¬
low statistical likelihood of collapse under
cifically, this consists of answering the
the loads that the structure must sustain.
following questions:
The major elements of structural fire resis¬
tance are:
What architectural functions generate the
need for structure?
Combustibility of the Structure If the
What loads and effects must structures
materials of the structure are combustible,
resist?
they will tend to contribute to the progress
How do structures function? of the fire as well as hasten the collapse of
How and of what are structures made? the structure.
What are the problems in designing struc¬ Loss of Strength at High Temperature
tures? This is essentially a matter of a race against
How can one learn about structures? time from the moment of exposure to the
fire to the collapse of the structure. If this
1.1 CONCERN FOR STRUCTURE interval is sufficiently long, the building
occupants have a chance to escape.
All physical objects have structures. Con¬ Containment of the Fire Building fires
sequently, the design of structures is part of usually start at a single location. A struc-

1
Figure 1.1 John Hancock Building, Chicago, Illinois. The tapered building form and exterior
X-bracing express the optimization of structure in this 100-story building. The building houses a
city within a city: apartments, offices, commercial, recreational, and parking facilities.
Architects and engineers: Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Chicago.

2
 Safety 3

ture that prevents a fire from spreading is the aspects of this problem and some of the
highly desirable. The ability of walls, things that can be worked on in the design
floors, and roofs to resist penetration, or to improve the situation.
burn-through, by the fire is a major con¬ The structure must also sustain loads.
cern in the general safety of the building. The safety objective in this case is to
provide some margin of structural capacity
A major portion of building code regu¬ beyond that strictly required for the actual
lations have to do with aspects of fire loads. Thus instead of being not strong
safety. Structural materials, systems, and enough or just strong enough, the structure
details of construction are rated for their should be somewhat stronger than it really
performance in fires on the basis of experi¬ needs to be. This extra strength is expressed
ence and extensive testing. Building de¬ by the safety factor, SF, which is defined as
signers must become familiar with these follows:
regulations since they constitute major
_ the actual capacity of the structure
constraints on the selection of materials ur ~ ] j
the required capacity of the structure
and use of details for the building construc¬
tion. As shown in Figure 1.3, if a structure is
Design of fire-safe buildings involves required to carry 40,000 lb and is actually
much more than the consideration of the able to carry 70,000 lb before collapsing,
behavior of the structure. Providing clear the safety factor is expressed as
paths and proper exits, avoiding combus¬
70,000
tible and toxic materials, providing detec¬ 1.75
40,000
tion and alarm systems, and providing
built-in firefighting devices—sprinklers, The desire for safety must be tempered
hose cabinets, standpipes, and so on—are by the need for economy. Although it may
all important. The design problem can also be comforting to the purchaser of a struc¬
be visualized as a race between the fire and ture to have a safety factor as high as 10, the
the exiting occupants. Figure 1.2 illustrates cost of all the extra structure may not be so

Figure 1.2 Concept of fire safety.

4 Introduction

made on the basis of simple linear propor¬

tionality of the stresses. For a true safety
1-- 1 V- ^
n n load factor of 2, therefore, the working stress is
often something other than the 50 percent
of ultimate stress that might be expected.
10,000 lb This and other difficulties with the
C=] □ , working stress method have prompted the
1_ C=i cn □ Q_-Z3 brea k inq

n n toad use of the other principal design technique,

called the strength design method. The
lo.ooo basis of this method is simple. The total
safety "factor =
4o ,ooo = I-"75 ; , load capacity of the structure at failure is
determined, and the allowable load is set at
Figure 1.3 Concept of structural safety.
the desired level simply by dividing the
failure load by the safety factor. In the
attractive. The average safety factor used design process, this, is achieved by multiply¬
universally for building structures is 2. ing the actual loads by the desired safety
There is no particular reason for this other factor and then designing the structure to
than experience. That is, there have been fail at this design load.
relatively few structural failures attributed With safety reasonably assured by ra¬
to design mistakes with the consistent use tional analysis, by testing of prototypes, or
of the average safety factor of 2. simply by experience, a structure may be
Actually the margin of safety cannot assumed to be acceptable in terms of life
always be established with a high degree of safety. Although this is of vital concern,
accuracy. As a result, the theoretical 50 there are many more considerations that
percent extra margin of strength implied by the designer must make in developing a
the safety factor of 2 is approximate. satisfactory structure.
Nevertheless, it does provide some general
protection against errors in the design and 1.3 FEASIBILITY
construction or in the estimation of the true
loading conditions. Structures must be built of real materials
In structural design work there are two using current production techniques. In
principal techniques for assuring the mar¬ general this means using products that are
gin of safety. One is called the working (or on the market and can be handled by
allowable) stress method. With this method existing production organizations and
the stress conditions under actual usage are craftspeople. To ensure the feasibility of
visualized and determined by testing or by their designs, building designers must have
mathematical modeling. Limits for these a reasonable grasp of the current inventory
stresses are set at some percentage of the of available materials, products, and pro¬
ultimate capacity of the materials used. cesses for building construction. Rapid
The margin of safety may be inferred from growth of technology and competition
the specific percentage used for the work¬ between producers creates a continuously
ing stress. expanding and changing body of such
A problem encountered in using the information. Keeping abreast of it is a
working stress method is that most struc¬ major challenge for designers.
tural materials do not behave in the same Just because something can be built is
manner near their ultimate failure limits as no reason that it should be. Feasibility is
they do at working load levels. Thus a not just a matter of technological potenti¬
precise prediction of failure cannot be alities but relates to the overall practicality
 Optimization 5

sary to bear in mind that the structure,

however important to life safety, is only
part of the whole building. The aggregate
cost of finish materials, doors and win-
-dows, roofing, insulation, plumbing, light¬
ing, air conditioning, and so on, may well
be several times the cost of the structure.
The result of this in many cases is that
comparison of alternative structures may
be less important in terms of the cost of the
structures themselves than in terms of their
clienF architect" influence on other factors of the building
Figure 1.4 Feasibility and economy: aspira¬ cost. A particular structure may have high
tion versus reality.
performance efficiency and low cost in its
own right but produce forms or details that
of a structure. This includes considerations make other aspects of the building con¬
such as the complexity of the design, dollar struction difficult and expensive with an
cost, time required for construction, ac¬ end result that is not real economy.
ceptability of products by code-enforcing
agencies, and so on. In some instances the
feasibility of even a simple idea may be 1.5 OPTIMIZATION
difficult to establish with reliability.
Building designers often are motivated by a
desire for originality, creativity, and indi¬
1.4 ECONOMY vidual expression. Aside from this, or in
addition to it, they are also usually striving
Buildings usually represent major financial for the best practical design in terms of
investments, and building investors are function and feasibility. Ideally the aim is
seldom carefree with their money, least of for the optimal solution: one that repre¬
all for building structures. Except for situa¬ sents the closest fit to the requirements and
tions in which the structure is exposed and that compromises least with limitations of
constitutes a major visible part of the cost, time, product availability, code re¬
building form and detail, structures are strictions, and so on. In many instances this
usually appreciated as little as the buried requires making decisions that represent
plumbing pipes, electrical wiring, and other balances between conflicting or opposing
hidden service elements of the building. considerations.
Although investors can be made to appre¬ Obvious conflicts are those between
ciate quality in hardware, light fixtures, or desires for safety, quality of finishes, gran¬
finish materials, they are less likely to deur of spaces, and general sumptuousness
appreciate expensive foundations, col¬ on the one hand and practical feasibility
umns, or roof beams. What is usually and economy on the other. All of these
desired of the structure is simple adequacy attributes may be important, but often
in terms of acceptable performance at changes that improve one factor tend to
lowest cost, regardless of the quality or degrade others. In terms of the structure,
prestige of the building. Hard-working, some specific attributes are
low-cost structures are generally very pop¬
ular. Low cost.
When dealing with economy, it is neces¬ Speedy construction.
6 Introduction

Fire resistance. Optimization in real design situations is

Strength and safety under loads. often elusive since the value of a design can
be measured in many different ways. Rank
Least weight.
ordering of the various attributes is usually
Resistance to wear or deterioration.
necessary, with dollar cost usually ending
Ease of assemblage. up high on the list. Thus the “best” solution
Few variations in the design will produce often must be qualified in terms of the
improvement in all of these. specific priorities used in the design.

Precast Cellular Concrete Slabs

Electrical

• Hollow cell Wires

• Channel slab

Second, screw Chase nipple for

Floor'.header „ bottom plate conduit connection
J— -Permanent cover plate into top
it »■!, ■ This adapter is
Partition ^ * also used as
outlet for ceiling
fixture
Floor outlet

Concrete
topping Flush Ceiling Outlet Box

Drill 4' hole in field

First, Bushed opening,
insert box ^ in top of box
Fixture
Conductor^ stud
'A V g v '■*

Second, affix Screws for

fixture bar

Figure 1.5 Integration of building service systems with the structure. (From Mechanical and
Electrical Equipment for Buildings, William McGuiness, Benjamin Stein, and John Reynolds,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, with permission.)
 Integration 7

1.6 INTEGRATION architectural design and on the develop¬

ment of the systems for power, lighting,
thermal control, ventilation, water supply,
Good structural design requires the inte¬ waste handling, and so on. Popular struc¬
gration of the structure into the whole tural systems have become so in many cases
physical system of the building. It is neces¬ partly because of their ability to accom¬
sary to realize the potential influences of modate the other subsystems of the build¬
structural design decisions on the general ing (see Figure 1.5).
 _ CHAPTER TWO _

Architectural » 4

Considerations
Buildings serve many purposes and take on mal, acoustic, air quality, precipitation,
a wide variety of forms and details to meet and so forth). Figure 2.1 shows the many
the requirements and fulfill the aspirations potential requirements of the external skin
of their users. Each building is also unique of the building. The skin is viewed as a
in its specific combination of location, selective filter that must block some things
orientation, and surroundings. while permitting the passage of others.
In some instances elements that serve a
structural purpose also fulfill some of the
filter functions of the building skin. When
2.1 USAGE REQUIREMENTS this is the case, properties other than
strictly structural ones must be considered
Some primary architectural functions that in the choice of materials and details of the
relate to the structure are structural elements. The choice of a partic¬
ular system of construction often can be
Need for shelter and enclosure. determined essentially by factors other
Need for interior spatial definition, sub¬ than structural behavior. Structural re¬
division, and separation. quirements cannot be ignored but fre¬
Need for unobstructed interior space. quently can be relatively minor as final
decision criteria, and when there are several
In addition to its basic force-resistive pur¬ viable structural options for a given situa¬
pose, the structure must serve to generate tion, the choice between them often will be
the building forms that relate to these basic made by considering additional factors.
architectural functions. When the need exists for complete
enclosure, the structure must either provide
2.1.1 Shelter and Enclosure it directly or facilitate the addition of other
elements to provide it. Solid walls and shell
Exterior building surfaces usually form a domes are examples of structures that
closed, continuous barrier between the provide naturally closed surfaces (see Fig¬
interior and exterior environments. This is ure 2.2). It may be necessary to enhance the
generally required for reasons of security basic structure with insulation, water¬
and privacy and often in order to protect proofing, and so on, to develop all of the
against hostile external conditions (ther¬ required skin functions, but the enclosure

8
 / INTERFACE
MESO ENVIRONMENT MACRO ENVIRONMENT
c ARCHITECTURAL ) ( TERRESTIAL )

< ■ -WINTER INSOLAT/ON

( INFRARED RAP/AT/OIU

WINTER. A/R TEMPERATURE.

(STILL. AIR )

WINTER WINDS

summer
SUMMER

SUMMER AIR
IN SOLA VON

TEMPERATURES
s 0
N
CV

I
CONOITION& ' STILL AIR )

UMMER&REELE

f— summer, humiPfry
<o
PRECip/TA t/on
( RAIN, SNOW ETC. }
o
g
4-PLEAS A Nr
y 'VNPLEASA NT- . -}
^-OUST
^—GASEOUS POLL UT/ON

•e/vAcy C vision in)

,
I
■WINTER, SUNSHINE 3
( VIS I EL E WA VE&AND)

^
'DAYL/GHT
NOWGLA/eE_

-ARTIFICIAL

PA zra/ess
ILLUMINATION
I
FR/ENDS
CUSTOMERS
i
^>1
EMPLOYEES

WTRUPStS, THIEVES

'ERMIN
(6
O
y—INSECTS

^ - POLLENS
O
^—MICROORGANISMS

iNUCLEAg, POLL UTtON

Figure 2.1 Functions of the exterior wall as a selective filter. From American Building 2: The
Environmental Forces That Shape It, 2nd Edition, Revised, by James Fitch. Copyright 1947,
1948 © 1972 by James Marston Fitch, Jr. Reprinted by permission of the publisher, Houghton
Mifflin Company.

9
10 Architectural Considerations

Figure 2.2 The self-skinning structure: a concrete shell surface. The St. Louis Planetarium.
Architects: Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum, St. Louis.

function is inherent in the structural form the ceiling for the spaces below that
system. level. These two functions generate sepa¬
Frame systems, however, generate open rate form restrictions, surface treatments,
structures that must be provided with attachments or incorporation of elements
added skin elements to develop the enclo¬ such as light fixtures, air circulation ducts
sure function (see Figure 2.3). In some and registers, and electrical power outlets.
cases the skin may interact structurally In addition, the floor-ceiling structure
with the frame; in other cases it may add must provide a barrier for sound transmis¬
little to the basic structural behavior. An sion and fire. As in the case of the building’s
example of the latter is a heavy steel frame exterior skin, the choice of the construction
for a high-rise building with a thin curtain system must be made with all necessary
wall of light metal and glass elements. functions in mind.

2.1.2 Interior Space Division 2.1.3 Generating Unobstructed Space

Few buildings consist of a single enclosed Housing of activities creates the need for
space. Most have interior space division producing unobstructed interior spaces.
producing separate rooms and often sepa¬ These spaces can be very small (small
rate levels. The structural elements used to bathrooms) or very large (sports arenas).
develop these interior forms must relate to Generating such spaces involves the basic
the functional requirements of the individ¬ structural task of spanning, illustrated in
ual spaces and to the various needs for the Figure 2.4.
separation of spaces. In multiple level The magnitude of the spanning prob¬
buildings the structural elements that form lem is determined by the load and the
the floor for one level must simultaneously distance to be spanned. As the span in-
 Architectural Elements 11

Figure 2.3 Building surface developed as an applied skin: plywood and stucco on a wood
frame.

creases, the magnitude of the required floors. These elements are assembled to
structural effort increases rapidly, and the create both space division and unob¬
options for the choice of the structural structed space. Before proceeding to con¬
spanning system narrow. The potentialities sider the structural tasks that are involved
and limitations of various spanning sys¬ in producing these elements we will con¬
tems are discussed in Chapter 5. sider some of the typical architectural
A particularly difficult problem is that elements and the general needs that they
of developing a large unobstructed space in imply.
the lower portion of a multiple level build¬
ing. As shown in Figure 2.5, this generates 2.2.1 Walls
a major load on the spanning structure. Walls are usually vertical and therefore
This is unusual, however, and most large lend themselves to the structural function
spanning structures consist only of roofs of supporting roofs and floors. Even when
for which the loads are relatively light. they do not serve as supports, they often
incorporate the columns or piers that do
serve this function. Thus the development
2.2 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
of roof and floor structures usually begins
Most buildings consist of combinations of with consideration of the wall systems over
three basic elements: walls, roofs, and which they span.
 12 Architectural Considerations

gravity -forces
1
ill
l l 1III
l l due to span
.... ^anera+es need “for
1 1 * 11 1 1
a spanning structure fo \_^—■ natural path ot
1 1 1 1 1 1
divert gravity forces from 1 1 1 1 1 I*"' gravity forces
1 1 | 1 1 1
their natural paths .... 1 1 * 1 1 1 1

T T 7f
natural resistive
■forces untlnout the
Spanning structure

J. l 1 l i i
.... in to vertical redirection ot the
supports and into force paths by the

concentrated loads on Spanning structure

the ■foundations

re d i s+r i bu7i on o-f

U
resistive -forces

Figure 2.4 The structural task of generating unobstructed interior space.

Walls can be classified in a number of

ways depending on their architectural and
structural functions. This identification is
the basis of many of the design decisions
regarding the choice of construction mate¬
rials and details. Some of the basic cate¬ spanning structure supporting root only

gories are:
versus

Structural Walls These walls serve essen¬

tial functions in the general structural
system of the building. A bearing wall
supports roofs, floors, or other walls. A
shear wall is used to brace the building
against horizontal forces, utilizing the stiff¬
ness of the wall in its own plane, as shown
in Figure 2.6.
Nonstructural Walls Actually there is no
such thing as a nonstructural wall, since the
least that any wall must do is hold itself up. spanning structure supporting

However, the term nonstructural is used to upper levels of the building

describe walls that do not contribute to the Figure 2.5 Load conditions for the spanning
general structural system of the building; structure.
 Architectural Elements 13

pressures. They may be relatively perma¬

nent, as when they enclose stairs, elevators,
duct shafts, or toilet rooms, but they are
often essentially partitions and can be built
as such.

Many walls must incorporate doors or

windows or provide hiding places for items
such as ducts, wiring, or piping. Walls of
hollow construction provide convenient
hiding places, whereas those of solid con¬
struction can present some problems in this
regard. Walls that are not vertical can
create problems with hanging objects such
as pictures or drapes. Walls that are not
straight in plan and wall intersections at
other than right angles can create problems
in the installation of doors and windows or
arrangement of furniture (see Figure 2.7).

2.2.2 Roofs

There are two primary functions that roofs

must perform: they must act as skin ele-

that is, they do not support or brace other

parts of the building. When they are built
on the exterior of the building they are
called curtain walls. On the interior they
are called partitions.
Exterior Walls Since they are part of the
building skin, exterior walls usually have a
number of required functions. Barrier and
filter functions are described in general in
Section 2.1.1. Wind forces create inward
holloa) versus solid uvalls
and outward (suction) pressures on the
building skin; thus exterior walls must
sustain these forces, transmitting them to
the lateral bracing system of the building.
Exterior walls are usually permanent parts
of the building construction as opposed to
some interior walls that can be relocated if
they are nonstructural.
Interior Walls Although some barrier
functions are usually required of any wall,
interior walls need not provide separation
non - vertical cualls
between the interior and exterior environ¬
ments and do not sustain direct wind Figure 2.7 Problems of wall form.
14 Architectural Considerations

ments of the building, and they must short in span, since flat-spanning systems
facilitate the runoff of water from rain or are relatively inefficient and loads are
melting snow. Therefore, the barrier and generally higher for floors than for roofs.
filter requirements of the skin must be met, Achieving large open spaces under floors is
and the roof geometry must relate to the considerably more difficult than under
gravity water drainage problem. Whereas roofs, especially since roof geometry is
floors generally must be flat, roofs gener¬ neither flat nor horizontal.
ally must not be. Some slope is required if
water is to drain from the roof surface. The
so-called flat roof must actually have some 2.3 FORM-SCALE
slope; typically a minimum of \ in./ft, ort RELATIONSHIPS
approximately 1.2° from the horizontal. In
addition to the slope provision, the com¬ There is a great variety of architectural
plete drainage operation must be developed spaces, and therefore there are many differ¬
so that the runoff water is collected in or ent categories of structural problems. The
dispersed to the gutters, area drains, scup¬ breakdown in Figure 2.8 illustrates vari¬
pers, spouts, or other elements that remove ables of form in terms of the interior space
it from the roof. division and of scale in terms of the unob¬
Floors are meant to be walked on; roofs structed span and height or the number of
generally are not. Thus in addition to being levels. Although this does not cover all
nonhorizontal roofs may be constructed of possible variations in buildings, it includes
materials or systems that are not rigid. The many typical ones that are sufficiently
ultimate expression of this possibility is a different to illustrate a range of structural
fabric surface held in position by tension situations. The following discussion deals
suspension or internal pressure. with some of the structural problems inher¬
Because of the freedom of geometry ent in the various situations represented in
and lack of a need for rigidity or solidity, Figure 2.8.
the structural options for the roof are more
numerous than those for floors. In addi¬ 2.3.1 Single Space
tion, the largest enclosed, unobstructed
spaces usually are spanned only by roofs. This type of building ordinarily represents
Thus most of the dramatic and exotic the greatest degree of freedom in the choice
spanning structures for buildings are those of the structural system. The building
used for roofs. basically requires only walls and a roof,
although a floor structure may be required
2.2.3 Floors if the building is elevated above the ground
surface. Some possible uses for such build¬
Floor structures are often dual in function, ings and the potential structural systems
serving both as a floor for upper spaces and are:
as a ceiling for lower spaces. The floor
function usually dictates the need for a flat, Small Scale (10 ft high, 15 ft span) This
horizontal geometry; thus most floor struc¬ includes small sheds, cabins, and single car
tures are of the flat-spanning category garages. The range of possible structural
(discussed in Chapter 5). Required barrier systems is considerable, including tents, air
functions for floor structures are derived inflated bubbles, ice block igloos, and mud
from the needs of the spaces that they huts, as well as more ordinary construction
separate. materials and systems (Figure 2.9).
Most floor structures are relatively Medium Scale (15 ft high, 30 ft span) This
 Form-Scale Relationships 15

one story mu It l pie

r—-\
wul+i-horiionta| space. leve 1
FORM \ Single
Space
Specie linear 2. - uuay
s
c
A
L_
E.
0
s nna 11 to1 high , 15' s pan 2 story

3 - (o
med turn 1 5* high, 3o' span
stor ies

2o +
1 arqe. 30 high , loo1 Span
stories

50 +
Super large 5o'+ high , 3oo' + Span
stories

Figure 2.8 Problems in form-scale relationships.

includes small stores, classrooms, and agri¬ often quite widely spaced, requiring a
cultural buildings. The 15 ft wall height is secondary spanning system to fill in be¬
just beyond the limit for two-by-four wood tween the major spanning elements. The
studs and the 30 ft span is beyond the usual loads from the major spanning elements
limit for solid wood joists or rafters on a will place highly concentrated forces on the
horizontal span. The use of a truss, a walls, often requiring the use of columns or
gabled frame, or some other more efficient piers. If the columns or piers are incorpo¬
spanning system becomes feasible at this rated in the wall plane, they can serve the
scale, although some flat decks or beam dual function of bracing the tall walls.
systems are also possible. Super Large Scale (50 ft+ high, 300 ft+
Large Scale (30 ft high, 100 ft+ span) This span) This includes large convention cen¬
includes gymnasiums, theaters, and show¬ ters and sports arenas. The wall becomes a
rooms. The 30 ft wall height represents a major structural element requiring con¬
significant structural problem, usually re¬ siderable bracing. The spanning structure
quiring a braced construction of some generally requires considerable height in
kind. This span is generally beyond the the form of distance from the top-to-
feasible limit for a flat-spanning beam bottom of truss elements, rise-to-span ratio
system, and the use of a truss, arch, or some of an arch, sag-to-span ratio of a cable, and
other system is usually required. Because of so on. (See the discussion of these types of
the size of the spanning elements, they are structures in Chapter 5.) The use of super
16 Architectural Considerations

Figure 2.9 Small-scale, single space buildings serve many functions, including gourmet dining.

efficient structural systems becomes a ne¬ essentially the same as those for the single
cessity at this range of span. space building. If adjacent spaces are sig¬
nificantly different in height or span, it may
2.3.2 Multiple Horizontal Space—Linear be desirable to change the system of con¬
struction, using systems appropriate to the
This category includes motels, small shop¬
scale of the individual spaces.
ping centers, and school classroom wings.
The linear multiplication may be done with
2.3.3 Multiple Horizontal Space—
walls that serve the dual functions of
Two-Way
supporting the roof and dividing the inte¬
rior spaces, or it may be done only in terms This category includes factories, stores,
of multiples of the roof structural system warehouses, and large single-story offices.
with no interior structure as such. The roof As with linear multiplication, the unit
system has somewhat less geometric free¬ repetition may be done with or without
dom than that of the single space building, interior walls, utilizing interior columns as
and a modular system of some kind is usu¬ supporting elements (Figure 2.12).
ally indicated (Figure 2.10). Constraints on plan and roof surface
Although space utilization and con¬ geometry are larger here than in linear
struction simplicity generally will be multiplication. The relative efficiency of
obtained with the linear multiplication of rectangular plan units becomes generally
rectangular plan units, there are some higher, although some other possibilities
other possibilities, as shown in Figure 2.11. exist. Modular organization and coordina¬
If units are spaced by separate connecting tion become increasingly logical in the
links, a higher degree of freedom can be development of structural systems.
obtained for the roof structure of the Continuity in spanning structures, al¬
individual units. though also possible with linear multiplica¬
Structural options of scale remain tion, becomes more useful when the multi-
 Form-Scale Relationships 17

Figure 2.10 Multiple horizontal spaces can be produced with a large number of structural
modules, one of the simplest being the repetition of simple bearing walls and roof joists.

plication is two-way. This concept is 2.3.4 Multilevel Space

discussed in Chapter 5 in connection with
flat-spanning structures. The jump from single to multiple levels has
Although still possible using linear some significant structural implications.
multiplication, roof structures that are
other than flat and horizontal become Need for a Framed Floor Structure This
increasingly less feasible for two-way is a spanning, separating element not
multiplication. Roof drainage becomes a inherently required for the single-story
major problem when the distance from the building.
center to the edge of the building is great. Need for Stacking of Support Elements
The pitch required for water runoff to an Lower elements must support upper ele¬
edge is often not feasible, in which case ments as well as the spanning elements
interior roof drains are .required. immediately above them. This works best if
Structural alternatives related to scale the elements are aligned vertically, and this
are generally the same as they are for the imposes a need to coordinate the building
single space building. The two-way multi¬ plans at the various levels.
plication of very large scale spaces is Increased Concern for Lateral Loads As
uncommon, and these structures tend to the building becomes tall, wind and earth¬
fall into the medium span category. As with quake loads impose greater overturning
linear multiplication, if adjacent spaces are effects as well as greater horizontal force in
significantly different in size, a change in general, and the design of lateral bracing
the structural system may be justified. becomes a major problem.
18 Architectural Considerations

system: deck + beams + fireproofing in

the example shown.
In many multistoried buildings a ceiling
is hung below the floor structure, and the
space between the ceiling and the underside
of the floor is used to hide various items
such as ducts, wiring, sprinkler piping, and
recessed light fixtures. From an architec¬
tural point of view, the critical depth of this
construction is the total out-to-out distance
, from the top of the floor finish to the
underside surface of the ceiling (B in the
illustration).
The floor-to-floor height, from finish
floor level to finish floor level, is this
construction depth plus the distance from
floor to ceiling at each story. Since the sum
of these dimensions equals the total build¬
ing height and volume, although only the
clear space is of real value, there is an
efficiency relatiQnship inherent in the ratio
of the two dimensions. This constrains the
depth allowed for the floor construction,
and pure structural efficiency is often com¬
promised in favor of other economic or
detail factors.
Figure 2.11 Linear plan multiples.
A critical limit for structural design is
the dimension permitted for the largest
elements of the spanning system. This limit
Vertical Penetration of the Structure Ele¬
(C in Figure 2.13) must be established
vators, stairs, duct shafts and chimneys
cooperatively by the designers of the var¬
must be carried upward through the hori¬
ious building subsystems.
zontal structure at each level, and the
spanning systems must accommodate these Sometimes it is possible to avoid plac¬
penetrations. ing the largest of the contained elements
(usually air ducts) under the largest of the
Increased Foundation Loads As the spanning structural elements. Some tech¬
building increases in height without an niques for accomplishing this are shown in
increase in plan size, the total vertical Figure 2.14. Large ducts can be run parallel
gravity load for each unit of plan area to the largest beams so that only smaller
increases. This generally creates a need for branch ducts need fit below the larger
very heavy foundations. structural elements. If the type of beam
used permits it, the beam depth can be
The existence of many levels also varied, and the larger ducts can be placed
creates a design problem in establishing a under the shallower portions of the beams.
limit for the structural depth of the flat- This is sometimes done with highway
spanning systems at each level. As shown in bridges. In some cases it is possible to use
Figure 2.13, the critical depth of the struc¬ the full height of the space for the largest
ture (A in the illustration) is the distance beams and to pierce the beams for the
from the top to the bottom of the spanning passage of ducts.
Figure 2.12 Two-way multiplication of horizontal spaces, achieved here at a medium scale
with a common system: steel posts and beams and light steel trusses covered with a light formed
sheet steel deck.

Figure 2.13 Dimensional relationships in floor-ceiling systems for multistory buildings. A:

total depth of the structure. B: total depth of the floor-ceiling construction. C: net usable depth
for the major spanning elements.

19
20 Architectural Considerations

nent interior features, such as stairs, eleva¬

tors, toilet rooms, and duct shafts.
Columns or walls at the periphery of the
building.

Freestanding interior columns tend to

be annoying from an architectural plan¬
ning point of view, since they restrict the
placement of doors and hallways and are
usually not desirable objects within rooms.
They are alsa clumsy to incorporate into
relatively thin interior walls, as shown in
Figure 2.16. They produce lumps in walls
that interfere with the placement of furni¬
ture and the swing of doors. Planning
decisions must be made whether to divide
the lump between spaces [(c), (c), and (/) in
Figure 2.16] or to put the entire lump in one
space [(a), (b), and (d) in Figure 2.16].
This annoyance has motivated some
designers to pl&n multiple level buildings
with very few, if any, freestanding interior
columns. The middle illustration in Figure
Figure 2.14 Accommodating air ducts in the
2.15 shows a plan in which the permanent
floor-ceiling system.
interior elements (stairs, duct shafts, etc.)
have been arranged to provide the neces¬
An important architectural aspect of sary interior support for the spanning
the multiple level building is the plan of the structure without the use of freestanding
vertical supporting elements, since these columns. The lower illustration in Figure
represent fixed items around which the 2.15 shows another approach in which
architectural spaces must be arranged. Be¬ bearing walls have been substituted for
cause of the stacking required, the vertical interior columns, a solution frequently
structural elements are a constant condi¬ used for motels, dormitories, and other
tion at each level, despite possible changes buildings with fixed, modular room ar¬
in architectural functions at the different rangements. The latter solution is generally
levels. An apartment building with parking limited to relatively low-rise buildings,
in the lower levels presents the problem of since the walls must be thicker in the lower
developing a layout for the vertical sup¬ levels if the building is very tall.
ports that works for both the multiple When columns are placed at the build¬
parking spaces and the rooms of the apart¬ ing periphery, their relationship to the
ments. building skin wall has great bearing on the
Vertical structural elements are usually exterior appearance as well as the interior
walls or columns, situated in three possible planning. Figure 2.17 shows the five pos¬
ways, as shown in Figure 2.15: sible positions for columns relative to the
exterior wall plane. Each of these options
Isolated and freestanding columns or walls has various merits and problems.
in the interior of the building. Although freestanding columns (a) are
Columns or walls at locations of perma¬ the least desirable, they can be tolerated
 Form-Scale Relationships 21

free • s+and i ntj columns

columns of permanenf inferior Walls

columns a+ building periphery

elimina+ion of free - stand in^

inferior columns provides maximum
inferior unobstructed space

use of permanent interior walls

as bearing walls reduces the

architectural interference of

the structure

Figure 2.15 Development of vertical supports in multilevel buildings.

architecturally if they are small (as in a low rior column also creates a potential prob¬
rise building) and are of an unobtrusive lem with thermal expansion, as discussed
shape (round, octagonal, etc.). In some in Chapter 3.
cases they can be treated as features of the If the wall and column are joined, three
design. In framed structures of wood or possibilities are shown in Figure 2.17 at (b),
steel the cantilevered edge usually presents (c), and (d), for the usually thick column
a clumsy problem. In poured concrete and usually thin wall. For a smooth exte¬
structures, however, the cantilever is sim¬ rior building surface the column lump is
ply achieved and may even be a structural placed on the inside, although this creates
advantage in that it reduces the stress on the same planning interference discussed
the interior spans and aids transfer of force for interior columns. If the wall is aligned
to the columns. with the inside edge of the column, the
Placing the columns totally outside the interior surface will be smooth, but the
wall (e) eliminates both the interior plan¬ outside will be dominated by the vertical
ning lump and the cantilevered edge. A ridges of the columns. The least useful
continuous exterior ledge is produced that scheme is to place the column midway in
can be used as a sun shield, for window the wall plane, since this produces the same
washing, or as a balcony. However, unless exterior form as (d) in Figure 2.17 while
some such use justifies it, the ledge may be a retaining the undesirable interior lump.
nuisance in creating water runoff and dirt In tall buildings, the size of columns
accumulation problems. The totally exte¬ usually varies from top to bottom, al-
 22 Architectural Considerations

though it is actually possible to achieve

some range of strength without significant
change in the outer finished dimensions of
the columns, as shown in Figure 2.19.
Although some designers prefer the more
honest expression of function represented
by varying the column size, planning
details are often simplified by the use of
more uniform column size.
The planning lump problem of interior
columns usually makes it desirable to
reduce the column size as much as possible.
If size changes are required in lower levels,
the usual procedure is to have the column
grow concentrically, as shown in Figure
2.20. Exceptions are columns at the edges
of stairwells or elevator shafts, where it is
usually desirable to keep the inside surface
of the shaft vertically aligned.

spe^ndire \
section

Figure 2.17 Relation of structure to the build¬

ing skin.

C
For exterior columns size change pat¬
terns are related to the column-to-skin wall
relationship. If the wall is aligned with the

r J inside edge of the column, there are several

ways to let it grow in size without changing
this alignment (Figure 2.21).
In very tall buildings the problem of

nr lateral bracing for resistance to wind and

earthquake forces often becomes a major
consideration in the development of the
structure and consequently in the develop¬

nr
Figure 2.16 Columns incorporated into inte¬
ment of architectural planning and detail¬
ing. In regions of high earthquake prob¬
ability or frequent wind storms, the lateral
bracing problem may be critical even for
rior walls. short buildings.
 The Building-Ground Relationship 23

parking. The insulating effect of the ground

can be useful for interior thermal control in
extreme climates, since the ground tem¬
perature stays relatively constant year-
ropnd. All exterior surfaces must deal with
the soil pressure, water penetration, and
deterioration conditions caused by contact
with the ground, which strongly limits the
choice of materials for the exterior walls.
If the distance below the ground surface
is great, the soil load on the roof limits the
feasibility of spanning large unobstructed
interior spaces. Exterior walls generally
will be unpenetrated, although the passage
of people, air, and various building services
must be dealt with. There is no concern for
wind loads, and designing for resistance to
earthquake forces is somewhat different
below ground.

2.4.2 Ground Level Roof

Figure 2.22b illustrates a situation similar

to the totally submerged building, except
that the single surface exposed to the air
offers some possibilities for direct light and
ventilation. This condition may be ex¬
ploited as shown in Figure 2.23 to reduce
occupants’ feelings of being buried as well
as to gain additional light and air.
Roof loading is less critical in this case
Figure 2.18 Relative position of the building than in the case of submerged building,
skin: (a) outside the structure, (b) in the same although it is likely to have some traffic
plane as the structure, and (c) inside the struc¬ requiring the use of paving. The weight of
ture, with freestanding exterior columns. the paving plus the load of traffic will
constitute a load considerably higher than
2.4 THE BUILDING-GROUND the usual one for a roof above ground level.
RELATIONSHIP The feasibility of large unobstructed spaces
will depend essentially on the roof load.
As shown in Figure 2.22, there are five Limitations on materials for the sur¬
basic variations of this relationship. faces in contact with the ground are the
same as for the submerged building. The
2.4.1 Subterranean Building roof surface is likely to be penetrated with
openings for air, plumbing vents, and so
Figure 2.22a illustrates a rather uncommon on, and with provision for entry and light,
situation that includes such uses as bomb unless the techniques shown in Figure 2.23
shelters, subway stations, and underground are used.
 24 Architectural Considerations

low concrete strength ^

low °Ja of reinforcing

Ioi*j steel strength

can effect str ength
reinforced
change up to lO to I
concrete
column
> UJith no change in

outer finished size

high concrete s+rength

high °7o of reinforcing

high steel strength

J

lou> steel strength

thin UJe b and flanges

can e'f'feci- strength

steel change up to 'ZO to |
fire - proofing jacket
column uu i th n o change in

outer finished size

high strength steel

thick uj&b and ft cm^es

plus redded pla + es

Figure 2.19 Variation in column strength with minor change in size.

2.4.3 Partially Submerged Building through the substructure and into the
ground.
If the building is partly above and partly Substructures are usually built of con¬
below ground (Figure 2.22c and Figure crete or masonry. If the superstructure is
2.24), it often consists of two structural also built of concrete or masonry, there
elements: the superstructure (above may be some continuity in the systems of
ground) and the substructure (below the two elements. If the superstructure is
ground). The substructure will have all built of wood or steel, the building will
the problems that submerged buildings literally consist of two structures, one on
have. In addition, it must support the su¬ top of the other.
perstructure. If the superstructure is The superstructure must deal with the
very tall, the vertical loads will be high, various barrier and filter functions illus¬
and a major task for the substructure will trated in Figure 2.1. Penetration of the
be the transfer of these loads to the founda¬ surfaces for door and window openings
tions. The horizontal forces of winds or must be facilitated by the superstructure.
earthquakes must also be transferred The superstructure is externally visible
 The Building-Ground Relationship 25

2.4.4 Grade Level Floor

Years ago basements were common. They

were usually required for the housing of
gravity heating systems and for storage of
the wood or coal used as an energy source.
They were also useful for prerefrigeration
food storage, wind storm shelters, and junk
storage. The advent of forced circulation
heating systems, refrigeration, and high
cost of construction has limited the use of
basements unless they are needed for park¬
ing or housing of extensive equipment.
Figure 22d illustrates a building with the
floor at grade level and without a basement.
If there is no substructure, the building
is reduced to a superstructure and a foun¬
Figure 2.20 Patterns of size increase for inte¬
dation. If the building is short and vertical
rior colurqns.
loads are low, the foundations can be
minimal. If there is no frost problem and
surface level soils are adequate, the foun¬
while the substructure largely is not; thus dations can extend a very short distance
the appearance of the superstructure is below the ground surface. In addition, if it
generally of greater concern in architec¬ is functionally acceptable and the ground
tural design. surface soils permit it, the floor at ground

Figure 2.21 Patterns of size increase for exterior columns.

 I

Figure 2.22 Building-ground relationships.

Figure 2.24 Partly submerged building. A major portion of the interior space in this building is
below the ground. Page Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits, Los Angeles, California. Architects:
Thornton, Fagan, Associates, Pasadena, California.

26
 Adjacency Conditions 27

totally independent system.

a larc^e building uji + Ii a

small foundation may lack

The bottom floor of such buildings
resistance to effects of
must be designed for the barrier and filter
UJind and earilic^uakes
functions of the building skin. In addition,
its underside is often visible, becoming an
ice can be increased t>\
unusual design problem.
Support structures may be quite modest
if the buildings they support are not large
increasing The mass or imposing. However, if the open span
of fbe foundations beneath the building is great or the height
above the ground considerable, the support
structure may become a dominant element
or of the building. Since most buildings are
approached at ground level, the support
usinij soil fill structure and exposed underside of the
on the foundations building are important architectural design
as ba 11ast issues.

Figure 2.25 Problems of anchoring above¬

2.5 ADJACENCY CONDITIONS
ground buildings.

Adjacency concerns the conditions that

level can be a simple paving of the ground
exist at the boundaries of individual archi¬
surface, called a slab on grade.
tectural spaces. If an individual space is
A problem that can develop with a light
visualized as a box with six surfaces (the
building having no basement is that the
top, bottom, and four sides), we can deal
absence of the heavy substructure critically
with adjacency in terms of the following
reduces resistance to the horizontal move¬
separate considerations.
ment or toppling (called overturn) effects
caused by wind and earthquakes. Thus
Individual Surface Identity Which of the
even though only minimal foundations
surfaces is being considered: the ceiling, the
may be required for gravity loads, they
floor, or one of the walls?
would have to be increased in mass or
Adjacent Situation What is on the other
ballasted with soil fill to provide the neces¬
sary anchorage for the building (see Figure side of the boundary surface: open air,
ground, or another occupied space?
2.25).
Character of the Surface Is the boundary
2.4.5 Above-Ground Building surface solid, partly open (with a door,
window, or open archway), or totally open?
As shown in Figures 2.22e and 2.26, build¬ If totally open it is not actually a structural
ings are sometimes built on legs, are boundary but functions as an architectural
cantilevered, or are suspended from span¬ boundary achieved by visual means, by
ning structures so that they are literally in landscaping, or with furniture or other
midair. The support structures must be objects rather than with walls.
built on or into the ground, but the build¬
ing has no direct contact with the ground. Figure 2.27 shows three examples of
The support structure may be either an adjacency situations for a six-sided, box¬
extension of the building structure or a shaped space. At (a) the space has all six
 I100000009

r\i i x^rr

Figure 2.26 Buildings above the ground.

b
Figure 2.27 Adjacency situations for building spaces.
 Adjacency Conditions 29

sides adjacent to open air. This establishes cold weather, frost heave, and so on.
various relationships for the surfaces: The form of two walls is restricted by the
adjacent space use.
All surfaces are interior-exterior filters. At (c) in Figure 2.27 the space is entirely
All surfaces are free of constraints caused within the building mass with all six sides
by adjacent spaces, except possibly the adjacent to other occupied spaces, result¬
floor if the space below the building has ing in the following:
some functions.
No possible openings for air, sunlight, or
All sides may have openings for air, light, exterior vision.
vision, passage of people, and so on.
No need for interior-exterior filter func¬
At (b) in Figure 2.27 the top is adjacent tions.
to the air, the bottom to the ground, two Some form of constraint on all sides.
adjoining walls to air, and the opposite two
Need for dual-functioning top and bottom
adjoining walls to neighboring occupied
spanning structural systems, each serving
spaces. This produces a situation in which
as both floor and ceiling.
three surfaces are similar to those in (a),
but the others are constrained as follows: The number of theoretical possibilities
for the adjacency variations of a single
The bottom sits on the ground, eliminating Space is enormous. However, practical
the need for a framed floor, but possibly considerations of use tend to rule out all
resulting in problems of moisture, chill in but a relatively few real situations.
 CHAPTER THREE

Structural
Functions
In the preceding chapter the role of the Gravity
structure is discussed in terms of its relation¬
ships to the various uses and architectural Source Weight of the structure and other
design considerations for the building. Now parts of the building; weight of occupants
let us consider the problems of the structure and contents; weight of snow, ice, or water
on the roof.
created in performing its various load
resisting functions. The basic issues to be Calculation By determination of the vol¬
dealt with are: ume, density and type of dispersion of
items.
The load sources and their effects.
What the structure accomplishes in terms Application Vertically downward; con¬
of its performance as a supporting, span¬ stant in magnitude.
ning, or bracing element.
Wind
What happens to the structure internally as
it performs its various tasks. Source Moving air.
What is involved in determining the neces¬
Calculation From anticipated wind veloc¬
sary structural elements and systems for
ities established by local weather history.
specific required tasks.
Application As pressure (perpendicular
to surfaces) or frictional drag (parallel to
3.1 LOADS
surfaces); basically as a horizontal force
from any compass point direction, although
In the general sense the term load refers to
aerodynamic flow can result in vertical
any effect that results in a need for some
effects on some surfaces.
resistive effort on the part of the structure.
There are thus many different sources for Earthquakes (Seismic shock)
loads and many ways in which they can be
classified. Source Shaking of the ground as a result
of movement along faults.
3.1.1 Load Sources Calculation By prediction of the proba¬
bility of occurrence taking into account the
The principal kinds and sources of loads on history of the area and recorded motions
building structures are the following. from previous quakes.

30
 Loads 31

Application Back-and-forth, up-and- by heavy machinery, moving vehicles, or

down movement of the ground on which high intensity sounds.
the building sits; the actual force on the
structure is caused by the inertial effect of Internal actions Forces may be generated
the weight of the building. by. the settling of supports, slippage or
loosening of connections, warping of parts,
Blast and so on.

Source Explosion of bomb, projectile, or Handling Forces may be exerted on ele¬

volatile materials. ments of the structure during production,
Calculation As pressure, depending on erection, transportation, storage, remodel¬
the size of the explosion and proximity of ling, and so on. These are not indicated by
the structure. the use of the structure in the finished
building but must be dealt with in the
Application Highly dynamic inward and production of the building.
outward pressure on surfaces of building.
3.1.2 Live and Dead Loads
Hydraulic pressure
In building design a distinction is made
Source Principally from ground water
levels above the bottom of the basement. between so-called live and dead loads. A
dead load is essentially a permanent load,
Calculation As direct fluid pressure pro¬ such as the weight of the structure itself and
portionate to the depth of the fluid. the weight of permanent parts of the build¬
ing construction. A live load is technically
Application As horizontal pressure on
anything that is not permanently applied as
basement walls and upward pressure on
force on the structure. However, the spe¬
basement floors.
cific term “live load” is generally used in
Thermal change building codes to refer to the assumed
design loads in the form of dispersed load
Source Temperature variations in the on roof and floor surfaces as a result of the
building materials from fluctuations in out¬ location and the particular usage of the
door temperature and inside-outside tem¬
building.
perature differences.

Calculation From weather histories, inter¬ 3.1.3 Static Versus Dynamic Forces
nal design temperatures, and coefficients of
expansion for building materials. A slightly different distinction is that be¬
tween static and dynamic force effects. This
Applications Forces exerted on structure distinction essentially has to do with the
if free expansion is restrained; distortions time-dependent character of the force. Thus
within structure if connected parts differ in the weight of the structure produces a static
temperature. effect, unless the structure is suddenly
moved or stopped from moving, at which
Shrinkage Volume reduction occurs in
time a dynamic effect occurs through the
concrete, in the mortar joints of masonry,
inertia or momentum of the mass of the
and in wet clay soils, and may produce
structure. The more sudden the start or
forces similar to those caused by thermal
stop, the greater the dynamic effect (see
change.
Figure 3.1).
Vibration In addition to earthquake ef¬ Other dynamic forces are produced by
ocean waves, earthquakes, blasts, sonic
fects, vibration or shaking may be caused
 32 Structural Functions

effect- of vibro.fions on fhe sense

of solidify of ck building

Figure 3.1 Static and dynamic force effects.

booms, vibration of heavy machines, and stiff and absorbs the energy almost entirely
the bouncing effects of walking people or in the form of shocks to the material. In
moving vehicles. The effects of dynamic evaluating dynamic force effects and the
forces are very different from those of static response of structures to them, both of
forces. A light steel-framed building, for these considerations must be made: the
instance, may be very strong in resisting behavior of the structure itself and the
static forces, but a dynamic force may cause effects on its usefulness.
large distortions or vibrations, resulting in
cracking of plaster, loosening of structural 3.1.4 Load Dispersion
connections, and so forth. A heavy ma¬
sonry structure, although possibly not as Forces are distinguished by the manner of
strong as the steel frame for static load, has their dispersion. Gas under pressure in a
considerable stiffness and dead weight and container exerts a pressure that is uniform
thus may absorb the energy of the dynamic in all directions at all points. The dead load
force without any perceptible movement. of roofing, the weight of snow on a flat
In the example just cited, the effect of roof, and the weight of water on the flat
the force on the function of the structure bottom of a tank are all loads that are
was described. This may be entirely distinct uniformly distributed on a surface. The
from the effect on the structure itself. The weight of a beam or a cable is a load that is
steel frame is flexible and responds with uniformly distributed along a line. The foot
motions that may be objectionable. How¬ of a column or the end of a beam represents
ever, from a structural point of view it is loads that are concentrated at a relatively
probably more resistive to dynamic force small location (see Figure 3.2).
than the masonry structure. Steel is ductile Randomly dispersed live loads may
and the flexible frame dissipates some of result in unbalanced conditions or in rever¬
the energy of the dynamic load through its sals of internal forces in the structure (see
motion, similar to a boxer rolling with a Figure 3.3). The shifting of all the pas¬
punch. Masonry, in contrast, is brittle and sengers to one side of a ship can cause its
 Loads 33

this direct striking force, there are a number

of other phenomena caused by the aero¬
dynamic flow of the fluid air. The principal
effects of these phenomena are shown in
Figure 3.4. The shape and texture of the
building surface and the number and loca¬
tion of openings will affect air flow and
modify wind effects.
Although for practical purposes gravity
is a constant magnitude, single direction
force, wind is variable in both direction and
magnitude. Wind storms are usually accom¬
panied by gusts, or sudden, brief surges in
load S the wind velocity, which tend to cause struc¬
tures to rock or jerk. Although usually
Figure 3.2 Dispersion of loads.
directed parallel to the ground surface,
a.
wind can cause aerodynamic effects in
other orientations resulting in inward or
outward pressures on any of the building
surfaces.
Wind magnitude is measured in terms
of the velocity of the moving air. The effect
on buildings generally is translated into
pressure on exposed surfaces and is mea¬
sured in units such as pounds per square
foot. It is a basic law of physics that this

s I id i ntj

col lo. pse

capsizing. A concentration of load in one
span of a beam that is continuous through
several spans may result in upward deflec¬
tion in adjacent spans or lifting of the beam -tipping or over + urn
from some supports. Since live loads are
generally variable in occurrence, location,
and sometimes even in direction, several
)ushi nq suit •faces
combinations of them must be considered
in order to determine the worst effects on
the structure.
ouf >urf aces
3.1.5 Wind

•-1
Wind is moving air and thus has an impact J

on any static object in its path, just as water clean-off effec+

flowing in a stream has a pushing, surging

impact on a rock or a pier. In addition to Figure 3.4 Wind effects on buildings.
34 Structural Functions

pressure varies with the square of the veloc¬ 3.1.6 Earthquakes

ity, and a formula used for the approxima¬
tion of wind force on the building is Earthquakes are the sources of various
disastrous effects on buildings. The primary
p = 0.003 V2
direct effect is the shaking of the ground
in which p is in units of pounds per square produced by the shock waves that emanate
foot, V in miles per hour, and the constant from the center of the earthquake. The
accounts for the units as well as general rapidity, magnitude, and duration of this
considerations of the situation. These con¬ shaking depends on the intensity of the
siderations include factors in the basic quake and on various geological character-
physics relationship and the assumptions of ■ istics of the eapth between the building and
an average size building of closed form with the center of the quake.
flat surfaces sitting on the ground. A plot of The shaking effect of an earthquake
this equation is shown in Figure 3.5. Local may be a source of serious distress to the
weather histories are used to establish the building or its occupants. The force effect
maximum anticipated wind velocities for a on the structure is directly related to the
given location, which are then used to weight of the building and is modified by
determine the logical design for the build¬ various properties of the structure itself. As
ings in that area to withstand such pressure. its base is moved, the upper structure at

Tornado center (estimate)

Violent hurricane

Hurricane

Windstorm periphery

Stiff breeze

Mild breeze

Pressure on a vertical surface

p = lbs/ft2
Figure 3.5 Relation of wind velocity to pressure on buildings. (From Simplified Building
Design for Wind and Earthquake Forces, James Ambrose and Dimitry Vergun, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1980, with permission.)
 Loads 35

first resists moving. This results in the are still designed using simpler calculations
distortion of the structure, since the base is in which earthquake effects are translated
displaced while the upper part of the struc¬ into equivalent static forces on the building.
ture remains stationary. As the shaking In addition to the direct shaking action,
continues, the upper portion of the building there are other potential destructive effects
begins to move and develops momentum. from earthquakes:
This must be resisted or the building will
slide, topple, or collapse. Settling, crackling, or lateral shifting of the
Continued shaking through many cy¬ ground surface.
cles of motion during an earthquake of long Landslides, avalanches, rock falls, or gla¬
duration subjects the building to a complex cier faults.
series of oscillations. If the structure is tall
Tidal waves that can travel long distances
and flexible, modes of vibration may be set
and cause major damage to coastal areas.
up resulting in whiplashlike effects, as
shown in Figure 3.6. If the structure is short Bursting of dikes, dams, reservoirs, or large
water tanks causing flooding or washouts.
and stiff, however, its motion will be essen¬
tially the same as the ground’s. Precise Explosions and fires caused by broken gas
determination of earthquake effects on or oil pipelines.
structures is complex and is only feasible
using a computer. Although computers are It is virtually impossible to design build¬
widely available, the majority of buildings ings that resist these effects beyond con-

ground motion
( 7

Figure 3.6 Earthquake effects on tall structures. (From Simplified Design for Wind and
Earthquake Forces, James Ambrose and Dimitry Vergun, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980,
with permission.)
 36 Structural Functions

sidering their likelihood in selecting the

location of the building. The only security I" — applied load 3

that can be assumed is in low statistical ( +ota1 load

likelihood of the occurrence of such phe¬ | on sfruc+uv-e
nomena. I_.— u>eiqh + o-f \ *
s + i'uc.+uve J (
3.1.7 Load Combinations J ^ V haus + be in

--reaction -force
A difficult judgment for the designer is that
of the likelihood of the simultaneous occur¬
rence of various forces. Combinatioris
Figure 3.7 Reaction for a column.
must be considered carefully to determine
those that cause critical situations and that
have some reasonable possibility of actual is referred to as the state of static equilib¬
simultaneous occurrence. For example, it rium.
is generally considered unreasonable to Figure 3.8 shows the reaction forces
design for the simultaneous occurrence of required for various spanning structures.
the highest anticipated wind velocity and For the beam the reactions consist of two
the strongest earthquake. It is also not vertical forces whose sum must be equal to
possible for the wind to blow from two the sum of the applied loads plus the beam
separate directions at the same time, al¬ weight. If the applied load is not symmet¬
though wind from all directions must be rical, these two reaction forces will not be
individually considered. equal, although their sum must still be
equal to the total load on the beam.
For the gable frame the reactions must
3.2 REACTIONS provide horizontal as well as vertical resis¬
tance, even though the load on the struc¬
Successful functioning of the structure in ture is entirely vertical. The horizontal
resisting various loads involves two con¬ forces are required to keep the frame from
siderations. The structure must have suf¬ moving outward at the supports. The net
ficient internal strength and stiffness to reaction forces are thus combinations of
redirect the loads to its supports without the vertical and horizontal force compo¬
developing undue stress on the materials or nents required for the complete equilib¬
an undesirable amount of deformation in rium of the structure.
the form of sag, stretching, twisting, and so The arch and the cable also require
on. In addition, the supports for the struc¬ both horizontal and vertical reaction com¬
ture must keep the structure from moving ponents. When the cable sag or the arch
or collapsing. These support forces are rise is low in comparison to the span, the
called the reactions. horizontal component is very large. Thus
Figure 3.7 shows a column supporting a the magnitude of the force of compression
load that generates a linear compressive in the arch or tension in the cable may be
effect. The reaction generated by the sup¬ considerable, even though the vertical load
port must be equal in magnitude and on the span is relatively low.
opposite in sense (up versus down) to the There is another type of reaction effort
combined load, which is the sum of the that can be visualized by considering the
applied load plus the weight of the column. situation of the cantilever beam, as shown
The balancing of the active loads and the in Figure 3.9. Since there is no reaction
reactions produces the necessary static force at the free end of the beam, the
condition for the structure. This condition support must develop resistance to rotation
 Reactions 37

Figure 3.8 Reactions for various spanning structures.

of the beam end as well as to the vertical their original positions but will still rotate,
loads on the beam. This rotational effect is as shown in (b). Finally, if a moment
called moment and has a unit that is resistance is developed by the supports, the
different from that of direct force. Force is column bottoms can be held completely in
measured in weight units: pounds, tons, their original positions, as shown in (c).
and so on. The moment effect is a product For this total resistance to movement at the
of force times distance, producing a unit of supports, the reactions must develop all
pound-feet or some other combination of three components as shown.
force and length units. The total reaction of The applied loads and support reac¬
the cantilever therefore consists of two tions for a structure constitute what is
components that cannot be combined: the called the external force system that oper¬
vertical force (Rv) and the resisting mo¬ ates on the structure. This system of forces
ment (Rm). is in some ways independent of the struc¬
For the rigid frame shown in Figure ture. That is, the external force system
3.10 there are three possible components of must be in equilibrium if the structure is to
the reactions. If vertical force alone is be functional, regardless of the materials,
resisted at the supports, the bottoms of the strength, stiffness, and so on, of the struc¬
frame columns will move outward and ture itself. However, the form of details of
rotate, as shown in (a). If horizontal resis¬ the structure may affect the nature of the
tance is developed, as is shown for the required reactions, as illustrated in Figures
gable, the arch, and the cable in Figure 3.8, 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10. The span and the applied
the column bottoms can be pushed back to loads may be the same for the beam, the

applied load total load

/
R, \
j- V

'( /

(joeigbt of
com ponen+s £-J\
J t

O-f reaction rotational effect

beam
of loads
Figure 3.9 Reactions for a cantilever beam.
38 Structural Functions

gable, the arch, the cable, and the rigid developed within a structure as the material
frame, but the required reactions will be of the structure strives to resist the defor¬
affected by the specific structure. mations caused by the external effects.
These internal force effects are generated
3.3 INTERNAL FORCES by stresses in the material of the structure.
The stresses are actually incremental forces
In response to the external effects of loads within the material, and they result in
and reactions, certain internal forces are incremental deformations, called strains.

3.3.1 Cause and Effect: External

■ Versus Internal Force

When subjected to external forces a struc¬

ture twists, sags, stretches, shortens, and so
on. Or, to be more technical, it stresses and
strains thus assuming some new shape as
the incremental strains accumulate into
overall dimensional changes. While stresses
are not visually apparent, their accom¬
panying strains often are.
As shown in Figure 3.11, a man stand¬
ing on a wooden plank that spans two
supports will cause the plank to sag down¬
ward and assume some curved profile. The
sag may be visualized as the manifestation
of a strain phenomenon accompanied by a
stress phenomenon. In this example the
principal cause of the structure’s deforma¬
tion is bending resistance called internal
moment. The stresses associated with this
internal force action are horizontally di¬
rected compression in the upper portion of
the plank and horizontally directed tension
in the lower portion. Anyone could have
predicted that the plank would assume a
sagged profile when the man stepped on it;
but we can also predict the deformation as
an accumulation of the strains, resulting in
the shortening of the upper portion and the
lengthening of the lower portion of the
plank.
For the relatively thin wooden plank,
the bending action and strain effects are
quite apparent. If the plank is replaced by a
thick wooden beam, the sag may not be
visually perceptible with a light load and
short span. However, the internal bending
still occurs and the sag, however slight,
Figure 3.10 Reactions for a rigid frame. does exist. For structural analysis we exag-
 Internal Forces 39

com pression/shor+en i n<

r
tension / leng+heni rug

causes

Figure 3.11 Internal bending.

gerate deformed profiles, considering 3.3.2 Stability

structures to be considerably more flexible
than they generally are. Stability has both simple and complex
Because the phenomena of stress and connotations. In the case of the wooden
strain are inseparable, it is possible to infer plank it is essential that there be two
one from the other. This allows us to supports and that the man stand between
visualize the nature of internal force effects the supports. As shown in Figure 3.12, if
by imagining the exaggerated form of the the plank extends over one support, and
deformed structure under load. In a further the man stands on the extended end,
extension of this idea, we may actually disaster will certainly occur unless a coun¬
quantify the relationship of stress to strain terweight is placed on the plank or the
for a particular material and use this plank is nailed to the opposite support. In
relationship in structural load testing to this case the counterweight or nails are
infer quantified stresses from measured necessary for the stability of the structure.
strains. Thus although the stresses cannot A slightly different problem of stability
be seen, the strains can, and so-called stress is illustrated by another simple example.
measurement is actually strain measure¬ Suppose you have a sore foot and want to
ment. use a walking stick to assist your travel.
Any structure subjected to loads must You are offered a J in. round wooden
have certain characteristics in order to stick and a i in. round steel rod, each 3 ft
function. For purposes of structural action long. After handling both, you would
it must be inherently stable, must have probably choose the wooden stick, since
adequate strength for an acceptable margin the steel rod would buckle under your
of safety, and must have a reasonable weight. This buckling action can be readily
resistance to deformation. These three visualized, demonstrated, and measured.
characteristics—stability, strength, and The essential property of a structure that
stiffness—are the principal functional re¬ determines its buckling potential is its
quirements of structures. slenderness.

uns+«blc- stabi 11 z e.d uui+h S+abi I ized by

coutitei- ixieigFF + ia - doai n

Figure 3.12 Developing stability.

40 Structural Functions

In engineering analysis the geometric L/r of 576. If we take the steel in the \ in.
property of slenderness used to establish solid rod and flatten it out and curl it up to
the likelihood of buckling is the slenderness produce a hollow cylinder, the A remains
ratio, expressed as the same but the I value changes and the
stick would now have an L/r of 136. As
L/r
long as the wall of the pipe-shaped stick is
in which L is the length of the compression not too thin, this represents a major in¬
member over which there is no lateral crease in its resistance to bending or buck¬
bracing to prevent buckling, and r is the ling. Figure 3.13 shows the three cross
mathematical property of the cross-sec¬ sections of the stick with corresponding
tional area of the member, called the radius • L/r values. v
of gyration and expressed as Bending and buckling resistance are
r = (// A)1/2 also affected by the stiffness of the material.
Thus a | in. rod of wood would be even less
In this formula the A value represents useful than the one of steel, since wood is
the area of the cross section, which is considerably less stiff than steel. For a
measurable. The I value is an abstract single, very slender compression member,
mathematical property called the second the compression force required to produce
moment of the area. This abstract property buckling is expressed by the Euler formula,
is a direct indication of the stiffness, or shown in the plot of compression failure
resistance of the member to bending, which load versus length in Figure 3.14. As the
is what buckling consists of once it begins member gets shorter, the buckling effect is
to occur. Thus while A merely measures the increasingly less critical, and the limiting
quantity of material in the cross section, / effect eventually becomes one of crushing.
expresses the disposition of the material in At this point the limiting compression
the geometry of the cross section. force becomes the product of the area of
In the example of the walking stick, the material times the maximum stress ca¬
| in. diameter wooden stick has an L/r of pacity.
192, while the | in. diameter steel rod has an The heavy line in the graph in Figure

Figure 3.13 Relative L/r values.

 Internal Forces 41

Figure 3.14 Compression load limit versus slenderness.

3.14 represents the maximum compression truss, or it can be a problem for an entire
capacity of the member for the range of structural system. The eight element frame¬
lengths from zero to the point at which the work shown in Figure 3.15 may be stable in
buckling becomes so critical that the mem¬ resisting vertical gravity loads, but it also
ber is virtually useless for the task. At the must be braced in some manner against
short end of this range the curve becomes horizontal forces, such as those caused by
tangent to the crushing limit as expressed wind or earthquakes. The illustrations in
by the area and stress capacity. At the other Figure 3.15 show the three principal means
end the curve becomes tangent to the Euler for achieving this stability: by using rigid
formula curve. Between these two limits joints between the members, by using x-
the curve is indeterminate as the member bracing, or by using rigid panels in the
makes the transition from crushing to individual planes of the framework (infill¬
buckling. In the preceding example the ing).
wooden stick and the pipe-shaped steel
stick fall into this indeterminate range, 3.3.3 Strength
while the solid steel rod falls well out along
the Euler formula curve. Strength is probably the most obvious
Stability can be a problem with a single requirement for a structure. Even though it
element of a structure, such as a single is stable, the plank in Figure 3.11 is not
column or beam or a single member of a strong enough to support the weight of 10

r i id jot n + s t russinq infilling

Figure 3.15 Means of stabilizing a frame structure.

42 Structural Functions

men. This partly has to do with material— compressive force applied directly down¬
if the plank was made of steel, it might ward on top of the stack. Picking the stack
support the 10 men. It also has to do with up by lifting the top brick or turning the
the form and orientation of the cross stack sideways to create a spanning struc¬
section—if the plank is turned on its edge, ture, as shown in Figure 3.17, is not
like a floor joist, it could probably support possible since the unbonded surfaces be¬
the load. tween the bricks cannot develop the neces¬
Material strength often depends on the sary stress transfers for these functions.
type of stress that the material must sus¬
tain. Steel is adaptable and capable of 3.3.4 Stiffness
major resistance to tension, compression,
shearing, twisting, and bending with equal All structures change shape and move
dexterity. Wood, however, has different when subjected to forces (Figure 3.18). The
strengths depending on the direction of the relative magnitude of these changes deter¬
stress in relation to the grain of the wood. mines a quality , of the structure called
As shown in Figure 3.16, the development rigidity or stiffness. The degree of stiffness
of major stresses perpendicular to the grain depends on the materials of the structure as
direction can cause the wood to fail easily. well as on its configuration. Steel is stiffer
Reforming the wood by glue lamination or than wood; wood is stiffer than soft rubber;
by pulverizing the wood and producing and so on. Other influences on stiffness
compressed wood fiber board is a way of include the cross-sectional shape of mem¬
overcoming the grain effect. bers, the type of bracing system used, and
Stone, concrete, and fired clay are the nature of constraints provided by
examples of materials that have varying supports.
strengths for different stresses. All are Although stiffness is usually not as
relatively strong in resisting compression critical to the safety of the structure as are
but are less strong in resisting tension or stability and strength, it may often be of
shear. This requires caution in their use to importance in evaluating the functional
avoid these stresses or to compensate for usefulness of the structure. If the building
them in some way. rocks back and forth in the wind or if floors
Attention must be given to the form sag when walked on, the demonstrated
and nature of elements and to their uses. A existence of adequate safety in terms of
cable woven from thin steel wires has little margin of load capacity may be of little
resistance to compression or bending or consolation to the users of the building.
anything but the single task for which it is
formed—tension. This is despite the fact 3.3.5 Equilibrium of Structures
that the steel has other stress potentials.
A stack of bricks with no bonding in the Most structures act as transfer elements,
joints has the capability of supporting receiving certain forces and transferring

Figure 3.16 Effect of orientation

 Internal Forces 43

Figure 3.17 Effect of orientation.

Figure 3.18 Deformation of structures under load.

them to other points. This transfer capa¬ that of the external forces and that of the
bility is dependent on the internal strength internal forces. Externally sufficient reac¬
and stability of the structure. As shown in tion conditions must be developed at the
Figure 3.19, if the structure is a thin sheet of supports. Internally there must be an in¬
aluminum, force may cause it to crumple or herent capability for stability and sufficient
buckle. If it is a block of wood, it may split strength to do the work of transferring the
along the grain. If it is a frame composed of applied loads to the supports.
linear members connected by loose bolts, it As shown in Figure 3.20, there are three
may collapse. All of these structures fail possible conditions for external stability. If
because of an inability to maintain internal support conditions are insufficient in type
equilibrium through lack of strength or of or number, the structure is externally
some inherent stability or both. unstable. If the supports provide an excess
The complete static equilibrium of a of support conditions, the structure is said
structure requires two separate balances: to be redundant, a condition that is not

Figure 3.19 Lack of internal resistance.

44 Structural Functions

Figure 3.20 Stability analysis.

necessarily undesirable but does somewhat 3.3.6 Types of Internal Force

complicate the task of structural analysis.
For internal stability the structure must Complex actions and effects consist of
be formed, arranged, and fastened together combinations of the following basic types
to develop the necessary resistance. In the of internal force. The simplest types to
examples shown in Figure 3.19, the alumi¬ visualize are tension and compression,
num sheet was too thin, the wood block both of which produce simple stress and
had weak planes, and the frame lacked the strain conditions, as shown in Figure 3.22.
necessary arrangement of members or type
of joints. All three of these could be altered Tension Tension requires particular ma¬
to make them more functional. As shown terials, and certain materials such as stone,
in Figure 3.21, the aluminum sheet can be concrete, sandy soil, and wood in a direc¬
braced with stiffening ribs, the solid wood tion perpendicular to its grain, do not
block can be replaced with a block of withstand tension. Stresses can become
alternating laminations with grain direc¬ critical at abrupt changes in the cross
tions perpendicular to each other, and the section of a member, for instance, at a hole
frame can be stabilized by adding a diag¬ or notch. Tension sometimes straightens or
onal member. aligns elements. Connections between

Figure 3.21 Alteration of internal conditions to improve resistance.

 Internal Forces 45

force ac + ton o -f ; iro<Juces sfress of

1 <-

Figure 3.22 Effects of tension and compression.

members in tension are often more difficult ary between two points or elements in a
to achieve than those that transfer com¬ structure (see Figure 3.24). If two wooden
pression, requiring not simply contact but boards in a floor are connected at their
an engagement of some kind (see Figure edges by a tongue and groove joint, shear
3.23). stress is developed at the root of the tongue
when one board is stepped on and the other
Compression Compression usually causes is not. This type of shear is also developed
one of two types of failure: crushing or in bolts and hinge pins.
buckling. As discussed previously, buck¬ A more complex form of internal shear
ling has to do with the stiffness and the is developed in a beam. This can be visual¬
relative slenderness of the material. Crush¬ ized by considering the beam to consist of a
ing, however, like tension, is related to stack of loose boards. The horizontal slip¬
stress magnitudes and the mass of material ping that would occur in such a beam is
in the cross section. Compression can be similar to the internal shear that occurs
transmitted between elements by simple within a solid beam; thus if the loose
direct contact without actual engagement boards are glued together, the shear is what
or attachment, as in the case of a wall must be resisted by the glue joints.
sitting on a footing or the footing sitting on
the ground (see Figure 3.23). Bending Tension, compression, and shear
are all produced by some direct force effect:
Shear In its simplest form shear is the pushing, pulling, or slipping. Actions that
tendency for material to slip at the bound¬ tend to cause rotation or curvature are in a

T«e nsion : Compression :

produces tearmp at pro daces crushing

holes, notches, e+e. of stockg elemen + S I

induces straightening p ro duces buckling

of crooked elements of slender elements

u
t
resumes an engaging can be transferred bq

t-j pe of connection simple contact bearing

For- transfer uiith no engaging connection

T
Figure 3.23 Considerations of tension and compression actions.
46 Structural Functions

d i rec +
she a. r

shear

m beams

Similar I'enJena'y in a Salid beam

or ore uu i + h +he boartls glued

•<- bending deborma + ion compared

+o shear deborma+ion

Figure 3.24 Effects of shear.

separate classification. If the action tends acting on the beam is a combination of

to cause straight elements to curve, it is bending and shear.
called bending. If it tends to twist elements, In buildings, structural movements due
it is called torsion (see Figure 3.25). When a to bending (called deflections) are often
wrench is used to turn a bolt, bending is very high in magnitude, commonly in the
developed in the handle of the wrench, and range of or 355 of the length of members.
torsion is developed in the shaft of the bolt. In comparison, movements due to tension
Bending can be produced in a number or compression are usually small, resulting
of ways. A common situation occurs when in length changes of 7^0 or less in most
a flat spanning structure is subjected to cases.
loads that act perpendicular to it. This is Bending may be visualized as being
the basic condition of an ordinary beam. produced by a force acting at some distance
As shown in Figure 3.26, the internal force from a point. The perpendicular distance
from the reference point to the line of
action of the force is called the bending
arm, or moment arm. The internal force
effect that causes bending is called moment
and is calculated as the product of the
operating force and its moment arm. This
produces a unit for moment of pound-feet,
gram-centimeters, and so on. Bending is a
more complex phenomenon than simple
direct force. Since it has spatial connota¬
tions involving linear dimensions as well as
 Internal Forces 47

tron sv/erse load on a produces in+ernal turning and internal slicmp

f lat - Spanning e.lemen+ ac + ionJ called bending action called shea.r

Figure 3.26 Internal effects in beams.

force magnitudes, the location of the force and compression efforts in the bending
is critical in analyzing the effects of bending member, the greater the strength and stiff¬
in a structure. Equally critical is the spatial ness of the member. Figure 3.28 shows the
arrangement of the material or the parts of effect of form change on a constant amount
a structure in relation to the development of material used for the cross section of a
of internal moment resistance (see Figure beam. The numbers indicate the relative
3.27). resistance to bending in terms of both
Bending can also be visualized as pro¬ strength (as a stress limit) and stiffness (as a
duced by a pair of opposed forces, such as strain limit producing deflection).
two hands turning a steering wheel. This In addition to the bending created when
opposed force mechanism is the way in flat spanning members are transversely
which a structure develops internal bend¬ loaded, there are other situations in build¬
ing resistance. In the spanning plank, for ings that can produce bending effects. Two
example, tension stresses dispersed in the of these are shown in Figure 3.29. In the
lower part of the plank oppose compres¬ upper figures bending is induced by a
sion stresses in the upper part. loading not in line with the axis of the
Since the development of moment is a members. In the lower figure bending is
product of force times distance, a given transmitted to the columns through the
magnitude of force can produce more rigid joint of the frame.
moment if the moment arm is increased.
The larger the diameter of a steering wheel, Torsion Torsion is similar to bending in
the less force required to turn it—or, with a that it is a product of force and distance. As
given limited force, the more moment it can with bending, the form of the cross section
develop. This is why the plank or joist can of the member resisting the torsion is a
resist more bending when on edge (joist) critical factor in establishing its strength
than when flat (plank). The farther the and stiffness. A round hollow cylinder
separation between the opposed tension (pipe shape) is one of the most efficient

Sinqle ■force and i 1/0+ apposed forces -pp osed stresses in a beam

Figure 3.27 Development of moments.

48 Structural Functions

■for beam sec+ions o-f-

these propof+ions

the relative resistance

ot the bearn to :

beridUnq moment is 16. ■46

de-f lectu 32 Cot 3a<t

Figure 3.28 Relation of cross-sectional geometry to bending resistance.

forms for resistance to torsion. However, if 3.3.7 Combinations of Internal Forces

the cylinder wall is slit lengthwise, its
resistance is drastically reduced, being
The individual actions of tension, compres¬
approximately the same as that for a flat
sion, shear, bending, and torsion can occur
plate with the same thickness. Figure 3.30
in various, combinations and in several
shows the effect on torsional resistance of
directions at a single location in a structure.
variations in the cross-sectional shape of a
As illustrated previously, beams ordinarily
linear member with the same amount of
sustain a combination of bending and
material.
shear. In the vertical members of the frame
Often in designing structures it is better
shown in Figure 3.29 the loading will
to develop resistance to torsional effects by
produce a combination of internal com¬
bracing members against the twisting ac¬
pression, bending, and shear. In the ex¬
tions. Thus the torsional effect is absorbed
ample shown in Figure 3.31 the loading will
by the bracing rather than by stresses in the
produce a combination of compression,
twisted member.
bending, torsion, and shear in the vertical
member. Structures must be analyzed care¬
fully for the various internal force com¬
I binations that occur and for the critical
maximum stresses and deformations that
result from the combined force actions. In
addition, the external loads may occur in
different combinations, each producing its
own combined internal actions. In these
t situations the analysis of structural behav¬
ior and design of the structural members
can become very complex and laborious.

3.4 STRESS AND STRAIN

Internal force actions are resisted by

stresses in the material of the structure.
There are three basic types of stress: ten¬
Figure 3.29 Conditions resulting in internal sion, compression, and shear. Tension and
bending. compression are similar in nature, although
 Stress and Strain 49

shape ot- section

stiffened —*

relative strength
IOO 331 18 C, 1 7+ 180 21.1 11.8 38.3
(stress resistance)

relative stiffness
/ iAr _. ± - , x loo G>37 5.5 70 88 3HI 3 3 ||.a 78 I
(deformation resistance) ^ ’ ' '

Figure 3.30 Relation of cross-sectional geometry to torsional resistance. (From “Structural

Beams in Torsion,” Inge Lyse and Bruce Johnson, Transactions of the ASCE, 101, 1936,
American Society of Civil Engineers, with permission.)

to shear stress is different from that due to

direct stress: it consists of an angular
change rather than a linear shortening or
lengthening.

3.4.1 Stress-Strain Relations

Stress and strain are related not only in the

basic forms that they take, but also in their
Figure 3.31 Combined internal force effects. actual magnitudes. Figure 3.34 shows the
relation between stress and strain for a
number of different materials. The form of
opposite in sign or direction. Both tension such a graph illustrates various aspects of
and compression produce a linear type of the nature of the material.
strain and can be visualized as pressure Curves 1 and 2 represent so-called
effects perpendicular to the surface of a elastic materials; the straight line form
stressed cross section, as shown in Figure indicating a constant proportionality of the
3.32. Because of these similarities, both stress and strain magnitudes. For these
tension and compression stress are referred materials the relation of stress to strain can
to as direct stresses, one considered positive be quantified simply in terms of the slope,
and the other negative. or angle, of the graph. This relationship is
Shear stress occurs in the plane of a commonly expressed in the form of the
cross section and is similar to a friction tangent of the angle of the graph and is
effect. As shown in Figure 3.33, strain due called the modulus of elasticity of the
material. The higher this modulus—that is,
the steeper the angle—the stiffer the mate¬
A\reef force produces
Stress visualized as pressure rial. Thus the material represented by curve
1 in the illustration is stiffer than the
material represented by curve 2.
strain due to compre$4ion
For direct stress of tension or compres¬
sion the strain is measured as a linear
change, and the modulus is called the direct
stress modulus of elasticity. For shear
stress the strain is measured as angular
change, and the resulting modulus is called
Figure 3.32 Direct stress and strain. the shear stress modulus of elasticity.
50 Structural Functions

shear ef-fecf on

a cross - sec + ion

ft

produces opposed shears

on opposi+e -faces of par+icles

ujhich results in angular s+ram

of a wracking ; fujisf mg For rn

Figure 3.33 Shear stress and strain.

ously throughout the stress range. For such

materials the modulus is expressed as a
tangent to the curve at some particular
point (a specific stress magnitude) or as an
average for the stress range between two
specific points.
The odd shape of curve 4 in Figure 3.34
is the characteristic form for the stress-
strain graph for a so-called ductile mate¬
rial, such as low grade steel of the type
Figure 3.34 Stress-strain relationships. commonly used for beams and columns in
buildings. This material behaves essentially
elastically up to some stress magnitude
(called the yield stress), at which point it
Some materials, such as glass and very suddenly deforms considerably while still
high strength steel, behave almost purely maintaining stress resistance. At some
elastically, having a constant modulus of strain magnitude it again develops a strain
elasticity for the whole range of stress up to resistance and finally fails at a stress
failure of the material. Other materials, slightly higher than the yield stress. This
such as wood, concrete, and most soft ductile character is used in predicting the
plastics, have a curved form in the stress- ultimate failure limit for steel structures
strain graph (curve 3 in Figure 3.34). This and for concrete that is reinforced with
indicates that the modulus varies continu¬ low-grade reinforcing bars.
 Stress and Strain 51

3.4.2 Stress Combinations

direct- action of sViear

Stress and strain are actually three-dimen¬ produces a rotational

sional phenomena, although for simplicity effect in ttie material
they are often visualized in linear or planar
form. As shown in Figure 3.32, direct stress
of compression in a single direction results
which results in opposing
in a strain consisting of shortening of the
material in that direction. However, if the shear stresses at right angles

volume of the material remains essentially to the direct shear force

unchanged, which it usually does, there will

be a resulting effect of lengthening (or
pushing out) at right angles to the compres¬
sion stress. This implies the development of
a tension effect at right angles to the
compression, and this effect is sometimes
the actual source of material failure when
the material is relatively weak in tension, as
is the case of concrete. Thus a common
form of failure for concrete in compression
is by lateral bursting at right angles to the
compression.
If direct stress is induced in a linear
Figure 3.36 Effects of shear.
member, as shown in Figure 3.35, the pure
direct stress occurs only on cross sections at
right angles to the direct force effect. If tional effect on the material. This ro¬
stress is considered on a cross section at tational effect must be counteracted by the
some other angle, there will be a compo¬ development of opposing shear stresses
nent of shear on the cross section. If the (faces c and d) resulting in the development
material is weak in shear, this angular shear of a shear stress at right angles to the
stress effect may be more critical than the original shear effect. Thus whenever shear
direct stress effect. stress exists within a structure, there is
Although simple linear tension and always an equal magnitude of shear stress
compression forces produce direct, linear at right angles to it. An example of this is
stresses, shear stress is essentially two- the stack of loose boards used as a beam
dimensional, as shown in Figure 3.36. The (Figure 3.24). The shear failure in this case
effect of shear force produces shear stresses is a horizontal slipping effect between the
(shown in the figure on faces a and b of a boards, even though the direct shear is
particle of material), resulting in a rota- induced by a vertical loading.
As shown in Figure 3.36, the combina¬
tion of the mutually perpendicular shear
stresses results in a lengthening of the
material in one diagonal direction and a
produces shortening in the other diagonal direction
{ Sh c.cxk

pv'od uce.s
at right angles to the lengthening. These are
{ compile ss ion called the diagonal stress effects, since they
literally result in tension in one diagonal
Figure 3.35 Stress on a cross section not at direction and compression in the other
right angles to the active force. direction. In some situations these diago-
52 Structural Functions

nal stresses will be more critical than the

direct shear stresses that produce them. In
concrete, for example, failure due to shear a symmetrically placed
effects is usually actually a tension failure,
compression load
since this is the weakest stress property of
the material. In the thin webs of steel beams
diagonal compression caused by shear can
cause a buckling of the web well below the
actual shear stress limit of the steel.
produces uniform
Direct stresses of tension and compres¬ (X
compression s+ress
sion in a single direction are summed
Tttttttt
algebraically at a given point in the struc¬
ture. In the case of the column shown in
Figure 3.37, the compression load pro¬ an off-center load
duces a direct compression stress on a cross
'produces combined ef-fecfs
section, as shown at (a), if the load is placed
so as not to produce bending. If the load is
off-center on the column, the stress condi¬ of

tion will be modified by the addition of i

bending stresses, which will be distributed
compre s s ion
on the cross section as shown at (b), with a
range from compression to tension on the TfTTTfTT
plus
opposite sides of the section. The true net
stress condition is shown at (c), consisting
ben ding
of the simple addition of the two stress
conditions [(a) and (&)]. |i**’*tf
egua Is
A more complex situation is the com¬
bination of direct stresses and shear
net sfress
stresses. Figure 3.38 shows the general
condition at a point in the cross section of a
beam where the net stress consists of a
combination of bending stress [as shown Figure 3.37 Combined direct stresses.
for the column in (b) of Figure 3.37] and
shear stress. These two types of stress
cannot be combined directly. What is manner in which these net stresses are
combined is the direct stress (bending) and dispersed throughout the length of a beam
the diagonal stresses (shear), as shown in is discussed in the section on flat-spanning
(b) and (c) in the illustration. Since these systems in Chapter 5.
stresses are not in the same direction, they Another stress combination is that pro¬
must be combined vectorially, producing a duced by biaxial or triaxial stress condi¬
vector-resultant stress at some different tions. An example of this, as shown in
angle from either of the two basic stresses. Figure 3.39, is the condition that occurs
There is also a net combined shear stress, as when a material is confined, such as when
shown at (d) in Figure 3.38. This consists of air or liquid is squeezed in a piston cham¬
a vector addition of the shear on a diagonal ber. The confinement results in a resistance
cross section due to the bending stress plus at right angles to the direct compression
the shear due to the direct internal shear effort. The net effect on the material is a
force. Again, the net stress will occur on a three-way push, or a triaxial compression.
plane at some compromise angle. The For materials with virtually no tensile
 Stress and Strain 53

a combina+ion o+ direc+ resistance such as air, water, or dry sand,

stress and shear stress this is the only type of situation in which
results in -three stress
they can develop resistance to compres¬
sion. Thus the sand beneath a footing can
combinations
develop compressive resistance because of
the confinement offered by the surround¬
ing soil. If the footing is on top of the
b -> *= | + T mound of sand, it will sink because the
Zz j sand is not confined.

direct d ia<^onal maxi mum

3.4.3 Thermal Stresses
stress compress ion direct stress

The volumes of solid materials change with

temperature variation, increasing as the
temperature is raised and decreasing as it is
i_ lowered. This phenomenon creates a num¬
ber of problems that must be dealt with in
d irect m m imum
building design.
Str ess tension direct stress
The form of objects determines the
(possibly opposite m si<^n to the
basic nature of the dimensional changes.
original direct stress )
As shown in Figure 3.40, the critical direc¬
tions of movement depend on whether the
object is essentially linear, planar, or three-
* . dimensional. For a linear object the major
+ T i i
/V I significant change is in its length. Thus
* J
linear framing members, roof edge trim,
d i a t^onal d i rect maximum and so on, experience considerable length
shear shear shear stress change if they are long and are subjected to
a large temperature range through expo¬
Figure 3.38 Combined shear stress and direct
sure to the climate.
stress.
Planar objects, such as wall panels or

thermal change causes

expansion and

contvact ion

of solids
LL>ben compressed a confined

material develops reac+lve

stresses resul+inr) in a

multi-axial stress condition significant changes

are tu>o - d i mensional

in planar elements
active stress developed

b'y tbe piston

reactive stresses resulting and linear in

linear elements
■from the con'f mement

Figure 3.39 Development of stress in a con¬ Figure 3.40 Effects of thermal change on
fined material. solids.
54 Structural Functions

large sheets of glass, expand in a two- sion to the shortening that is produced by
dimensional manner. Attachments or edge the compression. If quantified values are
constraints for such objects must deal with known for the properties of thermal expan¬
this type of movement. A window frame sion and the stress-strain relationship for
must hold the glass in a manner that allows the material, a quantified stress can be
some movement of the glass within it. Long determined from the temperature change.
or tall wall surfaces must accommodate Summation of this unit stress on the cross
thermal movements, usually by providing section of the member produces the com¬
expansion joints at intervals to reduce the pression force.
length over which movement accumulates. While there are various situations in
If thermal expansion or contraction js which simple expansion and contraction
resisted, stresses are produced in the struo itself is the problem, there are other situa¬
ture. Figure 3.41 shows a linear structural tions in which the problem is one of
member in which length change is con¬ differential movements. Figure 3.42 shows
strained. If the temperature is raised, the a common situation that occurs in concrete
member will push outward against the construction when elements of different
constraints, developing compression stress mass are all monolithically produced. As
as the constraints push back. This is di¬ the temperature changes, the thinner parts
rectly analogous to applying an external tend to cool down or warm up more rapidly
compressive force. The magnitude of this than the thicker ones, since it takes longer
compression can be calculated by equating for the interior mass of the thicker elements
the dimension of the free thermal expan- to feel the effect of temperature change.
The result is that the movement of the
thinner parts tends to be restrained by the
It F rf

is
a, solid

hea + ed
element

anA its
thicker parts, inducing stresses in both
parts. These stresses are usually most crit¬
expansion is prevented^
ical in the thinner parts and at the joints
between the parts.
the element will push
Another problem of differential ther¬
on the restraints mal movements occurs between the exter¬
—HI
and the restraints ior skin of the building and the interior
will push back, mass. As shown in Figure 3.43, the exposed
developing compressive skin and any exposed structural elements
stress in the element
in a multistoried building will move in

^ the expanded length ot

the unrestrained element

< is equivalent to the

length ot the unstressed

element before compression

which is reduced by
3
the compressive strain

H to the original

restrained length

Figure 3.41 Effect of thermal change on a Figure 3.42 Critical stress effects resulting
constrained element. from differential thermal movements.
 Stress and Strain 55

Figure 3.43 Effect of exposure conditions on development of thermally induced stress and
strain.

response to the changes in outdoor tem¬ vary, depending on the climate and the
perature, while the interior elements of the materials and details of the building con¬
building construction tend to remain at a struction. In some cases it is necessary to
relatively constant temperature, since the absorb the induced stresses in the building
building interior is maintained at some structure. In other cases it is possible to
comfort level for the occupants. This effect alleviate the problem by using expansion
accumulates toward the top of the building control joints, flexible connections, and so
and can result in major distortions in the on, to hold the accumulative movements to
upper portions of the structure. a minimum or to prevent the transfer of
When a building is long in plan dimen¬ stresses between adjacent parts of the con¬
sion, a similar problem occurs when the struction.
exposed part of the building moves with
respect to the interior part or the part that 3.4.4 Composite Structures
is buried in the ground. As shown in Figure
3.44, the ground temperature tends to
When materials or elements of different
remain constant throughout the year, and
stiffness share a load, they develop resis¬
the effect is similar to that of the constant
tances proportionate to their individual
temperature of the building interior.
stiffnesses. As shown in Figure 3.45, if a
The degree of concern for these prob¬
group of springs share a load that shortens
lems and the means for dealing with them
all of the springs the same amount, the
amount of load taken by the stiffer springs
portion above ^ravnd expands ^ eanlracfs
will be greater, since it requires a greater
effort to shorten them.
A common situation of this type occurs
when concrete is reinforced with steel rods.
When a load is applied to such an element
resulting in the same amount of strain
port"ion bftlocu ground S+otj* cons4on+
(shortening) of the concrete and steel, the
<-=►
steel will carry a percentage of the load
Figure 3.44 Thermal effects in partly sub¬ disproportionate to its mass, since it is
merged buildings. considerably stiffer than the concrete. Thus
 56 Structural Functions

deformed the same amount—being held

together by the wall construction between
them and by the roof—the stiffer masonry
wall will tend to take a greater portion of
the load. If the difference in stiffness is
great, it is common to ignore the resistance
offered by the less stiff wall and to design
the stiffer one to take the entire load.
However, the effects of the dimensional
distortion on the entire construction must
be considered.
In the second example in Figure 3.46
the load is shared by a so-called rigid frame
of steel and lightly framed walls with
plastered surfaces. The plastered walls are
likely to be much stiffer than the steel
frame. The steel frame can tolerate con¬
siderable distortion, whereas the plaster
will crack with a very small amount of
Figure 3.45 Load sharing in composite struc¬
distortion. The load at First will be taken by
tures.
the stiffer plaster elements. Only after the
plaster cracks will the steel frame deform
a relatively small percentage of steel in the sufficiently to absorb the load. While the
cross section may carry a major portion of best design solution simply may be to avoid
the load, since the elastic modulus for the such situations, it is also possible to assure
steel can be 15 times or more than that of that the load bypasses the plaster and is
the concrete. applied essentially to the frame. One way to
Another situation of this type occurs achieve this is to provide relatively closely
when elements of different construction spaced control joints in the plastered sur¬
share loads on the building. Figure 3.46 face that virtually constitute a sort of
shows two examples of this situation. In precracked condition.
the first example a masonry wall and a
wood-framed wall occur on the same plane 3.4.5 Time-Related Stress and Strain
and share loads from the horizontal effects
of wind or earthquakes. If the two walls are Some stress and strain phenomena are time
related. Concrete is subject to an effect
called creep (Figure 3.47), in which the
material sustains a continuous, progressive
deformation while held at constant stress.
This effect is eventually self-arresting but
can result in deformations of as much as
twice or more than those caused by the
original loading. The creep does not affect
the basic strength or stiffness of the con¬
crete. Thus its stress resistance capacity
remains undiminished, and, if loaded again
after some time, it will follow a stress-
Figure 3.46 Load sharing by elements of dif¬ strain curve similar to its original one.
ferent construction. There will, however, be some permanent,
 Dynamic Effects 57

A, buildings that continue to settle over many

et«.s+ie deflection
W~1 years have occurred with this soil condition
a+ -f-ime of loading
(see Figure 3.48).
p l us
Another time-related stress problem
creep def le.c.f ion u>ith occurs when elements are repeatedly loaded
f »me resul+s in increased
and unloaded. The repeated effect of people
-t-a+al deflecfion walking on stairs, wind rocking towers, or
machinery shaking its structural supports
and
A* are cases of this load condition in build¬
4 some, pecmaneirt sa<^ ings. Some materials may fail from the
even i"f lood is removed fatigue effects of such loading. However,
Figure 3.47 Effect of creep. the problem is more often the loosening of
connections or progressive development of
cracks caused by other sources.
residual deformation, equal to that caused
by the creep effect.
Creep does cause some redistribution 3.5 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
of stresses between the concrete and steel in
elements of reinforced concrete. Since the
Vibrations, moving loads, and sudden
steel does not creep, it offers some resis¬
changes in the state of motion, such as the
tance to the creep deformation of the
jolt of rapid braking or acceleration, cause
adjacent concrete. This causes some addi¬
forces that result in stresses and strains in
tional shift of the share of load to the steel
structures. The study of dynamic forces
as the creep develops over time.
and their effects is very complex, although
Soft, wet clay soils are subject to a time-
a few of the basic concepts can be illus¬
related flow effect, similar to the slow
trated simply.
oozing of toothpaste from a tube as a
For structural analysis and design the
constant squeezing is maintained. If the
significant distinction between static and
soil mass is well constrained (as when the
dynamic effects has to do with the response
toothpaste cap is put back on) this effect
of the structure to the loading. If the
can be self-arresting. However, as long as
principal response of the structure can be
there is someplace for the clay to ooze
effectively evaluated in static terms (force,
toward, the flow will continue. Instances of
stress, linear deformation, etc.), the effect
on the structure is essentially static, even
though the load may be time-dependent in
nature. If, however, the structure’s re¬
sponse can be evaluated effectively only in
terms of energy capacity, work accom¬
initial settled position
plished, cyclic movements, and so on, the
at time ot loading
effect of the loading is of a true dynamic
sott ivet clacj
character.
A critical factor in the evaluation of the
structure’s response to dynamic loads is the
fundamental time period of the structure’s
additional settlement a*ith vibration. This is the time required for one
time it cla^ can tind full cycle of motion, in the form of a bounce
pressure reliet and or a continuing vibration. The relation of
t loco touuards it
this time to the time of buildup of the load
Figure 3.48 Time-related settlement. is a major factor in determining the relative
 58 Structural Functions

degree of the dynamic effect on the struc¬ result in an almost complete, instantaneous
ture. This period may vary from a fraction stop of the board’s motion. As shown in the
of a second to several seconds, depending graph in Figure 3.50, the reinforcing
on the size, mass, material, stiffness, sup¬ bouncing that causes extreme motion of
port constraints, and possible presence of the board corresponds to the board’s fun¬
various damping effects on the structure’s damental period. Thus at the end of each of
motion. these periods the board is traveling down,
In the example in Figure 3.49 a single and the additional loading will increase this
blow of the hammer causes the board to downward momentum. To stop the board
bounce in a vibratory manner described by the boy merely cuts the time of his bounce
the time-motion graph. The elapsed time , in half and meets the board on its way up;
for one full cycle of this motion is the the two opposed motions collide to cancel
fundamental period of vibration for the each other’s momentum.
board. If a 100 lb load is applied at the end If the boy bounces once on the board
of the board by slowly and carefully stack¬ and then jumps off, the board will continue
ing bricks on it, the load effect on the board to bounce in ever-decreasing magnitudes of
is essentially static. However, if a 100 lb displacement until it eventually comes to
boy jumps on the end of the board, he will rest. This deterioration of the board’s
cause both an increase in deflection and a motion is called damping. It occurs be¬
continued bouncing of the board, both of cause of the energy dissipated in the springs
which are dynamic effects. or cushion mounts, in air friction, and
If the boy bounces on the end of the other actions that use up some of the
board with a particular rhythm, he can energy of the board’s momentum. If the
cause an extreme up and down motion of damping effects were not present, the re¬
the board. He can find the rate of bounce peated bouncing by the boy could result in
required to do this easily by experimenting a buildup of the board’s displacement until
with different rhythms. He may also find damage occured.
the exact variation in his bouncing that will Dynamic forces on structures result
from a variety of natural and human-
created sources. The actions of slapping
waves, gusts of wind, earth tremors, mov¬
to tha board causes i + ing vehicles, and falling objects are all
to vibrate as shoujn m potential sources of dynamic loads. Any of
the graph belouj these can be damaging in terms of the total
energy delivered to the structure or in terms
of excessive movement or vibration. In
some cases the structure itself may not be
damaged, but the movements may result in
the loosening of structural connections, in
the shaking loose of objects attached to the
structure, or in the discomfort of or injury
to the occupants.
but the same load Natural periods of vibration for entire
applied suddenly causes building structures vary from a fraction of
an increased de^lechion
a second to several seconds, the latter
as ujg.11 as vibra-Hon
occuring generally only for tall, slender
Figure 3.49 Dynamic effects on elastic struc¬ structures. Parts of structures can retain
tures. their own individual periods of vibration: a
 Dynamic Effects 59

-> +1 m e
hetic -
cancel ling
bounc,es
bounce

u
P
/ >>

>/
> : ^\j J[
doixi n

period '/i period

<-> <->

^ motion of the diving board

Figure 3.50 Motion of the diving board.

single span of a floor system may be structure is then considered, using the
bouncy when walked on while the rest of variables of its mass, natural frequencies,
the structure is relatively unaffected. energy-absorbing capabilities, natural
Some dynamic effects can be reduced damping, and so on. Once the dynamic
or eliminated by providing isolation or behavior is understood, the designer can
damping. Some damping occurs naturally consider how to manipulate the variables
as a result of the structure’s stiffness or to improve the structure’s behavior or to
mass or its relative inefficiency in motion. reduce the load condition.
Nonstructural parts of the building con¬ Several factors make design for dy¬
struction such as wall finishes, flooring, namic effects difficult. One of these is the
ceilings, and partitions are also sources of complex nature of a complete building
damping effects. Isolation can be achieved structure’s responses to dynamic loads and
by separating vibration sources from the the resulting difficulty of quantifying these
structure or by separating some parts of the responses effectively. The mathematical
structure from others. Vibration of heavy complexity of dynamic analysis is con¬
machinery is usually isolated partially from siderably greater than that required for
the structure by use of some sort of energy¬ simple static effects. Consequently, most
absorbing mounting. Acoustic vibration of routine design for dynamic loads is done by
one surface of a wall can be isolated from translating the dynamic effects into equiv¬
the opposite surface by attaching one of the alent static effects so that they can be dealt
surfaces with energy-absorbing connectors with by simpler and more familiar tech¬
or by providing each surface with its own niques.
independent structure. Another difficulty with dynamic anal¬
Another type of vibration control is ysis is the somewhat subjective nature of
achieved by the use of a resonator—that is, some of the performance criteria. How
a neutral element attached to the structure much vibration is tolerable? How bouncy
that can move independently. The motion may a floor be? Judgments are often quite
of the resonator is tuned to the natural arbitrary, and there is considerable reliance
vibration of the structure in a way that on precedent and experience.
makes it absorb or oppose the structure’s Design for earthquake effects is a major
free vibration. subject of dynamic analysis. There is much
Design for dynamic effects usually be¬ ongoing study and research in this area that
gins with an evaluation of the sources of results in continuing modification of codes
dynamic loads and their potential effects and design standards. With the widespread
on the structure. The response of the use of computers, increasing use is being
60 Structural Functions

made of real dynamic analysis in design for Therefore, if the load is known and the
earthquakes in place of the traditional stress limit for the material is established,
simplified methods of equivalent static this formula is easily converted to one for
effects. finding the required area of the cross sec¬
tion, as follows:

3.6 DESIGN FOR STRUCTURAL required area =

BEHAVIOR the total load on the member
the stress limit for the material
In current professional structural design
Most structural situations are more
practice the investigation of structural
complex, however, and involve variables
behavior is an important part of the design
and relationships that are not so simply
process. To incorporate this investigation
converted for design use. In the case of the
into the design work the designer needs to
compression member, for instance, if the
develop a number of capabilities, including
member is a slender column the load
the following:
capacity will be limited to some degree by
1 The ability to visualize and evaluate the tendency to buckle, as discussed in the
the sources that produce loads on the section on stability. The relative stiffness of
structure. the member in resisting buckling can be
determined only after the geometry of the
2 The ability to quantify the loads and the
cross section is known. Therefore the de¬
effects they produce on the structure.
sign of such a structural element is a hit-or-
3 The ability to analyze the structure’s
miss proposition, consisting of guessing at
response to the loads in terms of inter¬
an appropriate cross-sectional shape, ana¬
nal forces and stresses and strains.
lyzing for the load capacity, and refining as
4 The ability to evaluate the structure’s necessary until a reasonable relationship is
limits of load-carrying capacity. established.
5 The ability to manipulate the variables Professional designers use their own
of material, form, and construction experience together with various design
details for the structure in order to aids, such as tabulations of capacities of
optimize its responses to the loads. commonly used elements, to shortcut the
design process. Detailed calculations for
Although analysis of stresses and strains structural analysis are performed in many
is necessary in the design process, there is a instances only after various shortcuts and
sort of chicken and egg relationship be¬ approximations have been used to estab¬
tween analysis and design. To analyze the lish a preliminary design of the structure.
structure’s responses you need to know For any major structure it is necessary
some of its properties, but to determine the to perform a large number of calculations
necessary properties you need the results of of stresses and load capacities in order to
the analysis. In simple cases it is sometimes
demonstrate the existence of an adequate
possible to derive expressions for desired
load safety margin. Calculation of struc¬
properties by the simple inversion or rever¬
tural deformations is done less often, since
sal of analytical formulas. For example, in
the safety of the structure is seldom related
a simple compression member, if the load
to them. Only when the actual magnitudes
produces a uniform stress on the cross
of deformation are suspected to be of some
section, the formula for this simple stress
detriment to the structure’s use are these
is
investigations made in the design process.
. the total load on the member An example of the latter is the deformation
stress =-—___
the area of the cross section of flat-spanning elements, manifested as
 Investigation of Structural Behavior 61

sag or deflection, which is quite often a tures or on a modeling of the actions

critical design factor. involved. This modeling can be done in the
form of physical tests on scaled down
structures, but is most often done mathe¬
3.7 INVESTIGATION OF matically, using the current state of knowl¬
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR edge in the form of formulas for analysis.
The body of knowledge used for the
Whether for design purposes, for research, mathematical modeling of structural be¬
or for the study of structural behavior as a havior is composed of the general areas of
learning experience, analysis of stresses engineering science in applied mechanics,
and strains is important. Analysis may be materials engineering, and structural engi¬
performed as a testing procedure on the neering. Structural designers must be gen¬
actual structure with a loading applied to erally informed in these areas, and must
simulate its actual usage conditions. If develop a capability for using the various
carefully done, this is a highly reliable design aids and techniques for practical
procedure. However, except for some of performance of design work. Considering
the commonly used, simple elements of the complexity of modern science and
construction, it is generally not possible to technology and the sophistication of mod¬
perform destructive load testing on build¬ ern computing techniques, this preparation
ing structures built to full scale. Behavior is a major undertaking, generally achieved
of building structures must usually be by the several years of study required for a
anticipated speculatively on the basis of graduate degree in engineering plus some
demonstrated performance of similar struc¬ apprenticeship in professional design work.
 _ CHAPTER FOUR _

Structural Materials
All materials—solid, liquid, or gaseous— Strength May vary for different types of
have some structural nature. The air we force, in different directions, at different
breathe has a structural nature: it resists age or temperature.
compression. Every time you ride in an Strain Resistance Degree of rigidity, elas¬
automobile you are sitting on an air- ticity, ductility,' time, and temperature
supported structure. Water supports the effects.
largest human made vehicles: huge ocean
Hardness Resistance to surface indenta¬
liners and battleships. Oil resists compres¬
tion and scratching.
sion so strongly that it is used as the
resisting element in hydraulic presses and Fatigue Resistance Time loss of strength,
jacks capable of developing tremendous shape change with time, and progressive
force. fracture.
In the design of building structures, use Uniformity of Physical Structure Grain
is made of the available structural mate¬ and knots in wood, cracks in concrete,
rials and the products formed from them. shear planes in stone, effects of crystalliza¬
The discussion in this chapter deals with tion in metals.
some of the basic materials themselves and
with their typical uses in contemporary General properties of interest in using
construction. and evaluating structural materials include
the following:

4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Form Natural or reconstituted.

Weight Must carry itself as well as ap¬
Broad classifications of materials can be plied loads.
made such as distinctions between animal,
Fire Resistance Combustibility, conduc¬
vegetable, and mineral; between organic
tivity, performance at high temperatures,
and inorganic materials; and between the melting point.
physical states of solid, liquid, and gaseous.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion In
Various chemical and physical properties
evaluating movements of structure with
distinguish individual materials from oth¬
temperature changes.
ers. In studying or designing structures,
particular properties of materials are of Durability Resistance to weathering, rot,
concern. These properties may be split insects, and wear.
between essential structural properties and Workability In producing, shaping, as¬
general properties. sembling, and altering.
Essential structural properties of con¬ Appearance Natural or finished.
cern include the following: Availability and Cost

62
 Steel 63

A working knowledge of both the gen¬ One technological process has pro¬
eral and structural properties of materials duced a unique wood element: the plywood
is essential to anyone involved with the sheet. This element has had tremendous
conception, detailing, or evaluation of usage and, though in danger of obsoles¬
structures. cense because of other evolving sheet mate¬
Let us consider the various common rials, is now experiencing some imaginative
materials used in building structures. Al¬ exploitation in various composite wood-
though one material at a time is discussed, plywood components and systems (see
no significance should be attached to the Figure 4.2).
sequence. The building components and In the development of structural ele¬
systems possible with the various materials ments it is not always wise or possible to
are discussed separately. use a single material. Structural materials
are often mixed, each performing its appro¬
priate tasks, such as in reinforced concrete
4.2 WOOD construction. Figure 4.3 shows a series of
light, medium-span roof trusses that have
Technical innovations of recent times have wood top and bottom elements and steel
extended some of the longstanding limita¬ zig-zag interior elements. Compare these
tions of wood. Size and form limitations with the all steel trusses of similar form
have been overcome by employing glue shown in Figure 4.4.
lamination to build up structural elements Because of its availability, low cost, and
from small-dimensioned lumber (see Fig¬ simple working possibilities, wood is used
ure 4.1). Special fastening systems have extensively for secondary and temporary
made larger-scale structures possible constructions—that is, for scaffolding,
through better jointing. Combustibility, bracing, and forming. This extensive use
rot, and insect infestation can be retarded may give the impression that it is the only
by utilizing chemical impregnations. Treat¬ valid use of the material. However, if
ment with steam or ammonia gas can correctly used, the material can have last¬
render the wood flexible, allowing it to ing qualities sufficient for most require¬
assume plastic forms. ments in building, for instance, the houses
Dimensional movements from changes of Cape Cod, the temples of the Orient, and
in temperature or moisture remain a prob¬ the timber roof members in many Euro¬
lem in wood. Fire resistance can be devel¬ pean churches.
oped only to a degree. Although easily
worked, wood elements are soft and readily
damaged, thus damage due to handling 4.3 STEEL
and use is a problem.
Although hundreds of species exist, Steel is used in a variety of types and forms
building structural use is primarily limited in nearly every building constructed. From
to certain softwoods: Douglas fir, southern huge H-columns to the smallest nails and
pine, northern white pine, spruce, red¬ screws, steel is the most versatile of tradi¬
wood, cedar, and hemlock. Local avail¬ tional structural materials. It is also the
ability and cost are major factors in the strongest, the most resistant to aging, and
selection of a particular species. Economy the most reliable in quality. Steel is a
is achieved by using the lowest grade of completely industrialized material and is
material suitable for the work. (Grade is a thus subject to tight control of its content
function of the lack of knots and splits as and the details of its fabrication. It has the
well as of the particular grain characteristic further desirable qualities of being non¬
of an individual piece.) combustible, nonrotting, and dimension-
Figure 4.1 Thomas O. Freeman Library, Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Illinois. Glued
laminated wood ribs radiate from a central core in 20° increment spacing to form the roof of this
small library. Roof deck is glued laminated wood hung in tension from the ribs. Architects:
Perkins and Will, Chicago. Structural engineers: The Engineers Collaborative, Chicago. Photo:
The Engineers Collaborative.

64
 Steel 65

Figure 4.2 Plywood space planes. Prefabricated units of wood-plywood construction are
assembled to form the folded plate roof of this church in St. Paul, Minnesota. Architects.
Buetow Associates. Photo: American Plywood Association, Tacoma, Washington.

ally stable with time and moisture change including the use of special paints that
(see Figure 4.4). expand in volume when heated, forming a
Although the bulk material itself is noncombustible surface insulation. Coat¬
expensive, it can be used in small quantities ings of one kind or another are also the best
because of its great strength and its forming protection against corrosion, although
processes, making it competitive with some recently developed steels resist ordi¬
materials of lower bulk cost. Economy can nary air rusting sufficiently to be left
also be achieved through mass production exposed without any treatment.
in its industrialized process. Figure 4.5 shows the use of a fire-
Two principal disadvantages of steel resistive material for protecting steel. This
for building structures are inherent in the material is sprayed on to the steel surfaces
material. These are its rapid heat gain and where it adheres and is built up to a
resultant loss of strength when exposed to thickness appropriate for the desired de¬
the intense heat of a fire and its corrosion gree of insulation. Although somewhat
when exposed to moisture and air or messy, this material offers the advantage of
corrosive conditions. Several techniques easily covering complicated forms such as
can be used to overcome its fire sensitivity, trusses and the undersides of formed sheet
66 Structural Materials

Figure 4.3 Composite structural elements. Light trusses with wood top and bottom chords and
steel web elements.

steel decks. If wall and ceiling construction large volume of loose aggregate (such as
covers the structure, the lack of visual sand and gravel). Tremendous variation of
delight is not a problem. the endproduct is possible with the use of
The vocabulary of steels in use for different binders and aggregate and with
building structures has recently been ex¬ the use of special chemicals and air-void-
panded, and there is now a wide range from producing foaming agents.
which to choose the correct steel for a
particular situation of stress magnitude, Ordinary Stone Concrete This is the
corrosion, form of elements, or fastening material of sidewalks, highway pavements,
technique. It is not uncommon for the and foundations. The binder is Portland
various elements of the framework of a cement and the aggregate is sand and
steel building to consist of a dozen or more gravel. The resulting material is the familiar
varieties of material, with a wide spectrum rocklike substance of high compressive
of property variation. For example, the resistance and considerable weight.
steel used in the wire of woven cable is five
times as strong as that used for ordinary Structural Lightweight Concrete This is
steel beams! the same as ordinary concrete, except that
some special aggregate is used to replace
the gravel. Various substitutes are slag,
4.4 CONCRETE expanded shale, clinkers, and other sub¬
stances that combine light weight with
In building construction, the word concrete considerable strength. Weight reduction of
is used to describe a variety of materials up to one-third may be effected without
having one thing in common: the use of a loss of strength. There is, however, some
binding agent to form a solid mass from a unavoidable loss in stiffness. Higher cost of
loose, inert aggregate. The three basic the special aggregate is usually offset by
ingredients of ordinary concrete are water, savings realized because of the reduced
a binding agent (such as cement), and a weight of the structure.
 Concrete 67

Figure 4.4 Steel building components. (Upper)

Typical steel elements: rolled column and beams,
light trussed open-web joists and corrugated
deck. (Lower) Steel framework with infilling
floor consisting of corrugated sheet steel and
light-gage metal ducts for electrical distribu¬
tion. (Floor units are Cofar and Cel-Way by
Granco Steel Products Company, St. Louis,
Missouri.) Photo: Granco Steel Products.

Insulating Lightweight Concrete Use of light steel corrugated deck and as a fire¬
an even lighter aggregate—such as a min¬ proofing material for steel frame members.
eral substance popped like popcorn—plus
a foaming agent to produce air voids can Gypsum Concrete This is similar to
produce a material as light as one-fifth that insulating lightweight concrete except that
of ordinary stone gravel concrete. Loss of the binder consists of gypsum. The com¬
strength is unavoidable—usually roughly mon aggregate used is wood chip. Uses are
proportional to the weight reduction. This similar to those of lightweight insulating
material is widely used as insulating fill on concrete.
68 Structural Materials

Figure 4.5 Sprayed-on fireproofing material applied to steel beams and the underside of a steel
deck.

High Early Strength Concrete Concrete insects, fire, and wear. Since it is formless
made with special cement having an accel¬ in its mixed condition, it can be made to
erated strength gain, making it usable in assume a large variety of forms. Large-
one-quarter the usual time. scale, monolithic structures are naturally
formed with this material (see Figure 4.6).
White Concrete The use of special white
One of concrete’s chief shortcomings is
cement, white sand, and aggregate, and
its lack of tensile stress resistance. The use
virtually antiseptic mixing and forming
of inert or prestressed reinforcing is imper¬
equipment can result in a sparkling white
ative for any structural function involving
product, in contrast to the normal dull
considerable bending or torsion. Precisely
grey-green color.
because the material is formless, its form¬
Expansive Concrete Some use is made of ing and finishing is often one of the major
chemically altered cement that produces a expenses in its use. Factory precasting in
slight expansion of the mass during curing. permanent forms is one current technique
This may be used to neutralize the normal used to overcome this problem (see Figure
volume loss due to shrinkage, or even to 4.7).
reverse it. The latter use is the basis for the
so-called self-prestressing concrete. A prin¬
4.5 ALUMINUM
cipal advantage is in the elimination of
cracking caused by normal shrinkage.
In alloyed form, aluminum is used for a
Ordinary concrete has several attri¬ large variety of structural, decorative, and
butes, chief among which are its low bulk functional elements in building construc¬
cost and its resistance to moisture, rot, tion. Principal advantages are its light
 Plastics 69

effort is being made in experimentation

with various new adhesive compounds.
The resulting assemblage is similar to a
concrete structure and possesses many of
the-same properties. A major difference is
that the construction process does not
usually require the same amount of tem¬
porary forming and bracing as it does fora
structure of poured concrete. However, it
requires considerable hand labor, which
imposes some time limitations and makes
the endproduct highly subject to the indi¬
Figure 4.6 Temple Street parking garage, New
vidual skill of the craftsperson.
Haven, Connecticut. Reinforced concrete frame
detailed to express the natural form of a struc¬ Reinforcing techniques have been de¬
ture of monolithic material. Surface texture is veloped in recent years to extend the
produced by careful detailing of the wooden structural possibilities of masonry. Figure
forms. Architect: Paul Rudolph. Structural 4.9 shows a typical form of construction
engineer: Henry A. Pfisterer. currently in wide use in the western United
States because of its significantly improved
resistance to earthquakes.
weight (one-third that of steel) and its high Shrinkage of the mortar and thermal-
resistance to corrosion. Among the disad¬ expansion cracking are two major prob¬
vantages are its softness, its low stiffness, lems with masonry structure. Both neces¬
its high rate of thermal expansion, its lower sitate extreme care in detailing, material
resistance to fire, and its relatively high cost quality control, and field inspection during
(see Figure 4.8). construction.
Large-scale structural use in buildings
is limited primarily because of cost or
4.7 PLASTICS
increased dimensional movements caused
by the low stiffness of the material. This
Plastic elements represent the widest vari¬
low stiffness also reduces its resistance to ety of usage in building construction. The
buckling. Small-scale structural use—wall tremendous variation of material proper¬
and roof skin panels, door and window ties and formation processes provides a
frames, and hardware—is considerable, virtually unlimited field for the designer’s
however. Here its corrosion resistance, imagination. Some of the principal prob¬
easy working character, and the possibil¬ lems with plastics are lack of fire resistance,
ities for its forming in production are at low stiffness, high rate of thermal expan¬
best advantage. sion, and some cases of chemical or phys¬
ical instability with time.
Use of these materials advances steadily
4.6 MASONRY
as they replace more traditional materials
and also create entirely new functional
This term is used to describe a variety of
possibilities. A few of the more important
formations consisting of separate elements
uses in building construction are:
bonded together by some binding filler.
The elements may be cut or rough stone, Glass Substitute In clear or translucent
fired clay tile or bricks, or cast units of form, as bubble-form skylights, window
concrete. The binder is traditionally ce¬ panes, and corrugated sheet panels (see
ment-lime mortar, although considerable Figures 4.10, 5.23, and 5.33).
Figure 4.7 Precast concrete building elements. Large-scale factory-produced concrete ele¬
ments have given a new dimension to this traditional material. Accuracy of detail and quality of
finish attained exceed those possible for poured-in-place construction. (Upper) Two-story-high
exterior wall units form the shell of this building, supported by a large unique concrete platform
with only four supports. Glendale Municipal Services Building, Glendale, California. Archi¬
tects: Albert C. Martin and Associates, Los Angeles. {Lower) The exterior wall structure of this
high-rise building consists of hollow, precast concrete units filled with poured concrete during
the construction of the poured-in-place floor structure. This technique preserves many of the
best qualities of both precast and poured-in-place, monolithic construction. Beneficial Standard
Life Insurance Company Building, Los Angeles, California. Architects: Skidmore, Owings and
Merrill, San Francisco. Precast units by Rockwin Schokbeton, Santa Fe Springs, California.

70
 Plastics 71

Coatings Sprayed, painted, or rolled in

liquid form, or layed on in films or sheets to
provide protection for walls, roofs, foun¬
dation walls, and counter tops.

Adhesives The famous epoxy family of

bonding and matrix binders for connecting
and patching.

Formed Elements Mouldings, fixtures,

panels, and hardware.

Foamed In preformed or foamed-in-

place applications, as insulation and filler
for various purposes.

The development in recent years of air-

inflated and tension-sustained membrane
structures has spurred the development of
various plastic membrane and fabric prod¬
ucts for building use. Figure 4.11 shows a
simple structure consisting essentially only
of a thin plastic membrane. For larger-
scale structures, the surface material usu¬
ally consists of a reinforced fabric for
greater strength (see Figure 5.30).
The plastic-surfaced structure can also
be created by using plastic elements on a
framework. A special variation of this is
the steel cable structure that uses the cables
to define a network and then uses trans¬
lucent plastic elements to form the surface
Figure 4.8 Aluminum geodesic dome. This
(see Figure 5.27).
144-ft diameter dome was the first of its type
produced by Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical
The use of plastics for building struc¬
Sales, Inc. The dome consists of 575 preformed, tures is still inhibited by the traditional
diamond-shaped panels of thin aluminum conservatism of building regulatory agen¬
sheets. The panels were completely erected, cies, by the largely unwarranted associa¬
using a central rigging mast, in 20 working tions of cheapness and impermanence in
hours. Cast aluminum gussets serve the dual the minds of architects, engineers, and
purposes of connecting the six panels that meet public, by the oil shortage, and by increas¬
at a joint and facilitating attachment of the ing concern for the performance of plastics
rigging cables. Architects: Welton Becket and during fires. However, evolution of taste,
Edwin L. Bauer (for the first dome—a 2000-seat
custom, and design standards and the
auditorium for the Hawaiian Village Hotel in
expansion of the technology will inevitably
Honolulu). Geodesic system patented by R.
encourage its increased use. Figure 4.12
Buckminster Fuller. Photos by Werner Stoy,
shows a prototype shell structure for a
Honolulu, Hawaii; supplied by Kaiser Alu¬
minum and Chemical Sales, Inc., Oakland,
house that was developed in the early
California. 1950s.
72 Structural Materials

Figure 4.9 Reinforced masonry construction. Steel reinforcing rods are placed both vertically
and horizontally in the hollow voids and grout is placed around the rods, filling the voids. The
result is in effect similar to the creation of a two-way rigid frame of reinforced concrete inside the
wall.

4.8 SOIL and geological configuration of the site and

its substructure, water conditions, evalua¬
tion of surface soils as support for pave¬
Although soil is not used often as an actual
ments, and the special provisions necessary
building material, it is nevertheless very
to perform the excavation for construction.
much in use structurally in a variety of
ways. As a foundation material, its com¬
4.9 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
pressive resistance in terms of strength and
dimensional compaction are extremely im¬
portant. As the direct support of floor and Glass Ordinary glass possesses consider¬
paving slabs, it is really the structure in able strength, but has the undesirable
these cases. In the construction of terraces, characteristic of being brittle and subject to
berms and earth dams, it may serve the shattering under shock. Special treatment
functions of space definition and retaining. can increase its strength and shock resis¬
Construction in, on, and with soil is a tance, but it is relatively expensive for use
whole field in itself. Chief aspects of rele¬ in large quantities. Large-scale structural
vance to building design are the determina¬ use is not conceivable for this material.
tion of the basic type of foundation and its Considerable use is made, however, for
specific load limits, the orientation of the surfacing panels as well as transparent
structure to special features of the topology window panes.
Figure 4.10 Domed plastic skylights. 180 bubble-shaped skylights in metal frames form the
roof for this swimming pool at the Ambassador Motor Lodge in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The
individual bubbles of Plexiglas are 90 in. square in plan. Designers: Synergetics, Inc., Raleigh,
North Carolina. Photos: Rohm and Haas Company, Philadelphia.

Figure 4.11 Air-supported structure. Vinyl plastic sheets of 20-gage thickness with seams cold-
bonded by chemical solvent form this classically simple, highly functional pool cover. Stability is
maintained by a small air compressor that produces an internal air pressure of from 2 to 2\ lb / ft .
A simple zippered entrance plus a water-filled base edge are the only details required. Micohte
Industries of California, Van Nuys, California.

73
Figure 4.12 The Monsanto “House of the Future” at Disneyland in Anaheim, California.
Molded plastic modules reinforced with glass fiber form the roof, floors, and walls of this
experimental house that opened for display in June 1957. Developed by Monsanto Chemical
Co. in cooperation with architects Hamilton and Goody of Cambridge, Massachusetts,
following preliminary design and research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lower
photo shows a cutaway section of the floor structure.

74
 Miscellaneous Materials 75

Figure 4.13 Typical example of use of multiple materials for a single building structure. Shown
here: concrete floor slab and foundations, reinforced masonry walls, steel columns, wood beams
and plywood, composite wood and steel trusses.

Fiber Glass A special use of glass is made The most ordinary of buildings will
by producing it in fibrous form, in which it typically use a great number of different
is capable of realizing close to its ideal materials in its construction (see Figure
strength. This strength may exceed that of 4.13). A building structure is usually com¬
high-strength steel, and although its form posed of some elements of all the basic
restricts its usage, various structural utili¬ materials. Wood and steel framed struc¬
zations can be achieved. One familiar use is tures have concrete foundations; concrete
that in which the fibers are suspended in a and masonry structures use steel reinforc¬
resin, producing fiber glass reinforced ing; wood structures use a great many steel
plastic. fastening devices; and so on. Structural
Paper Paper—that is, sheet material of design typically consists of matching
basically rag or wood fiber content—is choices from an almost endless number of
used considerably in building construction. possible combinations.
It has been replaced in many uses, however, An exhaustive list of structural mate¬
by sheet plastic. Various coatings, lamina¬ rials for building would include many more
tions, impregnations, and reinforcings can types than those mentioned. I have only
be used to make the material water resis¬ described the major ones and a few minor
tant, rot resistant, or tougher. Structural ones. Continuous expansion of our tech¬
use, however, is limited to relatively minor nology and experimentation by designers
functions, one being a forming material for increases the number of materials as well as
poured concrete. Paper-faced plaster pan¬ the variety of uses of the established
els are used in “drywall.” materials.
 _ CHAPTER FIVE _

Structural Systems
The materials, products, and systems avail¬ marily one of overall structural form.
able for the construction of building struc¬ Compare the arch with the draped
tures constitute a vast inventory through cable, both in use as horizontally span¬
which the designer must sift carefully for ning elements. They are obviously
the appropriate selection in each case. The different in function. The difference,
material in this chapter presents some of however, is not one of form but of
the general issues relating to this inventory. orientation to the load.
3 The material(s) of the elements.
4 The manner of joining the elements if
5.1 ATTRIBUTES OF the system consists of an articulated set
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS of parts.
5 The manner of supporting the struc¬
A specific structural system derives its ture.
unique character from any of a number of
6 The specific loading conditions, or the
considerations—most likely from many of
forces the structure must sustain.
them simultaneously. Separately consid¬
7 The separately imposed considerations
ered, these are the following:
of usage in terms of form and scale
limits.
1 Specific structural functions, some of
which are support in compression (a 8 The limitations of form and scale of the
pier, footing, or column); support in elements and the nature of their joining
tension (a straight vertical hanger or a imposed by the properties of the mate¬
guy wire); spanning—horizontally (a rials, the production processes, and the
beam in a floor), vertically (a sheet of need for special functions such as
window glass), or in some other posi¬ demountability and movement.
tion (a sloping rafter); cantilevering—
vertically (a flagpole or tower) or hori¬ Structural systems occur in virtually
zontally (a balcony or canopy). A single endless variety. The designer, in attempting
element or system may be required to to find the ideal structure for a specific
perform more than one of these func¬ purpose, is faced with an exhaustive pro¬
tions in various situations of use. cess of comparative “shopping.” Most
2 The geometric form or orientation. designers agree that, except for a few
Note the difference between the nature special situations, there is no such thing as
of the flat beam and the arch, both of the ideal structure for any particular job.
which function as horizontally span¬ At best, the shopping can narrow the field
ning structures. The difference is pri¬ to a few acceptable solutions.

76
 Attributes of Structural Systems 77

A checklist of sorts can be used to rate

the available systems for a given purpose.
The following are some items that may be
included in such a list:

Economy The economy of the structure

itself as well as its influence on the overall
economy of the project. Special considera¬
tion may be given factors such as delay
because of slow construction, adaptability
to modifications, and first cost versus
maintenance cost over the life of the
structure.

Special Structural Requirements Unique

aspects of the structure’s action, details
required for development of its strength
and stability, adaptability to special load¬
ing, need for symmetry or modular ar¬
rangement. Thus arches require horizontal
resisting forces at their bases to resist their
thrusts, tension elements must be hung
from something, structures of thin metal
parts must be stiffened for stability against
buckling, and domes must have some de¬
gree of symmetry and a concentric con¬
tinuity.

Problems of Design Difficulty of per¬

forming an analysis of the structural ac¬
tion, ease of detailing the structure, ease of
integrating the physical structure with the
detail requirements of its use.

Problems of Construction Availability of

materials and of skilled labor and equip¬
Figure 5.1 Santa Ines Mission Church, Santa ment, adaptability to unitized fabrication
Ynez Valley, California. Historical craft-devel¬
and assembly and to prefabrication, speed
oped building techniques are illustrated in this
of erection, special requirements for tem¬
structure, built in the early part of the last
porary bracing or support, required skill
century. Huge buttresses of adobe and brick
brace the walls of the church—a reaction to the
and precision of field work.
destruction of an earlier church by an earth¬ Material and Scale Limitations The fea¬
quake. Hand-hewn wood beams and planks sibility range of size for specific systems.
form the roof of the arcade, supported on one
These vary with the development of new
side by a series of brick arches. Although these
materials and new techniques and with
forms and techniques are the endproducts of a
experimentation of new uses for existing
long development of building tradition and still
in effect valid, they have been made largely
systems. Though records are transient,
obsolete by our contemporary industrialized certain practical limits do exist and, in
technology. many cases, are virtually insurmountable.
78 Structural Systems

5.2 CATEGORIZATION OF
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Structural systems can be categorized in a

variety of ways. One broad differentiation
is that made between solid structures,
framed structures, and surface structures.
Solid structures (Figure 5.2) are those
in which strength and stability are achieved
through mass, even though the structure is
not completely solid. Large piers and abilt- ■
ments, dams, sea walls, retaining walls,
caves, and ancient burial pyramids are
examples. These structures are highly resis¬
tive to forces such as those created by
blasts, violent winds, wave action, and
vibrations. Although their exact analysis
may be highly indeterminate, the distribu¬
tion of load stresses may be diffuse enough
to allow simple approximations with a
reasonable assurance of safety.
In framed structures (Figure 5.3), the
essential structure consists of a network of
assembled elements. The building, bridge,
or ship is completed by filling in the voids
as required between these spaced elements.
Even though the infilling elements may
have a structural character themselves and
serve to stiffen and brace the frame, they
Figure 5.3 Framed structures.

are not primary elements of the basic

structure. Animal skeletons, steel beam
and column systems, and trussed towers
are examples. These structures are gener¬
ally most adaptable to variations in form,
dissymmetry of layout or detail, and the
carrying of special loads. They can be
cumbersome, however, if the complexity of
their assembly details becomes excessive.
The attachment of the infilling elements
must also be facilitated.
Surface structures (Figure 5.4) can be
very efficient because of their simultaneous
twofold function as structure and enclosure
and because they may be inherently very
stable and strong, especially in the case of
three-dimensional forms. They are, how-
 Structural Walls 79

systems and possibly even invent systems

with no existing categorical identification.
A complete presentation of all conceiv¬
able structural materials and systems and a
discussion of their relative merits, poten¬
tialities, and limitations would undoubt¬
edly fill a volume several times the size of
this book. Indeed it may require several
volumes. Nevertheless, a short survey of
traditional systems with some commentary
follows.
The categorization used—for example,
post and beam and arch—has no particular
preference or relative significance. It is
merely a convenient one for discussion. It
has an open end, since it does not preclude
new categories.

5.3 STRUCTURAL WALLS

It seems to be a direct structural develop¬

ment to use the enclosing and dividing
walls of a building for support and bracing.
When this system is utilized there are
usually two distinct elements in the total
Figure 5.4 Surface structures. building structure:

The Walls Used to provide lateral sta¬

ever, somewhat limited in resisting con¬
bility as well as to support the spanning
centrated loads and in facilitating sudden
elements.
discontinuities such as openings. Further¬
Spanning Elements Function as floors or
more, the mathematics of their analysis can
be extremely complicated. roofs.
Other categorizations can be made for
particular types of construction or config¬ The spanning elements are usually
uration of the structure. Thus we describe structurally distinct from the walls and can
certain family groups such as structural be considered separately. They may consist
walls, post and beam, arch, suspension, of a variety of assemblies, from simple
pneumatic, trussed, folded plate, or thin wooden boards and joists to complex pre¬
shell systems. Each of these has certain cast concrete or steel truss units. The flat
characteristics and is subject to specific spanning system is discussed as a separate
material-scale limitations. Each lends itself category.
most aptly to certain uses. A knowledge of Bearing walls are essentially compres¬
the specific attributes of the various sys¬ sion elements. They may be monolithic, or
tems is essential to the designer but can be they may be frameworks assembled of
gained only by exhaustive study and some many pieces. They may be uninterrupted,
experience. The inventive designer can, of or they may be pierced in a variety of ways
course, consider new variations of the basic (see Figure 5.5). Holes for windows and
80 Structural Systems

close together, resulting in what is actually

'•' O ' 0 . : a transition from the solid wall to a series of
spaced piers, or columns. Different in
structural character but similar in form is
Spaced openings,
the structure in which a heavy beam is used
con + muoui ujall
at the base of the wall and is supported by a
series of spaced columns.
A fine line of distinction exists between
a framed bearing wall and a skin wall
applied to a structural frame (Figure 5.6).
■ Consider the^traditional wood stud wall,
Spaced openings,

discontinuous uoall
consisting of wood two-by-fours on 16 in.
■v .

■^r\:rS:r^
arcaded bottom

arcaded bottom

on -top o-fr columns

solid to a 11 coith transfer

girder ^ spaced columns at base

toall ot closely spaced columns

uM+h frans+er ‘^trde.r'

totdel^ Spaced columns a+ base

Figure 5.5 Opening up the structural wall.

doors may be punched in the solid wall,

and, as long as their heads are framed and
they are arranged so as not to destroy the
structural potential of the wall, the struc¬
ture remains intact.
A special case of the pierced wall is the
arcaded bottom. This is a wall whose base
is opened up a considerable degree by a
series of arches. The arches are placed very Figure 5.6 Framed walls with infill.
 Structural Walls 81

centers to which two surfaces are attached.

These surfaces may be lath and plaster,
wood boards and siding, plywood sheets,
or gypsum drywall panels. While this struc¬
ture is a framework initially—the two-by-
fours alone—it becomes a monolithic, rigid
wall when surfaces are attached. The sur¬
faces will unavoidably interact with the
two-by-fours, especially in resisting lateral
force in the plane of the wall.
In contrast to the wood stud wall,
which is monolithic in character, consider
the cases of a steel frame to which a light
surface is attached. This surface may be,
for example, thin corrugated aluminum
sheets or light wood-framed window units.
If the steel frame is relatively rigid, the wall stable in both directions

surface probably has little interaction with

Figure 5.7 Stability of walls.
it, or at least contributes very little to the
overall structural resistance of the system.
plane of the walls would not be resisted as
In fact, to prevent damage to the surface
easily. If the other two walls of the struc¬
wall, the detailing of the assemblage may
ture are also rigid, they may, of course,
deliberately eliminate load transfer be¬
function to resist horizontal forces parallel
tween the frame and the wall. The deflec¬
to their planes, thus providing complete
tion of a beam at the edge of a floor or roof,
support for the building. Another device,
for example, must not be restrained by the
however, is that of simply turning the two
wall unless the.wall is capable of supporting
end walls slightly around the corners, as
the beam.
shown in the lower illustration. This makes
Even though not used for vertical load
them independently stable against hori¬
transfer, walls are often used to provide
zontal forces from all directions.
lateral stability. This can be achieved by the
The device just illustrated is one tech¬
wall acting independently or in combined
nique for stabilizing the flat wall against
interaction with the frame of the building.
horizontal force perpendicular to its plane.
An example of the latter is a plywood sheet
It may also be necessary to stabilize the
attached to a series of wooden studs. Even
wall against buckling under vertical loads if
if it does not share in vertical load develop¬
it is very tall and thin. In addition to folding
ment, it will function in preventing lateral
or curving the wall in plan, some other
collapse of the studs. This lateral bracing
means for achieving this transverse resis¬
potential of the rigid vertical plane is often
tance are given below (see Figure 5.8).
utilized in stabilizing buildings against the
forces of wind or seismic shock. Spreading the Base This can be done by
Consider the simple structure shown in actually fattening the wall toward its base
Figure 5.7, which consists of a single space as with a gravity dam or by attaching the
bounded by four walls and a flat roof. The wall rigidly to a broad footing.
two heavy vertical end walls in the upper Stiffening the Wall with Ribs The wall
illustration are capable of resisting hori¬ can be thickened locally, forming mono¬
zontal force in a direction parallel to the lithic ribs, or pilasters, which also function
plane of the walls. However, horizontal to receive concentrated vertical loads on
forces in a direction perpendicular to the the wall.
82 Structural Systems

Bracing the Wall External bracing de¬

vices such as buttresses, struts, and guys
function strictly for lateral force resistance.

If the wall functions as a horizontal

spanning element, as it does in the arcaded
base structure, its basic structural behavior
depends on the ratio of the span to the
height of the wall. If this ratio is less than
tripod action
three or so, the wall does not act strictly as a
with spread base beam but develops a corbeling or arching
action depending on the construction and
material of the wall. A horizontal lintel
placed over an opening in a masonry wall
does not actually support the entire wall
directly over it but only some triangular
portion immediately above it. If this trian¬
gular portion is eliminated, the form of the
corbeled opening is anticipated, whereby
the wall spans the opening effortlessly. If
an arch is used for the top of the opening, it
may actually function as little more than a
liner for the opening.
Let us briefly consider the use of some
of the traditional materials for structural
walls.

Masonry The widest use of structural

masonry walls is in units of precast con¬
crete. Some use is also made of brick, tile,
and composite brick-concrete block con¬
struction. Advances in the development of
mortars, mortar-replacing adhesives, rein¬
forcing techniques, expansion-joint mate¬
rials, insulating and surface sealing ma¬
terials, and prefabrication techniques keep
this ancient construction system competi¬
tive with more recently developed building
curved or folded
systems. Dependence on the skill of hand
labor remains a problem. The qualities of
solidity, apparent permanence, and dura¬
bility make it appealing to the public. The
sheer weight of the construction can be an
advantage in providing stability and solid¬
ity but also adds to the weight that must be
borne by the supporting structures and
Figure 5.8 Various means of stabilizing walls. foundations.
 Post and Beam 83

Reinforced Concrete Since its rebirth in walls give lateral bracing to the frame and
the middle of the last century, this material also add the desired degree of solidity to the
has steadily taken over many of the func¬ structure.
tions previously performed by masonry.
Major expenses in the poured concrete wall
are the forming and reinforcing required. Plastics Plastics currently enjoy their
No other material can achieve the degree of widest use in composite elements such as
monolithicity and shear massiveness pos¬ the metal-faced sandwich panel mentioned
sible with this material. above. The same panel may, however, be
The fairly recent widespread develop¬ plastic-faced. The potential for all plastic
ment of large-scale precast concrete struc¬ structural elements has not yet been exten¬
tural elements has added a new dimension sively explored.
to uses of concrete. Other technological
developments in the basic materials, the
mixing and placing techniques, and special 5.4 POST AND BEAM
reinforcing by prestressing have broken old
barriers of scale, form, detail, finish, and Primitive cultures’ use of tree trunks as
limits of the structural system. building elements were the origin of this
basic system. Later expansion of the
vocabulary of materials into stone, ma¬
Wood As a structural wall material,
sonry, concrete, and metals carried over
wood is largely limited to the stud wall and
the experience and tradition of form and
the plywood sheet. Wall surfacing of
detail established with wood. This same
boards for the most part has been replaced
tradition, plus the real potentialities inher¬
by large-dimension sheets of plywood and
ent in the system, keep this building tech¬
fiberboard. Though wood is strong and
nique a major part of our structural
tough, its lack of fire resistance and dimen¬
repertoire (see Figure 5.9).
sional instability with moisture and tem¬
The two basic elements of the system
perature change are still drawbacks. Its
are the post and the beam (lintel):
relative cheapness and simplicity of han¬
dling make it highly competitive, however,
Post Essentially a linear compression
wherever it is functionally sufficient. The
element subject to crushing or buckling,
aesthetic appeal of natural exposed wood is
depending on its relative slenderness.
often a major factor in its preference.
Beam (Lintel) Essentially a linear ele¬
ment subject to transverse load; must
Metal Steel frames with interactive infill develop internal resistance to shear and
panels or surfacing are increasingly used in bending and resist excessive deflection
the current trend toward the industrializa¬ (sag).
tion of the building process. Corrugated or
pleated sheet metal or metal-faced sand¬ Critical aspects of the system are the
wich panels with plastic cores are also in relation of length to radius of gyration (or
increasing use. Lack of dead weight can be simple thickness) of the post and the rela¬
advantageous but can also result in a tion of depth to span of the beam. Effi¬
lightness and flexibility that gives a feeling ciency of the geometric cross-sectional
of flimsiness to the structure. A common shape of the beam in bending resistance is
system is the steel frame with masonry, also critical. (See the discussion of bending
precast concrete, or even poured concrete in Chapter 3.)
infilling walls. In the last named system the The stability of the system under lateral
84 Structural Systems

Figure 5.9 Buena Park Civic Center, Buena Park, California. Self-stabilizing masonry
columns and simply detailed wood framing produce a structure with a clear lineage of historical
development. The parts of the structure, however, are quite evidently of contemporary industrial
origin. Architects: Smith and Williams, South Pasadena, California.

loading is critical in two different ways (see Some variations on the basic system are
Figure 5.10). Consider first the resistance to the following (see Figure 5.11).
horizontal load in the same plane as the
frame. This resistance can be provided in a Use of Extended Beam Ends Produces
number of ways, for instance, by fixing the overhangs, or cantilevers. This serves to
base of the posts, using self-stabilizing reduce the degree of bending and sag at the
posts, connecting the posts and beam center of the span, thus increasing the
rigidly (as in the legs of a table), using relative efficiency of the spanning element.
trussing or X-bracing, or by using a suffi¬
Rigid Attachment of Beam and Posts A
ciently rigid infilling panel.
device for producing stability in the plane
Stability against horizontal loads per¬
of the frame, as already discussed. It
pendicular to the plane of the frame is a
achieves some reduction of bending and
slightly different situation. Many of the
sag at midspan of the beam, but does so at
same techniques of bracing can be used for
the expense of the post—in contrast to the
this also. Another possibility is having an
extended beam ends. It also produces an
interaction between the frame and the
outward kick at the base of the post.
infilling elements used to span from frame
to frame, since the three-dimensional Rigid Attachment with Extended Beam
building usually implies a set, or series, of Ends Combines the stabilizing advantage
frames. of the rigid attachment with the sag and
 bracing required for:

lateral force lateral force

in plane normal to
of frame plqne of frame

brace in plane of frame by:

k-J Lj

cantilevered columns trussing rigid joints rigid wall plane

attached to frame

brace normal to plane of frame by same means, or:

use a horizontal diaphragm

to distribute lateral forces

brace a row by bracing a single bay

Figure 5.10 Bracing of framed structures for lateral loads. (From Simplified Building Design
for Wind and Earthquake Forces, James Ambrose and Dimitry Vergun, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1980, with permission.)

85
86 Structural Systems

1
1
~~ "-
Widened Post Top with Rigid Attachment
Cant i levered overhangs

crea+e reverse bending

and Extended Beam Ends Can combine
advantages of all three techniques.
Continuous (Monolithic, Multispan)Beam
Produces the same effects as the extended
rigid conneciion of pos+s
/ -'' beam ends for the single span. Additional
1 i
and beam "transfers some
l
1
l
gain is in the tying together of the system. A
i bending in+o pos+s
variation in which internal joints are placed
off the column preserves the advantages of
the bending and sag reductions but allows
combination of cantilevers shorter beam, segments. This latter is an
and rigid connections advantage in wood, steel, and precast con¬
crete structures. Poured-in-plaqe concrete
can, of course, achieve virtually any desired
u-ndened post tops reduce length of monolithic structure.
V --V length of Span for beam

but may cause eccentric

As with the wall-bearing structure, the
load on posts as beam sags post and beam requires the use of a second¬
ary structural system for infilling to pro¬
duce the solid surfaces of walls, floors, and
roofs (see Figure 5.12). A great variety is

3LAT
combinabon ot canti levers,

rigid connections, and possible in these systems, as discussed in

iwidened fops ot posfs
the section on walls and flat spanning
systems. One possible variation is to com¬
bine the post and wall monolithically,
I-- ~~ _ ~ ~ - /
producing a series of pilasters. Similarly,
the beam and flat deck may be combined
monolithically, producing a continuous
reverse bending created by making fhe
ribbed deck or a series of T-shaped beams.
beam continuous through several spans,
The post and beam suggests the devel¬
creafing effect Similar to cantilevers
opment of rectilinear arrangements and
simple, straight forms. The beam, however,
may be curved in plan, tilted from the
horizontal (as a roof rafter), or have other
Continuous beam ettect produced ujith
than a flat top or bottom. Posts can be
short separate 'fabricated beam segments
T-shaped, Y-shaped, V-shaped, or multi¬
Figure 5.11 Variations of the post and beam.
tiered. The system, in fact, lends itself to a
greater degree of variation than practically
any other system, which is one reason for
bending reduction of the extended ends. If its continuing widespread use (see Fig¬
carefully designed, the bending in the posts ure 5.13).
and kick at the base can be eliminated. Materials can be separately considered
Widened Top of Post Serves to reduce for the post and beam. Masonry, for
the span of the beam. As the beam deflects example, is a possibility for the post, but
and curves, however, its load becomes highly unlikely for the beam. In the main—
concentrated at the edge of the top of the for structures of building scale—the mate¬
post, thus causing bending in the post. rials are limited to wood, stone and ma¬
Several variations are possible using, for sonry, concrete, and steel. Let us consider a
example, V-shaped or Y-shaped posts. few possibilities and problems with these.
 Post and Beam 87

Stone This was the material exploited by

ancient cultures but is virtually unused in
se porate deck
our time, except in masonry structures.
over be acn s
The horizontal span of beams is highly
restricted by the low tensile stress resistance
in the material.

Masonry This has several advantages for

posts, including fire resistance, stiffness,
solidity, durability, and dimensional sta¬
bility. A rather stout post, however, is
inevitable. The connection between post
and beam is limited in detail and types of
feasible load transfer (see Figure 5.9).

Concrete Reinforced concrete overcomes

the tensile limits of the basic stonelike
material, making beams and rigid frame
action of columns possible. Prestressing
Separate posts <and has extended the span limitations to a
inf \ \ 11 oja I Is degree as yet unestablished.
More variation of form is possible in
this material than in any other because of
its cast production. Dimensional stability
with time is generally good. However, the
monol t + h ic material has a time-strain characteristic—
post + UJ<xl I called the creep effect—that causes some
sag accumulation with time in beams. Fire,
rot, weathering, and wear resistance are all
high.
Weight is generally a disadvantage,
ind i V id ua I especially for beams. Compared to wood
uja 11 + post units or steel, concrete is more than five times
less efficient in strength-to-weight ratio.
Weight reduction techniques (use of light¬
weight aggregate and hollow, or T-shapes)
Figure 5.12 Infilling the post and beam system. are of considerable significance for beams.

Steel The cost of this material dictates the

use of hollow, I-shaped or T-shaped forms.
Wood Glue lamination and the use of Corrosion problems usually necessitate
complex built-up shapes can extend the painting or other finishing. The need for
form and scale possibilities of wood. Solid Fire resistance often requires that the steel
forms are limited to rectangular shapes. be encased in insulative materials. The use
Fire resistance and dimensional instability of standard, factory-formed, linear ele¬
are still problems. Recent innovations with ments is usually most practical. However,
composite wood-plywood systems open complex forms can be built up, at large or
new system variations and form possibil¬ small scale, by welding or riveting.
ities in wood. Dimensional stability and other time
 88 Structural Systems

factors are generally good. Rigid frames comparison to the simple post and beam
can be achieved easily by various connec¬ systems. The rigid frame action may be
tion techniques. restricted to a single plane, or it may be
extended in all directions in the three-
5.5 RIGID FRAME dimensional framework (see Figure 5.14).
The joints take on a high degree of
When the members of a linear framework importance in this system. In fact, in the
are rigidly attached—that is, when the usual case, the highest magnitude of
joints are capable of transferring bending stresses and internal force are concentrated
between the members—the system assumes at the joints. If the frame is assembled from
a particular character. If all joints are rigid, separate elements, the jointing must be
it is impossible to load any one member studied carefully for structural function
transversely without causing bending in all and feasibility.
members. This, plus the inherent stability A popular form of rigid frame is the
of the system, are its unique aspects in gabled frame, in which two elements are
 Rigid Frame 89

ri^id frAme Action t irvf ev-'Act-ton of ei-s through rigid jom+mg

r~ ^fl_K“L *i \ ■-a---

rigid frame unils combined cuith no n - rig id I .jointed elements

Figure 5.14 Rigid frames.

joined at the top of the gable peak, usually some radius of turn, rather than sharply
by a single hinge joint. This system is a made. The lapped joint is generally limited
logical one in laminated wood and is, in to small scale or to low magnitudes- of
fact, one of the few possibilities for the rigid moment transfer.
frame in wood. It is often used in steel or A recent innovation is the plywood-
precast concrete as well. wood structure, in which webs or skins of
Let us consider some of the problems plywood are used to provide continuity
and possibilities in the various materials. between the separate wood pieces.

Wood Jointing is difficult, two possibil¬ Steel Welding can produce the highest
ities being the monolithic joint in laminated degree of monolithicity in the steel frame,
wood and the lapped joint. The laminated but bolting or riveting can also be used to
joint, or corner, is limited to angles larger produce rigid joints. These joints become
than 90° and must usually be eased by very complex and must be carefully de-
90 Structural Systems

tailed. Frames are usually composed of for example, by keying or extending the
stock linear elements (I, H, T, L, U, and reinforcing.
tube), but may be produced in virtually any Precasting usually results in some loss
form by cutting and assembling steel plates of the monolithic character of the total
and angles (see Figure 5.15). system. This is not necessarily detrimental
A widely used system is the multi¬ and may be reduced by casting units that
storied, multibayed, steel cage frame for are planar or even three-dimensional in¬
the high-rise building. Although the use of stead of all separate linear elements. Never¬
concrete is steadily climbing, the tallest theless, jointing of the elements is one of
buildings in the world to date use this the most critical design problems in precast
framing system. The rigid framework alohe '* concrete frames.
is rather flexible in resisting horizontal
forces, however, and is often braced by Occasionally the rigid frame action is
trussing or with infilling walls of reinforced objectionable—for instance, when the
concrete in order to increase its stiffness. beam transfers large bending to a small
column or causes large curvature or kick at
Reinforced Concrete The poured-in- the base of a column. It is sometimes
place concrete framework is naturally rigid, necessary to avoid the rigid frame action
since, the joints are monolithic. Even when deliberately or to control it by using special
the structure is made by dividing the whole joint detailing that controls the magnitude
system into vertical and horizontal incre¬ of bending or the actual joint turning,
ments which are poured separately, this which can be transferred between the
monolithic character is usually preserved— members.

Figure 5.15 Steel rigid frame. Welded steel elements produce a simple structure of clearly
expressed function. Pump island canopy. Union Oil Company, Southern California.
 Flat Spanning Systems 91

Figure 5.16 shows four possibilities for 5.6 FLAT SPANNING SYSTEMS
the construction of a simple, single-span,
rigid frame. While the basic profile form of Compared to the arch, the dome, or the
the four alternatives may be the same, the draped catenary, the flat spanning struc¬
construction details and the means for ture is very hard-working. In fact, it is only
including joints for field erection is essen¬ exceeded by the cantilever in this respect.
tially unique for each of the basic materials Consequently, scale limits can only be
used.
overcome by various techniques that im-

Figure 5.16 Four ways to construct a simple single span rigid frame. (From Simplified
Building Design for Wind and Earthquake Forces, James Ambrose and Dimitry Vergun, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, with permission.)
92 Structural Systems

prove its efficiency. One of these is to 1, less than 10 percent of the resistance will
develop the system as a two-way rather be offered by the long span.
than a one-way spanning system. For a The other chief device for increasing
simple flat plate the load-bearing strength efficiency is to improve the bending charac¬
can thus be increased by almost 50 percent teristic of the spanning elements. A simple
and the deflection reduced by an even example is the difference in effectiveness
higher degree (see Figure 5.17). illustrated by a flat sheet of paper and one
Maximum benefit is derived from two- that has been pleated or corrugated. The
way spanning if the spans are equal. The real concept involved is that of increasing
more different they become, the less the the depth of the element; the flat-sheet
work in the long direction. At a ratio of 2 to • form has the least depth possible, whereas

essentially less efficient than.T shapes , I shapes , box shapes, etc.

□□□ ooc
hollouJ

a solid slab is
less efficient than .

munur xkkk
or corrugated slabs uoi+h various confu^urations

Figure 5.17 Elements of flat spanning systems.

 Flat Spanning Systems 93

the sandwich panel with two sheets sepa¬ (see Figure 4.3). The deeper the ribs and the
rated by considerable space is at the other heavier the gage of the sheet, the longer the
extreme. span possibilities. Units of this kind may be
A critical relationship in the flat span, used for spans of up to 20 ft or more.
as in the beam, is the ratio of the span to the However, the largest use is in the 5 to 10 ft
depth. Load capacity falls off rapidly as range.
this ratio is pushed to its limits. Resistance The corrugated surface is not useful for
to deflection is often more critical than either flooring or roofing, and some filler
resistance to the stresses in bending or element must be used. For roofs, the filler
shear. usually also functions as insulation. For
Efficiency can also be increased by floors, poured concrete is usually used for
extending the element beyond its supports, its stiffness, and its added weight gives
by using monolithic elements continuous solidity.
over several spans, or by developing bend¬ Beam and deck systems are useful in
ing transfer between the element and its steel, and steel beams are used with a
supports (all the tricks already illustrated variety of other decks: wood, concrete,
for the beam). precast concrete, gypsum. A special system
It is probably easiest to discuss specific consists of steel beams tied to a concrete
systems for flat spanning in terms of deck so that the two interact, the deck
materials. adding to the strength of the beams.
Light steel trusses—called open web
Wood The simplest system is the flat
joists, or bar joists—are widely used in
wood deck made of wood boards or ply¬
place of steel beams. These are extremely
wood. This is mostly used for short spans
efficient and are discussed under the sub¬
of a few feet or so. However, solid wood
ject of trusses.
deck is available in up to 5.5 in. thickness
A unique system is the two-way inter¬
for spans up to 20 ft. For longer spans, the
secting truss system for flat spans. This
system commonly used is that of a series of
two-way continuity is possible because of
closely spaced wood beams, or joists, with
the typical construction detailing of the
a light wood deck spanning from joist to
steel truss system (Figures 5.22 and 5.23).
joist. As the span of the system increases,
the spacing of the beams must be increased, Reinforced Concrete Poured-in-place or
so that for long spans there may be a precast concrete flat-span systems offer the
second beam system of shorter span be¬ largest variety of type and detail (Figure
tween the large beams. 5.18). Although wood and steel are largely
Deflection is often the critical limita¬ limited to one-way spanning elements
tion for beam spans. The deck is limited by (except for the steel truss), concrete can
the need for eliminating bounciness, if it achieve one-way or two-way spanning with
constitutes a floor. Sag with time is a equal dexterity.
critical problem in the flat-spanning wood One- Way Slab The simple solid slab is
structure. very useful, but limited to relatively short
Recent experimentation with plywood- spans because of its weight and low effi¬
wood elements have produced some new ciency. In special instances, weight reduc¬
thinking for wood systems. Sandwich tion can be achieved by using forming
panels consisting of two faces of thin elements to create hollow voids in the slab.
plywood separated by light wood joists are Thus a slab several feet thick can be
one possibility. created.
Steel Light sheet steel in corrugated or One-Way Monolithic Beam and Slab
ribbed form is a widely used deck material This system is extensively used and is the
94 Structural Systems

Figure 5.18 Concrete flat spanning systems. (Upper left) Traditional form of post and beam
elements, executed in precast concrete. (Upper right) The ultimate flat-span use of the
monolithic concrete in a two-way spanning slab without beams. Concentrated forces at the
column are relieved by enlarging the top of the column. (Lower left) In the more efficient and
sophisticated “waffle” system, the two-way spanning capability of the concrete is exploited by
producing a grid of beams and a thin slab. The concentrated forces at the column are handled by
making a heavy solid element around the column top. (Lower right) The two-way spanning
potential of the poured concrete is developed in a large grid-beam roof. Great Western Savings
and Loan Association, Gardena, California. Architects: Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, San
Francisco.

most versatile system in terms of variations Two- Way Slab, Edge Supported The
in layout, accommodation of special loads, spanning possibility of the solid slab is
and framed openings. The slab produces a extended by capitalizing on the advantages
T-beam action with the ribs, increasing already discussed. Edge supports may be
their efficiency. A special case is the monolithic beams or bearing walls.
concrete joist system in which narrow
beams are very closely spaced, emulating Two- Way Slab, No Beams Called the flat
the traditional wood-joist construction. slab, or flat plate system, this consists of
The slab thus becomes very thin—usually 2 only column supports and slab. The high
to 3 in.—and the resulting structure is the concentration of stress in the slab in the
lightest in weight of all flat-span concrete vicinity of the column may be eased by
systems. Its relative lack of fire resistance, widening the top of the column or by
however, is a drawback. thickening the slab, or both.
 Truss Systems 95

Two-Way Ribbed Slab (Waffle) This is P r e tension m

really a two-way grid of beams, possible

only in monolithically cast concrete. Span "forms placed and

limits are considerably longer than for the cables -fensioned

solid slab.
concrete poured and
Corrugated or Folded Slab This is a giant allowed to Harden

version of the corrugated sheet steel deck.

Span possibilities are considerable, espe¬ cable rel eased , forms

removed, cable force

cially with the use of prestressing. Intricate
transferred to concrete
patterns of folding are possible.
through surface bond

Precast Units These may be simple solid

post tensioning
or voided slab units, used in the same
manner as the one-way solid slab, or units,
for example, of T, U, F, and TT shape. The forms placed and

slack cable installed

longest flat spans are currently achieved in
concrete with these units, using prestressed
reinforcing.
Concrete poured and

allowed to har d e n

anchor jack-, r . , .
Prestressed Concrete Prestressing refers { torms removed , cable

to a stress condition deliberately induced in jacked against concrete,

cjrouf forced into sheath

an element before it sustains its loading
to bond cable , jack and
stresses. The purpose is usually that of
anchor removed
counteracting or canceling some of the
Figure 5.19 Prestressing concrete by pretension¬
stresses of the load. The most common
ing and posttensioning.
means for imparting prestressing force to
concrete is by stretching high-strength steel
wire or cables (called tendons) inside the tendons at one end and stretching at the
concrete mass in such a way that their other end while pushing against the con¬
tensile force is transferred to the concrete crete. Once stretched, the tendons can
as compression, through bond or end be bonded to the concrete by pumping
anchoring of the tendons. cement grout into the holes around the
The two basic ways of prestressing with tendons. When the grout has hardened,
steel tendons are the following (see Figure the tendons can be released as in pre¬
5.19). tensioning.

Pretensioning The tendons are stretched

inside the forms and the concrete is
5.7 TRUSS SYSTEMS
deposited around them. Once the concrete
has hardened to a sufficient strength, the
A framework of linear elements connected
tendons are released and transmit the
by joints can be stabilized independently by
prestressing force by bonding to the
guys, struts, or rigid infilling panels. If it is
concrete.
internally stabilizing, or self-stabilizing, it
Posttensioning The tendons are inserted becomes so through one of two means. The
in holes in the precast concrete (or cast first is the use of rigid joints, as previously
inside loose sleeves or conduits) and the discussed. This results both in shear and
tensile force is produced by anchoring the bending in the members of the frame and
96 Structural Systems

usually in considerable movement or de¬ trussing, and when the structural element
flection of the frame under lateral loads. produced is a flat-spanning or cantilever-
The second means of stabilizing a linear ing planar unit, it is called simply a truss.
framework is by arranging the members in The triangulated frame can also be used to
patterns of planar triangles or spatial tetra¬ produce other structural forms such as
hedrons (see Figure 5.20). This is called rigid frames, arches, three-dimensional

structural efficiency of the

truss derives from the mi nimum mam mum
Spatial separation of mass se parat ion
opposed masses of material

rectilinear frames rigid frame

or trussini
must be stabilized by... action

common truss forms

are named for Fink or W truss Belgian truss
their developers
or their geometry

FVatt truss Houue truss

a touuei za < >

composed of K truss Warren truss
four vertical

planar trusses

arches and rigid fi

trussing instead of solid elements

can be “trussed"
Figure 5.20 Basic aspects of trussed structures.
 Truss Systems 97

towers, and two-way flat span systems. If stouter the members, the less the “pure”
the overall element has some other classi¬ truss action.
fication, it is referred to as a trussed arch or An almost infinite variety of truss con¬
a trussed tower. figurations is possible. The particular
The triangular subdivision of the planar \ configuration, the loads sustained, the
system, or the tetrahedral subdivision of scale, the material, and the jointing meth¬
the spatial system, produces geometric ods are all design considerations. Let us
units that are nondeformable—that is, the consider some of the materials and possi¬
arrangement cannot be changed without bilities.
changing the length of a member or dis¬
connecting a joint. This is one of the basic Wood Wood trusses of considerable size
concepts at work in the truss. The other is were used hundreds of years ago, long
the technique of causing widely spaced before any rational analysis procedures
small masses of material to interact, giving were developed. Today we use wood trusses
the ultimate maximum efficiency in bend¬ mostly for short to medium spans (20 to
ing resistance (see the discussion of bending 100 ft). Modern jointing techniques, the
efficiency in Chapter 3). use of steel tension members, and the
The multiplicity of joints in the trussed emphasis on factory prefabrication, make
system makes their detailing a major item contemporary wood trusses considerably
in truss design. The logic of form of the different from their ancient predecessors
linear members derives as much, if not (see Figure 5.21).
more, from the jointing as from their A very widely used wood truss is the
function as tension-resistive or compres¬ small W-shaped truss of light two-by-fours
sion-resistive elements. The elimination of or two-by-sixes, used to form the gable
bending and shear in the members is, by the roof of wood-framed residences. Another
way, another basic concept of the truss and popular form is the bowstring truss, actu¬
is actually or essentially achieved in many ally in the form of a tied arch.
trusses. The less flexible the joints and the A great advantage of the truss is the low

Figure 5.21 Large 120 ft span wood bowstring trusses form the roof of this factory in
Minnesota.
98 Structural Systems

deflection that results under load, if ade¬ leaps over the St. Lawrence River with a
quate depth-to-span ratios are maintained. clear center span of 1800 ft.
The W-shaped truss of light wood experi¬ One of the great engineering tours de
ences virtually no deflection under a work¬ force of all time, the Eiffel Tower, is a
ing load, as compared to a flat span beam trussed steel structure. The tallest human
system of heavy timbers for the same span. made structure in the world is a trussed
A currently popular jointing system for steel shaft television transmission tower,
the light wood truss uses plywood joint guyed by steel cables.
panels, called “gussetts,” which are glued to Steel offers a much wider range of
all members at a joint. The truss is thus jointing and member forms than wood
actually glued together. Larger-scale , does. In the small open-web joist the
trusses usually consist of multiple-piece members may be simple solid rods, light T’s
members that intertwine at the joints, like or L’s, or even heavy gage sheet metal
your fingers when your hands meet in the folded to form shapes. Jointing at small
praying gesture. Special metal locking de¬ scale is usually by.simple direct welding of
vices, called shear developers are some¬ members to each other. As the scale in¬
times used between the faces of the over¬ creases, the form of the members and the
lapping wood pieces; the joint is then tied jointing become more complex. The largest
by bolting. members in the Quebec Bridge and the
Eiffel Tower are themselves huge structural
Steel Steel trusses are used at both elements several.feet in diameter.
extremes of scale. The small truss pre¬ The two-way truss—often called a
viously referred to as the open-web joist space frame, although the term is confusing
(Figure 4.3), is widely used for building —has been developed largely in steel (Fig¬
roofs and floors of short to medium span. ure 5.22). A small-scale system developed
These are factory assembled and installed by the Unistrut Corporation consists of
like wood or steel beams. At the other end what are actually small-dimension scaf¬
of the scale is the great steel cantilever truss folding elements, assembled by simple
of the Quebec Bridge, built in 1917, which bolting in patterns that generate from a

Figure 5.22 Two-way spanning steel truss supported on only four columns. The columns have
four-fingered tops to reduce the concentrated effects of force in the truss. Overall size of the roof
is 216 by 297 ft. Pekin High School Gym, Pekin, Illinois. Architects: Foley, Hackler, Thompson
and Lee, Peoria, Illinois. Structural engineers: The Engineers Collaborative, Chicago.
 Truss Systems 99

basic modular unit in the form of a square- Reinforced Concrete Inconceivable as it

based pyramid. seems, there has been considerable exploi¬
A large-scale two-way truss was used tation of the reinforced concrete truss. The
for the roof of the main dining hall in the advent of higher quality materials, fine
Air Force Academy at Colorado Springs, pr6duction workmanship through factory
Colorado. The truss is square, with clear casting, and prestressed reinforcing tech¬
span of 266 ft and projected edges of 21 ft. niques have made this increasingly feasible.
The pattern is simply that of intersecting A major advantage is that jointing is
vertical plane trusses (see Figure 5.23). virtually eliminated since members are cast

Figure 5.23 This large, square roof has intersecting, vertical-planar steel trusses supported on
four sides by columns. The roof spans 266 ft and cantilevers 21 ft at the sides. Assembly of the
trusses was performed at ground level and the entire roof structure was lifted into position by
jacks positioned on the tops of the columns. Air Force Academy dining hall, Colorado Springs,
Colorado. Architects and engineers: Skidmore, Owings,.and Merrill, Chicago.
100 Structural Systems

monolithically as one. Resistance to fire 5.8 ARCH, VAULT, AND

and deterioration are other possible attri¬ DOME SYSTEMS
butes. Weight is obviously a disadvantage,
but not really unsurmountable, since the The basic concept in the arch is the devel¬
system itself has such a high degree of opment of a spanning structure through
efficiency. Two-way spanning and other the use of only internal compression (see
spatial truss systems of precast concrete Figure 5.24). The profile of the “pure” arch
units offer interesting and promising possi¬ may actually be geometrically derived from
bilities for development. the loading and support conditions. For a

beam action

versus

arch action

the less the rise, the greater the horizontal thrust

Li-il

IS analogous
compression tor

surface obtained unth arch

arched surface onlg
ribs + an infilling -frame and versus
producing the vault
a surfacing material

horizontal thrusts

maj be resisted by . . . internal ties or external bracing

Figure 5.24 Basic aspects of arches.

 Arch, Vault, and Dome Systems 101

single-span arch with no fixity at the base If adjacent arches are assembled side-
in the form of moment resistance, with by-side in a row perpendicular to their
supports at the same level, and with a planes, the vault is produced—that is, a
uniformly distributed load on the entire surface, rather than a planar rib, is ob¬
span, the resulting form is that of a second- tained. If vaults intersect, complex three-
degree curve, or a parabola. Various other dimensional forms are created in the lines
curves—circular or elliptical—can be used, of intersection. The forms resulting from
but the basic form is that of the familiar intersecting vaults and the ribs placed at
curve, convex downward, if the load is the intersection lines and edges were the
primarily gravity. main structural essence of the Gothic
Basic considerations are the necessary church construction.
horizontal forces at the base from thrust If the single arch is rotated in place
and the ratio of span to rise. As this ratio - about its crown, or apex, the form gen¬
increases, the thrust increases, producing erated is a dome. This structural form
higher compression in the arch and larger ^ relates to a circle in plan, in contrast to the
horizontal forces at the support. vault, which relates to a rectangle, or cross
In the great stone arches of old the form.
principal load was gravity—the weight of Both vault and dome forms can be
the arch itself. Although other forces created as ribbed (that is, a set of skeleton
existed, they were usually incidental in arches with an infilling shell) or as direct
magnitude compared to the gravity force. shell forms. In our time few arches, vaults,
In contemporary construction, the light¬ or domes are made of cut stone. Reinforced
ness of the structure has changed this concrete is probably the most obvious
situation, virtually eliminating the possi¬ material for the shell forms, although
bility of the pure arch. Horizontal forces of ribbed systems are equally feasible in lami¬
wind or seismic movement, or even uplift nated wood or steel. Vaults of plywood are
from aerodynamic effects, require the con¬ currently used extensively, and “bubble”
sideration of more than simple gravity dome forms in plastic are the most widely
force in deriving the arch form and detail. used skylight elements. Let us briefly con¬
Consequently, most arches today are con¬ sider the materials for these structures.
tinuous ribs of steel, laminated wood,
reinforced concrete, or trussed configura¬ Wood Laminated wood ribs have been
tions—all capable of considerable bending used for arch and dome structures of large
and shear—in addition to the basic arch scale. At smaller scale the plywood vault—
compression. of single-sheet thickness or in sandwich
The thrust of the arch—that is, the form—is an alternative. The availability of
horizontal component of it—is resolved in larger sheets than the traditional 4-by-8 ft
one of two ways. The most direct way is to size has increased the possibilities of this
balance the force at one support against system. The shell of plywood sheets or
that at the other simply by using a tension wood planks or boards can be used over
tie across the base of the arch. This very steel ribs as well as over wood ones.
possibly, however, destroys the internal
space defined by the arch and is therefore Steel The steel arch, in solid or trussed
not always acceptable. The second way is form, has been used for very great spans. It
to resolve each kick separately, outside the is also feasible for small structures. Ribs
arch. This means creating a heavy abut¬ are often produced by simple cold bending
ment, or, if the arch rests on the top of a of straight steel elements for short spans.
wall or a column, creating a strut or a Vault surfaces can be produced with sheet
buttress for the wall or column. steel in corrugated form. Domes can be
102 Structural Systems

produced from formed plates, welded, or suspension structure quickly took over as
riveted, for instance, as for large tanks. At the long-span champion (see Figure 5.25).
very small scale, sheet steel can be de¬ Structurally, the single draped cable is
formed by stamping to form domical merely the inverse of the arch in both
shapes, for instance, car bodies. geometry and internal force (see Figure
5.26). The compression-arch parabola is
Reinforced Concrete Precast concrete is merely flipped over to produce the tension
an alternative for the single arch rib. cable. Span-to-sag ratio and horizontal
Poured-in-place concrete can be used for inward thrust at the supports have their
either shell vaults and domes or for mono¬ parallels in the arch behavior.
lithic rib and shell systems. These systems Additional problems with the suspen¬
seem natural for concrete, especially since sion element are its lack of stiffness, which
its greatest attribute is its compressive causes reforming under load changes and
resistance. possible fluttering or flapping,^.and the
more difficult connection at its supports.
Masonry and Stone These materials have The latter is due'to basic differences be¬
been largely replaced by others in today’s tween transfer of compression and tension.
construction of arches, vaults, and domes. Steel is obviously the principal material
What may appear to be a cut stone or for this system, and the cable is the logical
masonry dome today is most likely simply form. Actually the largest spans use clusters
a structure with an applied finish of cut of cables—up to 3 ft in diameter for the
stone, or even simulated stone molded in Golden Gate Bridge with its 4000 ft span.
plaster. The actual supporting structure While a virtually solid steel element 3 ft in
may not even be an arch or dome at all, but diameter hardly seems flexible, one must
a steel truss. It is merely a matter of consider the span-to-thickness ratio—
economics and available skilled workers. approximately 1330 to 1. This is like a 1 in.
diameter rod over 100 ft long. One cannot
Plastic There are great possibilities for anchor this size element by tying a clove
vault and dome systems in plastic. In hitch around a stake!
sandwich form or composite plastic-metal Structures can also be hung simply by
or concrete ribs, small- to medium-span tension elements. The deck of the suspen¬
roof structures are perfectly feasible. The sion bridge, for instance, is not placed
simple one-piece plastic bubble has already directly on the cables but is hung with
been extended to more than 12 ft in span another system of cables. Cantilevers or
(see Figure 4.10). spanning systems may thus be supported
by hanging as well as by columns, piers, or
walls.
5.9 TENSION STRUCTURES There are many possibilities for the
utilization of tension elements in structures
The tension suspension structure was in addition to the simple draped or verti¬
highly developed by some primitive soci¬ cally hung cable. Cables can be arranged in
eties through the use of vines or strands a circular, radiating pattern with an inner
woven from grass or shredded bamboo. tension hub and an outer compression rim
These structures achieved impressive spans; similar to those in a bicycle wheel (see
foot bridges spanning 100 ft have been Figure 5.27). Cables can also be arranged
recorded. The development of steel, how¬ in criss-crossing networks, as draped sys¬
ever, heralded the great span capability of tems, or as restraining elements for air-
this system. At first in chain and link, and inflated membrane surfaces.
later in the cable woven of drawn wire, the Tension surface structures can be pro-
 Surface Structures 103

Figure 5.25 Oakland Bay Bridge, San Francisco, California. Trussed steel towers support the
long-span, draped steel cables. Vertical hanger cables attached to the spanning cables support
the steel trussed roadway structure.

duced by direct tensioning, for instance, in surfaces functioning primarily by resolving

the familiar fabric tent. A more recent only internal forces within their surfaces
innovation is that of the tension membrane (see Figure 5.28).
surface maintained by air inflation. Figure 5.29 shows the difference be¬
tween in-plane and out-of-plane force
resolution. We have already discussed
5.10 SURFACE STRUCTURES several surface structures. The wall in
resisting compression, in stabilizing the
The neatness of our categorization of struc¬ building by resisting in-plane shear, and in
tural systems eventually breaks down, since spanning like a beam acts as a surface
variations within one system tend to pro¬ structure. The vault and the dome are
duce different systems, and overlapping really surface structures. These can also
between categories exists. Thus the rigidly develop nonsurface actions, however. The
connected post and beam become the rigid wall, in bending under loads perpendicular
frame. Surface structures are essentially to its surface, develops out-of-plane action.
those consisting of relatively thin, extensive The purest surface structures are ten-
 cab le forms concentrated loads

load uniform
on cable length on span

cable -forms - distributed loads

-the less the sag , the greater the horaonta l reaction

pro b l ems:

reforming when flutter or flap deflection due to

load shifts due to uplift force stretching of cable
Figure 5.26 Basic aspects of suspended cable systems.

104
 Surface Structures 105

sion surfaces, since they are often made of that avoids developing out-of-plane bend¬
materials incapable of any significant out- ing and shear.
of-plane resistance. Thus the canvas tent, Compression resistive surface struc¬
the rubber balloon, and the plastic bag are tures of curved form are also called shells.
all limited in capability to tension resis¬ The egg, the light bulb, the plastic bubble,
tance within the planes of their surfaces. and the auto fender are all examples of
The forms they assume, then, must all be shells. At the building scale the most
completely “pure.” In fact, the pure com¬ extensively exploited material for this sys¬
pression surface is sometimes derived by tem has been reinforced concrete (Figures
simulating it in reverse with a tension 2.2, 5.31, and 5.32). The largest structure
surface (see Figures 4.11 and 5.30). of this type is that of an exposition hall
Compression surfaces must be more in France with clear span of 700 ft. The
rigid than tension ones, because of the structure is a concrete shell of double, or
possibility of buckling. This increased stiff¬ sandwich, form.
ness makes them difficult to use in a way Both simple and complex geometries

Figure 5.27 Tension structure. New York State’s “Tent of Tomorrow” pavilion at the 1964—
1965 World’s Fair. The 100-ft-high, slip-formed concrete columns carry a steel compression ring
that is 350 ft by 250 ft and elliptical in plan. Suspended from the ring, a double layer of
prestressed steel cables converge toward a steel tension ring at the center. The roof surface
consists of translucent sandwich panels formed of two sheets of fiberglass-reinforced plastic,
separated by an aluminum grid. The panels, approximately 3000 in number, are trapezoidal in
plan and vary from 3 to 17 ft in length and 3 to 4 ft in width. Architect: Phillip Johnson
Associates, New York. Structural Engineer: Lev Zetlin and Associates, New York. Plastic
panels: Filon Corporation. Photo: Filon Corporation.
106 Structural Systems

in-Ha.+ecl draped stretched

Figure 5.28 Basic forms of surface structures.

are possible with shells. Edges, corners, lend themselves to execution in plywood or
openings, and point supports are potential sheet metal as well as concrete. There is
locations of high stress and out-of-plane some advantage in the ease of forming the
bending; consequently reinforcing is often flat surfaces and the straight-line inter¬
necessary, usually consisting of monolith- sections (see Figure 4.2).
ically cast ribs in concrete. The existence of
these stiffening ribs often alters the pure
5.11 SPECIAL SYSTEMS
surface structure character of the shells and
results in complex behaviors, for example, Most of the common systems have now
with aspects of arch or rigid-frame action.
been itemized. Innumerable special sys¬
A special variation of the shell is the
tems are possible, each creating a new
surface produced by multiple folds or
category by its unique aspects. Briefly
pleats. The overall form of the structure described, some of these follow:
may assume curvature, but the individual
elements are all flat surfaces. These struc¬ Inflated Structures Inflation, or air pres¬
tures are referred to as folded plates. They sure, can be used as a structural device in a
 Special Systems 107

>1

forces in tine plant

cor ipression
>
of tine surface

bend iru

forces not in the plane

shear
>
ot the surface

bending - two ways

Figure 5.29 Force resolution in surface structures.

variety of ways (see Figure 5.33). Simple A second use of inflation is the stiffen¬
internal inflation of a totally enclosing ing of a structural element. This can be a
membrane surface, for instance, in the sandwich or hollow ribbed structure of
simple rubber balloon (Figure 4.11) is the tension membrane material given a rigid
most direct. This requires about the least frame character by inflation of the voids
structural material imaginable for span¬ within the structural element, for example,
ning. The structure is unavoidably highly the inflated inner tube or air mattress. The
flexible, however, and dependent on the need for sealing the space enclosed by the
constant differential between inside and structure is thus eliminated (see Figure
outside pressure. It is also necessarily 5.30).
“lumpy” in form, because the surface is A third possibility is that of using a
stretched. It has nevertheless been utilized combination of inflation and simple ten¬
for buildings of considerable size. sion draping or stretching on a frame. Thus
Figure 5.30 Air-inflated structure for the Three-Rivers Arts Festival, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl¬
vania, 1976. Double surfaced elements, analogous to air mattresses, form this pavillion
structure. Designers and builders: Chrysalis East, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Photos: Joseph
Valerio.

108
 Special Systems 109

Figure 5.31 Concrete hyperbolic-paraboloid shell. Supported at only two points, the 4 in. thick
shell spans 159 ft between abutments and measures 221 ft from tip to tip of the cantilevered ends.
Concrete for the abutments, edge beams, and shell was poured in a single, continuous operation.
Edens Theater, Northbrook, Illinois. Architects: Perkins and Will, Chicago. Structural
engineers: The Engineers Collaborative, Chicago. Photo: Gibson Studios, Chicago.

the pillow can be suspended—its lower both modest and great spans and has been
surface draped in tension and its upper executed in wood, steel, and precast con¬
surface maintained by inflation. An advan¬ crete. One great advantage is in the repeti¬
tage in this system is the elimination of the tion of similar size elements and joint
water pocket normally formed by the drap¬ details. Another advantage is in the use of
ing of a surface. straight-line elements to produce the curved
vault surface (see Figure 5.34).
Lamella Frameworks This is a system for
forming arch or dome surfaces utilizing a Geodesic Domes A few lines can scarcely
network of perpendicular ribs that appear do justice to this system. Developed from
to be diagonal in plan. It has been used at ideas innovated by R. Buckminster Fuller,
 110 Structural Systems
\

Figure 5.32 Multiple-element shell structure. Church of the Priory of Saint Mary and Saint
Louis, School for Boys, Creve Coeur, Missouri. Three tiers of thin concrete shells form the
structure for this chapel. The delicate details and light, airy quality of both the exterior and
interior of this structure are in sharp contrast to the traditional heavy, crude aspect of poured
concrete. Architects: Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum, St. Louis. Structural engineers: John P.
Nix, St. Louis, and Paul Weidlinger, New York City. Photo: James K. Mellow, St. Louis, from
Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum.

surface - tension mainfairted

by pressure <d t -f ference befcoeen this technique for forming hemispherical
interior of building and outside
surfaces is based on spherical triangulation
(see Figure 5.35). It is also useful at both
small and large scales and subject to endless
double surface -• tension
and stiffening p roduc€<i by
variation of detail, member configuration,
inf lotion of the struct ur e and materials. In addition to ordinary
wood, steel, and concrete, it has been
executed in plywood, plastic, cardboard,
bamboo, and aluminum (see Figure 4.8).
double surface - bottom
draped in tension from the The chief attributes of the system are its
Supports, fop held up
multiplication of basic units and joints and
by internal m + lation
the extreme efficiency of its internal force
resolution. Its developers claim that its
cable restrained - internal
efficiency increases with size, making it
pressure pushes membrane difficult to see any basis for establishing a
against the network of
limiting scale.
restraining cables

Mast Structures These are structures

Figure 5.33 Basic forms of air-supported struc¬ similar to trees, having single legs for
tures.
vertical support and supporting one or a
Figure 5.34 Wood lamella structure. Simple wood elements in lamella pattern form this 109 ft
span roof for a bowling alley in Detroit, Michigan. Architects: Hawthorne and Schmiedeke,
Detroit. Photo: American Institute of Timber Construction, Washington, D. C.

Figure 5.35 Geodesic dome structure. Climatron, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis,
Missouri. This 175 ft diameter dome has plastic glazing of Plexiglas suspended from its geodesic
frame of tubular aluminum elements. Architects: Murphy and Mackey, St. Louis. Photo: Rohm
and Haas Company, Philadelphia.

Ill
Figure 5.35 (continued)

112
 Special Systems 113

Multiple Monopode Units Multiple

mushroom, lily-pad, or morning-glory
form elements can be used to produce the
one-story building of many horizontal
increments. Principally developed with re¬
inforced concrete shell forms, this system
offers savings in the repetetive use of a
single form (see Figure 5.37). An exciting
example in steel at large scale is the exhibi¬
tion building in Turin, Italy by Pier Luigi
Nervi.
This brief sampling does not pretend to
present the complete repertoire of con¬
temporary structural systems for buildings.
The continual development of new mate¬
rials, systems, and construction processes
keeps this a dynamic area of endeavor.
New systems are added; established ones
outmoded. Modern techniques of analysis
Figure 5.36 Tower structure—mast form. Lab¬ and design make the rational, reliable
oratory Tower, Johnson Wax Company, Ra¬ design of complex systems feasible.
cine, Wisconsin. A central core supports alternat¬ One seemingly inevitable trend is that
ing square and round floors in this treelike toward the industrialization of the building
structure. The taproot foundation firmly plants process. This tends to emphasize those
the structure in the ground. Architect: Frank
materials, systems, and processes that lend
Lloyd Wright.
themselves to industrial production. Pre¬
series of “branches”. They obviously re¬ fabrication, modular coordination, com¬
quire very stable bases, well anchored ponent systems, and machine-produced
against the overturning effect of horizontal details are increasingly evident in our
forces. Their chief advantage lies in the building structures. Although the hand¬
minimum of space occupied by the base crafted structure will always have a certain
(see Figure 5.36). charm, the increasing use of industrialized

Figure 5.37 Monopode structure.

Figure 5.38 Industrially produced building system. This large-scale steel space structure was
designed for the U.S. Air Force by Konrad Wachsmann under a research grant during 1959-
1961. Use of only two dimensions of round steel tube and a single common joint capable of
accommodating up to 20 members at one node, simplifies erection and allows for ultimate
realization of mass-production advantages. The structure is completely demountable for reuse.
Photos: Konrad Wachsmann.

114
 Special Systems 115

Figure 5.39 Assembled joint and its elements for Wachsmann’s hangar structure.

products and systems will undoubtedly Gropius, and Konrad Wachsmann (see
continue. A study of the work of pioneers Figure 5.38 and 5.39), reveals the prophetic
in the use of industrial products for build¬ nature of their ideas reflected in the evolv¬
ing structures, such as Joseph Paxton, ing technology of our present time.
Gustave Eiffel, Henri Labrouste, James As the complexity, sophistication, and
Bogardus, Alexander Graham Bell, Walter sheer diversity of our structural vocabulary
116 Structural Systems

expands without visible limits, the problem first-hand knowledge can never be re¬
of selecting the proper solution for each placed, it is hoped that intelligent use of
case becomes more difficult. It is clearly modern data-processing facilities will make
beyond the capacity of an individual to useful information more readily available
know the potentialities and limitations of to the designer, thus making optimal design
all conceivable alternatives for each prob¬ a possibility for all designers who avail
lem. Although personal experience and themselves of the facility.
 _ CHAPTER SIX _

From the Ground Up

Most buildings rest on the ground. Thus all 6.2 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
of the loads on the building must even¬
tually be transferred to the ground. The Once the ground conditions are known and
interfacing element between the building some preliminary information is estab¬
and the ground that conducts this transfer lished regarding the proposed construc¬
is the building foundation. tion, consideration can be given to the
choice of the foundation system. The two
basic types of foundations are shallow
bearing systems and deep systems.
Shallow bearing foundations consist of
6.1 THE GROUND elements that bear directly on the ground
immediately beneath the building. The
So-called solid ground is usually made up primary elements of such a system are
of soil or rock. Soil is ground material footings, commonly consisting of simple
consisting of discrete particles that can be pads and strips of concrete formed by
separated relatively easily by water or by pouring the concrete directly into a shallow
some mechanical means such as digging, excavation. The footings are usually com¬
squeezing, or scratching. Rock is material bined with foundation walls and various
that is excessively hard to excavate and is other elements to form the whole building
generally not affected by water. foundation system. Figure 6.1 shows some
All soils have some degree of compres¬ of the elements that ordinarily constitute
sibility, so the transfer of load to them the foundation system for a building with
produces some movement. Because of this, shallow bearing footings.
vertical gravity loads from a building usu¬ Occasionally it is not possible to use
ally cause some vertical downward move¬ shallow bearing footings because the soil
ment of the foundations, called settlement. immediately below the building is too weak
For most building designs, an inves¬ or too compressible, or because of poten¬
tigation of the ground conditions is made tial problems of erosion, subsidence, and
in order to establish the capability of the other unstabilizing effects on the upper soil
soil to sustain the anticipated loads. The mass. When these situations occur it is
two primary concerns are for the total soil usually necessary to utilize some type of
strength and its relative compressibility. deep foundation. The types most com¬
For both design and construction pur¬ monly used are piles and piers, shown in
poses, however, it is also usually useful to Figure 6.2.
know other properties of the soil as well as Piles consist of linear elements that are
the amount of water in the soil mass. driven into the ground like large nails. They

117
118 From the Ground Up

footing for free-standing wol

can be made of wood, steel, or concrete, necessary load resistance (called friction
and can be driven until their ends bear on piles).
rock (called end-bearing piles) or simply The pile driving process permits only a
until their embedded lengths develop the limited control of the location at the top of
the driven pile. For this reason, as well as
piles - dynamically driven piers - excavated
to accumulate more total load-carrying
— i)— capacity, piles are usually driven in groups,

t\ called clusters. A single pile cluster is usu¬

ally joined together by a poured concrete
,\ L cap. The complete building foundation can
resemble one with shallow bearing foot¬
~%m 'WM
end-bearing friction end-bearing, belled bottom ings—pile caps simply replace the footings.
shaft only
Piers are also vertical shafts formed by
Figure 6.2 Basic types of deep foundations. excavating the shaft form in the soil and
 Above-Ground Supports 119

then filling the excavation with concrete.

Piers function essentially the same as end¬
bearing piles and are typically excavated to
bear on rock or a very dense soil layer.
i —._ r
When bearing on rock, the shaft is usually a » 1
I ‘

constant cylindrical form. When bearing

on soil, the lower end is usually flared out
to produce a conical, bell-shaped form that
increases the surface for bearing. 1_1
When piers are excavated below the
ground water level, they are sometimes
built by the caisson method used for the □ o □
construction of bridge piers. It is still 11 11
common practice to refer to piers as cais¬
sons, even though this excavation method
is not used.
When a shallow bearing foundation
can be used, its selection is usually obvious,
since the cost of deep foundations is typi¬
cally much greater.

6.3 ABOVE-GROUND SUPPORTS

Foundations are often essentially out of

view, and the building is fit snugly to the
ground with only a thin top edge of the
foundation visible. There are some situa¬
tions, however, in which the building is
held above the ground. One way to achieve
this is simply to extend the foundation
above the ground level (Figure 6.3).
In some cases the building is supported
on legs, piers, pylons, and so on. These may Figure 6.3 Building base formed by upward
be merged with elements of the foundation extension of the foundation structure.
system or may constitute a third system
transitional between the foundation and
the building structure. An example of this on top of the other. However, it is also used
is shown in Figure 6.4. This technique may when there is some functional reason to
be used essentially as an architectural de¬ keep the building above the ground, for
sign device—the building conceived as a instance, the need for open space below the
layered structure with one element stacked building for pedestrians or vehicles.
Figure 6.4 Transitional support elements used to raise the building free of the ground. CN
Park Place office building, Los Angeles. Architects: Langdon and Wilson, Los Angeles.

120
 Glossary
The following definitions of words and Anchorage Attachment for resistance to
terms are given to assist the reader. As movement, usually to that induced by
much as possible, the definitions are those uplift, overturn, sliding or horizontal sepa¬
that are established, or in common usage, ration.
in the professions. A ssemblage Something put together from
parts. A random, unordered assemblage is
Acceleration In engineering mathemat¬ called a gathering. An ordered assemblage
ics: the rate of change of the velocity of a is a system.
moving object, or a = dvj dt. Indicates that Beam A structural element that sustains
the state of motion is changing from mo¬ transverse loading and develops internal
tion to rest, from rest to motion, from one forces of bending and shear in resisting the
speed to another. Occurs when the forces loads. Also called a girder if large-scale; a
acting on an object are unbalanced. Nega¬ joist if small-scale or used in a closely
tive acceleration is called deceleration. See spaced series; a rafter if used for a roof.
Motion.
Bending Turning action that causes change
Adequate Just enough; sufficient. Indi¬ in the curvature of a linear element. Charac¬
cates a quality of bracketed acceptability— terized by the development of opposed in¬
on the one hand not insufficient, on the ternal stresses of tension and compression.
other, not superlative or excessive. See Moment.
Aggregate In concrete terminology, the Box system A structural system in which
loose, inert material that makes up the lateral loads are not resisted by a frame
major portion of the bulk of the concrete. It with rigid joints but rather by shear walls or
is bound into a monolithic mass by water a braced (trussed) frame.
and cement mortar.
Buckling Collapse, in the form of sudden
Amplitude See Vibration. sideways deflection, of a slender element
Analysis Separation into constituent subjected to compression.
parts. In engineering, the investigative de¬ Caisson See Pier.
termination of the detail aspects of a partic¬
Calculation Ordered, rational determi¬
ular phenomenon. May be qualitative,
nation, usually by mathematical methods.
meaning a general evaluation of the nature
of the phenomenon, or quantitative, mean¬ Component Part of a system. May desig¬
ing the numerical determination of the nate one of the distinct pieces of an assem¬
magnitude of the phenomenon. See Syn¬ bled mechanism or one aspect of an action
thesis. (such as the uplift effect of wind).

121
 122 Glossary

Compression Force that tends to crust stability conditions produces a structure

adjacent particles of a material together characterized as indeterminate or indeter¬
and cause overall shortening in the direc¬ minable.
tion of its action.
Diaphragm A solid surface element (ply¬
Connection The union or joining of two wood deck, masonry wall, etc.) used to
or more distinct elements. In a structure, resist forces in its own plane by spanning or
the connection itself often becomes an by cantilevering. See Shear Wall.
entity. Thus the actions of the parts on each
Ductility The ability to deform consider¬
other may be visualized in terms of their
ably under load before fracturing. Con¬
action on the connection.
trasted to the quality of brittleness.
Continuity Used to describe structures or*
Dynamic Implies motion or change of
parts of structures whose behavior is influ¬
state; opposite of static.
enced by the monolithic, continuous nature
' iN
of adjacent elements, such as continuous Economy Thrift; conservation.
vertical multistory columns, continuous
Elastic Two meanings: (a) the ability to
multispan beams, and rigid frames.
regain original shape after being deformed;
Crawl space Space between the under¬ (b) the property of constant proportional¬
side of the floor construction and the ity of stress to strain.
ground surface that exists when a framed
Element A component or constituent part
floor is suspended above ground and there
of a whole. Usually a distinct, separate
is no basement.
entity.
Creep Plastic deformation that proceeds
with time when certain materials, such as Energy Capacity for doing work. What is
concrete and lead, are subjected to con¬ used up when work is done. Occurs in
stant, long-duration stress. various forms: mechanical, heat, chemical,
electrical, and so on.
Damping See Vibration.
Equilibrium A balanced state or condi¬
Dead Load See Load. tion; usually used to describe a situation in
which opposed effects neutralize each other
Deflection The movement of the surface, to produce a net effect of zero.
profile, or position of a structure away
from an original shape, as the sag of a Equivalent Static Force Analysis The
technique in which a dynamic effect is
loaded beam. Deflected shape refers to the
overall distorted form of the loaded struc¬ translated into a hypothetical (equivalent)
ture. static effect that produces a similar result.

Density See Mass. Failure The condition of becoming in¬

capable of a particular function. May have
Design The conception, contrivance, or partial as well as total connotations in
planning of a work (verb). The descriptive structures. For example, a single connec¬
image of the proposed work (noun). See tion may fail, but the structure might not
Synthesis. collapse because of its ability to redistrib¬
ute the load.
Determinate Having defined limits; defi¬
nite. In structures, the condition of having Fatigue A structural failure that occurs
exact sufficiency of stability externally and as the result of a load applied and removed
internally, therefore being determinable by (or reversed) repeatedly over a long time or
the resolution of force alone. An excess of a large number of cycles.
 Glossary 123

Feasible Capable of being or likely to be Indeterminable Irrevocably indefinite.

accomplished. Not capable of specific determination. See
Fit As a condition: well matched, Determinate.
adapted, suited, correct, or the right size. Indeterminate Indefinite; uncertain. In
Not in conflict. structural analysis usage denotes a condi¬
Flexible Two meanings: (a) limber, not tion that is indeterminable in some terms
stiff (as a fishing rod); (b) adaptable, or but may be solved by other means—either
readily modified. exactly or approximately. Distinguished
from indeterminable by this notion of
Footing A shallow bearing type founda¬
solution or approximation by other means.
tion element, consisting of a pad or strip
formed by pouring concrete directly into Inertia* See Mass.
an excavation.
Integration The bringing into association
Form Shape. In structures, two ideas of of distinct but related elements or systems.
form are important. First, the overall form Thus the plumbing, wiring, ventilating
of a structure, such as the profile of an arch. ducts, elevators, and stairs must be inte¬
Second, the form of the parts, such as the grated with the structure in the building
cross section of the arch rib—square, hol¬ whole.
low, I-shaped, and so forth. Intuition Direct perception, independent
Force An effort—as a push, pull, or of any conscious reasoning process.
twist—that tends to change the shape or
the state of motion of something. Gravity, Joist See Beam.
wind, water pressure, and thermal expan¬
Lateral To the side or from the side.
sion are examples of sources of force. A
Often used to refer to something that is
force has the mathematical character of a
perpendicular to a major axis or direction.
vector. That is, it has magnitude (10 lb),
In comparison to vertical gravity forces,
direction (northwest) and sense (/>om
effects of wind and earthquakes and hori¬
southeast to northwest). In addition, it has
zontally directed soil pressures are called
location in space (4 ft from the end of a
lateral effects.
beam), and a particular point of applica¬
tion (hung from the bottom or placed on Live load See Load.
the top of the beam). A distinction is made
Load Active force, or combination of
between external force, such as the wind
forces, exerted on a structure. Dead load is
blowing on the building, and internal force,
permanent gravity load, including the
such as the compression in a column.
weight of the structure. Live load is any
Fracture A break, usually resulting in load component that is not permanent,
actual separation of the material. A charac¬ including those of wind, earthquakes, tem¬
teristic result of tension failure. perature effects, and moisture fluctuations,
as well as gravity forces that are not
Frequency See Vibration.
permanent.
Function Duty; intended use; capability.
Macro- Implies upper limits of scale
Impact Action of striking or hitting. involvement; large, excessive. See Micro-.

Impulse An impelling force action, char¬ Mass The dynamic property of an object
acterized by rapid acceleration or decelera¬ that causes it to resist changes in its state of
tion. motion. This resistance is called inertia.
124 Glossary

The magnitude of mass per unit of volume (uplift) loads through the development of
of the object is called its density. Dynamic friction between the soil and the pile sur¬
force is defined as mass times acceleration, face. End-bearing piles are driven so that
or f = ma. Weight is defined as force their tips are seated in a low-lying layer of
produced by the acceleration of gravity; rock or very hard soil.
thus W = mg.
Plastic In stress analysis refers to stress-
Micro- Implies lower limit of scale in¬ strain behavior beyond the elastic range.
volvement. Precise meaning: “very small.” Plastic deformation usually implies some
See Macro-. permanent shape change.
Member One of the distinct parts of an
assemblage. See Component and Element*. Rational Allowing the application of rea¬
son. Reasonable, sensible. A rational anal¬
Moment Action tending to produce turn¬
ysis is one that proceeds without recourse
ing or rotation. Product of a force and a
to intuition or unwarranted assumptions.
lever arm, gives a unit of force times
distance (for example, pound-feet). Bend¬ Reaction Response. In structures, the re¬
ing moment causes curvature; torsional sponse of the structure to loads; the re¬
moment causes twisting. sponse of the supports to the action of the
structure. The reactions usually refers to
Motion The process of changing position
the components of force developed at the
or location. Motion along a line is called
supports.
translation; motion of turning is called
rotation. Time rate of motion is called Reinforce To strengthen; usually by add¬
speed or velocity. Time rate of change of ing something.
velocity is called acceleration. Resilience The measurement of the ab¬
sorption of dynamic energy by a structure
Optimal Best; most satisfying. The best
without permanent deformation or frac¬
solution to a set of criteria is the optimal
ture. See Toughness.
solution. When the criteria have opposed
values, there may be no single optimal Resonance See Vibration.
solution. Retaining Wall A structure used to brace
a vertical cut at a change in elevation of the
Particle A minute part. In structures, ground surface. The term is commonly
usually an extremely small piece of mate¬ used to refer to a cantilever retaining wall, a
rial, slightly bigger than molecular size. freestanding structure consisting only of a
wall and its footing, although basement
Period See Vibration.
walls also serve a retaining function.
Pier A compression support element of
Rigidity Quality of resistance to move¬
rather stout (versus slender) proportions.
ment. Structures that are not rigid are
Also a deep foundation element that is
flexible.
placed in an excavation rather than being
driven into position. Although it actually Rotation Motion of turning.
refers to a particular method of excavation,
the term caisson is commonly used to Safety Relative unlikelihood of failure.
describe a pier foundation. The safety factor is the ratio of the total
Pile A deep foundation element, consist¬ capacity of a structure to the actual de¬
ing of a shaftlike object that is driven into mand on the structure.
the ground. Friction piles develop resis¬ Scale A reference of dimensional com¬
tance to both downward and upward parison. A model may be a scaled repro-
 Glossary 125

duction of an object. Large scale, as a deflection of a beam is a measure of its

model of a molecule; or small scale, as a stiffness. May also refer to resistance to
model of a building. dynamic movements of bounce, vibration,
Section The two-dimensional profile ob¬ and so forth.
tained by passing a plane through a form. Strain Change in shape of a material
Cross section implies a section at right because of stress, expressed as a ratio or
angles to another section or to the linear percentage. Accumulates in total move¬
axis of an element. ment of the structure, such as elongation,
Seismic Pertaining to, or caused by, shortening, curvature, or twisting. Stress
ground shock such as that caused by an and strain are interdependent and insep¬
earthquake. arable.

Settlement The downward movement of Strength Capacity to resist force.

a foundation caused by the loads and their Strength Design Method One of the two
effects on the supporting soil. fundamental techniques for assuring a
Shear Force that causes adjacent parti¬ margin of safety for a structure. Stress
cles of a material to slide in relation to each design, also called working stress design, is
other. performed by analyzing for stresses pro¬
duced by the estimated actual usage loads
Sign Algebraic notation of sense. Three
and assigning limits for the stresses that are
cases: positive, negative, neutral. Relates to
below the ultimate capacity of the mate¬
direction of force—if up is positive, down is
rials by some margin. Strength design, also
negative; or to stress: if tension is positive,
called ultimate strength design, is per¬
compression in the same direction is nega¬
formed by multiplying the actual loads by
tive.
the desired factor of safety and then pro¬
Simulation Act of pretending, feigning, ceeding to design a structure that will have
or impersonating. In structural analysis it that load as its ultimate failure load.
refers to the artificial representation of a Stress Product of internal force; actually
structural behavior or loading condition. measured in terms of force per unit area.
Slenderness Relative thinness. In struc¬ Three basic types: tension, compression,
tures, the quality of flexibility or lack of and shear. See Strain.
buckling resistance is inferred by extreme Structure That which gives form to some¬
slenderness. thing and works to resist changes in the
Stability The quality of being stable, or form from the action of various forces.
having the capability of remaining in posi¬ Stud One of a set of small closely spaced
tion. Lack of sufficient support is a cause of columns used to define a framed wall
external instability. Elastic stability refers structure.
to the phenomenon of buckling of slender
Synthesis The process of combining a set
compression elements.
of component elements into a whole. Op¬
Static State of being at rest, having no posite of analysis.
motion. See Dynamic.
System An ordered assemblage.
Stiffness The quality of resistance to de¬
Tension Force that tends to separate ad¬
formation on the part of a material, a
jacent parts of a material and produce
component member of a structure, or the
stretching.
whole structure. The magnitude of the
stress-strain ratio is a measurement of the Torsion Twisting moment, such as that
stiffness of a material. The relative actual exerted on a screw by the screwdriver.
126 Glossary

Toughness The measurement of the total Velocity Time rate of motion; speed. See
dynamic energy capacity of a structure, up Motion.
to the point of complete failure. See Resil¬ Vibration The cyclic, rhythmic motion of
ience. an object such as a spring. Occurs when the
Translation Motion of a body along a object is displaced from some neutral posi¬
line without rotation, or turning. tion and seeks to restore itself to a state of
equilibrium when released. In its purest
Truss An articulated framework of linear
form it occurs as a harmonic motion with a
elements that attains stability through tri¬
characteristic behavior described by the
angular formations of the elements.
cosine form of the displacement-time
.graph of the motion. The magnitude of
Ultimate Load The absolute maximum'
linear displacement from the neutral posi¬
magnitude of load that a structure can
tion is called the amplitude. The time
sustain, limited only by ultimate failure.
elasped for one full cycle of motionls called
the period. The nuipber of cycles occurring
Vector A mathematical quantity having
in one second is called the frequency.
direction as well as magnitude and sign (+
Effects that tend to reduce the amplitude of
or —). Comparison is made to scalar quan¬
successive cycles are called damping. The
tities having only magnitude and sign.
progressive increase of amplitude in suc¬
Thus time, temperature, length, and cost
cessive cycles is called a resonant effect.
are scalar quantities; force, velocity, and
the position of one point relative to another Visualize To create a mental image; to
are all vector quantities. A vector may be make perceptible to the mind.
graphically represented by an arrow with
Working Load The load condition cre¬
its length proportional to the magnitude,
ated by the actual usage of the structure.
the angle of its line indicating the direction,
and the arrowhead representing the sign Working Stress Design Method See
(also called sense). See Motion. Strength design method.
 Exercises
The following material is provided for not necessarily a major determining
those who use this book as a text. factor in structural design?
4 What are some of the reasons that the
KEY WORDS AND TERMS optimization of structures in terms of
efficiency of behavior under load is not
Chapter 1 Feasibility, integration, opti¬ always possible?
mization, safety, strength design method,
structure, working stress design method. Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Adjacency, bearing wall, cur¬
tain wall, lateral bracing, partition, shear 1 What is meant by the description of the
wall, substructure, superstructure. building skin as a selective filter?

Chapter 3 Bending, buckling, compres¬ 2 What is usually meant when a wall is

sion, creep, damping, dead load, dynamic, described as nonstructural?
equilibrium, inertia, internal force, live 3 Why is the term “flat roof” usually not
load, load, load dispersion, mass, modulus accurate?
of elasticity, moment, period of vibration, 4 What are some of the structural prob¬
reaction, resonance, shear, stability, static, lems that occur when a building has
stiffness, strain, strength, stress, tension, more than one story?
torsion. 5 Why is the depth of the floor structure
Chapter 5 Arch, geodesic dome, lamella in multistoried buildings usually
structure, monopode structure, post and strongly limited?
beam, rigid frame, surface structure, truss. 6 What are the structural constraints that
Chapter 6 Caisson, pier, pile, rock, shal¬ derive from adjacency situations in
low bearing foundation, soil. buildings?

Chapter 3
QUESTIONS
1 How can a structure fail to perform its
Chapter 1 architectural purposes even though it
may resist the loads with an adequate
1 What are the main concerns for the factor of safety?
building structure during a fire? 2 Describe the various effects of wind on
2 What is the purpose of the safety factor buildings.
in structural design? 3' What constitutes the external force
3 Why is the cost of the structure itself system that operates on a structure?

127
128 Exercises

4 Why is the strength of the material not a assignment involving the actual con¬
significant factor in the buckling of struction of a structure to perform a
slender structures under compression? specific assigned task. The following is
5 Why do we say that all forms of stress an example; endless variations are pos¬
(tension, compression and shear) exist sible: Design and build a structure to
whenever any internal force action span 4 ft on a simple, horizontal span
and to carry a concentrated load at the
occurs?
center of the span. End support is lim¬
6 What are some sources of damping
ited to vertical reactions only. Materials
of the vibration of building structures?
for the structure are limited to wood
and paper, although any material may
Chapter 5 '
be used for'connection of parts. The
efficiency of the structure on a strength-
1 What is the difference between a rigid
weight basis is critical. Your structure
frame and an ordinary post and beam
will be weighed, load tested to destruc¬
system?
tion, and your score determined using
2 What is the difference between the
the graph shown in the illustration.
methods of pretensioning and postten¬
sioning for prestressing concrete?
3 What is the significance of the rise-to- DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS (for
span ratio for an arch? assignment or for classroom
demonstration)

ASSIGNMENTS 1 Involvement Buckling of a linear ele¬

ment as related to slenderness.
1 For each of the basic structural ma¬ Procedure Select a slender linear ele¬
terials (wood, steel, concrete and ment (strip of wood, plastic, metal) and
masonry) list both limitations and find its total compression resistance for
advantages in their uses for building various increments of length. Start with
structures. a ratio of length to thickness of at least
2 For each of the limitations listed in (1), 200 for the longest specimen.
describe what measures (if any) can be Find Relation of load capacity to
taken to overcome them. length (or to length/thickness ratio.)
3 Find a building that is just beginning to 2 Involvement Bending resistance re¬
be constructed. Visit the site periodi¬ lated to shape.
cally and photograph the progress of Procedure Test the bending resis¬
the construction. Photograph the build¬ tance of a linear element on a single
ing from the same point on successive span when subjected to a load at the
visits. Organize the photos or slides center of the span. Test elements of the
obtained into a report on the growth of same material and same total cross-
the building structure. sectional area, but with different shapes
4 Find a local building that has been built and different orientations to the load.
recently. Contact as many people who Both bending strength (load capacity)
were involved in the design and con¬ and stiffness (deflection) may be tested.
struction as possible. Interview them Find Correlation of bending resis¬
and write a case study report on the tance and shape in beams.
design of the structure for the building. 3 Involvement Bending and span.
5 The Make and Break: this is a classic Procedure Test a linear element for
breaking load
in sand bae^s —>

129
130 Exercises

bending as in project No. 2. Test vari¬ tion of panel dimension ratio to effec¬
ous specimens of the same material and tiveness of two-way action in rectangu¬
cross section, but of increasing span lar panels.
length. 6 Involvement Torsion resistance of
Find Relation of load capacity (and/ various cross-sectional shapes.
or) deflection) to span length. Procedure Test various linear ele¬
4 Involvement Bending resistance and ments of the same material and the
support restraint. same total cross-sectional area, but
Procedure Test the bending resis¬ with different shapes. Fix one end and
tance of a linear element as in project twist the other end without causing
No. 2. Test the same element on the., bending. Measure the twisting force for
same span, but with three different con¬ total load capacity or for some constant
ditions at the supports, as follows: (a) increment of rotation.
both ends free to turn, (b) one end Find Effectiveness of various cross-
clamped to prevent turning, (c) both sectional shapes in torsion.
ends clamped. 7 Involvement Sag ratio of cables.
Find Effect of end restraint on load Procedure Test a tension element
capacity (and/or deflection). (string, wire, chain) for its total load
5 Involvement One-way versus two- resistance with various ratios of sag to
way spanning. Effect of ratio of span span. Test by supporting the two ends
lengths in rectangular two-way spans. and loading at the center.
Procedure Test a thin planar element Find Relation of sag ratio (sag to
in bending (a sheet of cardboard, glass, span) and load capacity.
plastic, metal) with a single load at the 8 Involvement Rise-to-span ratio in
center of the span. Test specimens with arches.
the following shapes and support con¬ Procedure Test a flexible sheet (card¬
ditions at the edges: (a) square sheet, board, plastic, aluminum) for its resis¬
two opposite edges supported; (b) tance to load in arch action. Attach two
square sheet, three edges supported; (c) blocks to a base and bend the sheet to
square sheet, four edges supported; (d) form an arch, kicking against the
rectangular sheet with the small dimen¬ blocks. Load with a weight at the center
sion the same as in (c) and the long of the arch, carefully avoiding any con¬
dimension a multiple of the short of centrated load effect at the point of
increasing magnitude in successive load. Test specimens with various span-
specimens: 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.0, 2.5, and to-rise ratios.
so on. Find Mode of failure and effective¬
Find Comparison of effectiveness of ness of arch for various ratios of rise to
one-way and two-way spanning. Rela¬ span.
 Sources for
Further Study
There is literally a mountain—an ever¬ about all the awful problems encountered in
growing mountain—of published material creating the beautiful buildings shown in
about structures. For those who wish to living color in the architectural magazines.
pursue this subject further, the following BOOKS
brief list of references is given. These
1 American Building 2: The Environmental
sources may lead the motivated reader to Forces That Shape It, 2nd ed., rev., by
the rest of the mountain of information. James Marston Fitch (Houghton Mifflin,
The comments made are strictly my per¬ Boston, 1972). An influential work on as¬
sonal assessments. Following the list is a pects of human-environment interaction
key to the subject grouping of the books, and the consequences of urban and archi¬
which should be helpful to the reader in tectural design. A plea for a more intel¬
selecting those titles most useful for certain ligent design of the built environment in
specific needs. terms of its effects on people.
2 Architectural Graphic Standards, by
PERIODICALS Charles G. Ramsey and Harold R. Sleeper
(Wiley, New York, 1981, 7th ed.). Aclassic
1 Architectural Record. Regularly has arti¬ reference for the building designer and
cles on technical subjects, case studies of draftsman on construction details.
significant buildings, and an occasional 3 Architectural Structures: An Introduction
feature issue on technology. The bulk of each to Structural Mechanics, by Henry J.
issue is advertising, which is sometimes more Cowan (American Elsevier, New York
interesting and informative than the editorial 1971). A comprehensive text on structures,
material. including both basic mathematical analysis
2 Progressive Architecture. The other major and general considerations of architectural
U.S. monthly architecture magazine. Also functions of structures.
has technical articles, case studies, and fea¬ 4 Building Construction Handbook, by
tures on technology, as well as numerous Frederick S. Merritt (McGraw-Hill, New
advertisement. York, 1975, 3rd ed.). An encyclopedic
3 Engineering News-Record. The major handbook on many aspects of building
weekly national news magazine of the con¬ technology. Discusses basic principles, de¬
struction business. Ads use less color; most sign examples, illustrations, data, bibliog¬
articles are not stimulating to building raphies.
designers. However, this is where you read 5 Building Construction Illustrated, by
about the structures that didn't work and Frank Ching (Van Nostrand-Reinhold,

131
 132 Sources for Further Study

Princeton, N.J., 1975). Illustrates the form ture—Artemis, Zurich, 1949). A study of
and detail of ordinary building systems for the life and work of a highly creative and
small to medium scale structures. ingenious engineer who designed and built
6 Building Structures: Elementary Analysis many innovative structures in the early
and Design, by R. E. Shaeffer (Prentice- part of this century.
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980). Agen- 13 On Growth and Form, by D’Arcy Went¬
eral, comprehensive treatment of applied worth Thomson, abridged edition by John
mechanics and the procedures and issues of Tyler Bonner (Cambridge University Press,
the design of building structures. Uses SI New York, 1961). A stimulating study of
units throughout. An excellent basic text the relations between form and function in
for persons lacking a thorough engineering biological structures. Analogies are made
background. * to human systems of cellular, shell, and
7 Construction Materials and Processes, by skeletal form.
Don Watson (McGraw-Hill, New York, 14 Frei Otto: Form and Structure, by Philip
1978, 2nd ed.). A comprehensive treatment Drew (Westview Press, Boulder, Colo.,
of the materials, products and processes 1976). A profusely illustrated discussion of
used for building construction, with some the work of one of the most famous re¬
insight into the basic processes of material searchers and innovative designers in the
production. development of tents, tension membranes,
8 The Dymaxion World of Buckminster cable nets, and other tension structures.
Fuller, by Robert Marks (Van Nostrand- 15 Philosophy of Structures, by Eduardo
Reinhold, Princeton, N.J., 1960). A study Torroja (University of California Press,
of the life and work of one of the most Berkeley, 1958). The credo, teachings, and
stimulating (though somewhat enigmatic) design concepts of one of the greatest
men in the area of design. Documents structural engineers of our times.
Fuller’s development of the now famous 16 Pier Luigi Nervi: Buildings, Projects,
tensegrity and geodesic systems. Structures, 1953-1963, by Pier Luigi Nervi
9 Emerging Form in Architecture: Conver¬ (Praeger, New York, 1963). A dramatically
sations with Lev Zetlin, by Forrest Wilson illustrated study of the work of a great
(Cahners, Boston, Mass., 1975). Result of contemporary designer-builder.
an ongoing ten year conversation between 17 Pneumatic Structures: A Handbook of
an architect-writer and a highly creative Inflatable Architecture, by Thomas Herzog
engineering designer. Contains discussions (Oxford University Press, New York,
and illustrations of many highly innovative 1976). Profusely illustrated treatment of
structures. the work of designers all over the world.
10 Great Architecture of the World, edited by Categorizes types of systems and explains
John Julius Norwich (Random House, basic concepts and problems.
New York, 1975). A treatment of architec¬
18 Simplified Building Design for Wind and
ture around the world and down through
Earthquake Forces, by James Ambrose
the ages. Noteworthy for its many isometric
and Dimitry Vergun (Wiley, New York,
cutaway drawings that explain the con¬
1980). Discusses the basic effects of wind
struction of buildings, both ancient and
and earthquakes on buildings, the use of
modern.
current codes and design standards, and
11 Kinetic Architecture, by William Zuk and
the design procedures for ordinary systems
Roger H. Clark (Van Nostrand-Reinhold, of bracing. Written for persons with a
Princeton, N.J., 1970). An illustrated study
limited background in engineering analysis
of the response of physical structures to and design.
requirements for change. Discusses adapt¬
19 Simplified Design of Building Structures,
able, movable, expandable, retractable,
by James Ambrose (Wiley, New York,
demountable, flexible, and disposable sys¬
1979). Discusses and illustrates the design
tems.
of the structure for three example build¬
12 Robert Maillart, by Max Bill (D’Architec¬
ings; proceding from architectural sketches
 Sources for Further Study 133

through structural calculations to an illus¬ potentialities for manmade structures. Fol¬

tration of the construction details for the lows the tradition of previous work by
finished structure. D’Arcy Thomson, Konrad Wachsmann,
20 Simplified Engineering for Architects and Charles Eames, and Buckminster Fuller.
Builders, by Harry Parker (Wiley, New 26 Structure Systems, by Heinrich Engel
York, 1975, 5th ed.). A useful digest of (Praeger, New York, 1968). An excellent
elementary structural engineering, from illustrated discussion of the nature of var¬
statics to the design of basic elements of ious structural systems with studies of the
wood, steel, and concrete. Handy because generation of complex systems.
of its compactness, comprehensiveness, 27 Structure: The Essence of Architecture, by
and use of simple mathematics. Widely Forrest Wilson (Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
used for years (together with other volumes Princeton, N.J., 1971). A mildly tongue-in-
in the Parker “simplified” series) by archi¬ cheek treatment of basic concepts of struc¬
tects and other nonengineers with practical tures and their influence on the develop¬
interest in simple structural engineering. ment of architectural form, traditions,
21 Structure and Architectural Design, by styles, and techniques of construction and
Philip A. Corkill, Homer L. Puderbaugh, design.
and H. Keith Sawyers of the University of 28 Structures, by Pier Luigi Nervi (McGraw-
Nebraska (Sernoll, Inc., Iowa City, Iowa, Hill, New York, 1956). A short presenta¬
1974, 5th ed.). A profusely illustrated, non- tion of Nervi’s philosophy on subjects
mathematical treatment of basic structural including client relations, education of
principles and systems. Intended to provide designers, theory of structures, and build¬
a visually oriented foundation of knowl¬ ing with concrete. Illustrations show signif¬
edge and appreciation for the beginning icant work by Nervi before 1957. See also
student in building design. Reference 16.
22 Structure and Form in Modern Architec¬ 29 Structures: An Architect’s Approach, by
ture, by Curt Siegel (Van Nostrand-Rein¬ H. Seymour Howard, Jr. (McGraw-Hill,
hold, Princeton, N.J., 1962). A study of New York, 1966). An analytical study of
various concepts of form in contemporary seven buildings in terms of their structural
structures and of relations between struc¬ solutions.
tural form and function, construction tech¬ 30 The Structures of Eduardo Torroja, by
niques, and architectural planning and Eduardo Torroja (McGraw-Hill, New
detailing. York, 1958). Case studies of his own work
23 Structure in Architecture, by Mario Salva- by a great structural engineer. See also
dori and Robert Heller (Prentice-Hall, Reference 15.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1975, 2nd ed.). An 31 Time-Saver Standards for Architectural
excellent, nonmathematical presentation Design Data, by John H. Callender (Mc¬
of principles of structures. Especially useful Graw-Hill, New York, 1974, 5th ed.). An
for visualization of structural behavior of encyclopedia on building design. Text dis¬
rigid frames, two-way spanning slabs and cussion, illustrations, and data on various
grids, thin shells, and folded plates. aspects of building planning, construction
24 Structure in Art and in Science, edited by materials and details, structures, building
Gyorgy Kepes (George Braziller, New equipment, site planning, and so on. Ex¬
York, 1965). A collection of provocative tensive bibliography in each section.
and stimulating essays on the meaning of 32 The Turning Point of Building: Structure
structure by a number of outstanding and Design, by Konrad Wachsmann (Van
artists, scientists, and design professionals. Nostrand-Reinhold, Princeton, N.J., 1961)
The work and teachings of a designer-
25 Structure in Nature Is a Strategy for
teacher-philosopher, famous for his work
Design, by Peter Pearce (MIT Press, Cam¬
in industrialized building processes, modu¬
bridge, Mass., 1978). A profound study of
lar systems of assemblage, and space
form, structure, pattern, growth, and as¬
semblage in nature and its implications and structures.
\

134
 Index
Above-ground buildings, 27, 119 Enclosure function, 8
Adjacency conditions, 27 Equilibrium, 37, 38, 42
Air supported structures, 73, 106
Aluminum, 68 Feasibility, 4
Arch, 36, 100 Fiber glass, 75
Filter functions of building skin, 8
Beam, 46, 83 Fireproofing, 68
Bending, 45 Fire safety, 1
Buckling, 39 Flat span structures, 12,18,91
Building-ground relationship, 23 Floors, 14
Building skin: Form-scale relationships, 14
filter functions, 8 Foundations, 18, 57, 117
relation to structure, 10, 20 Fundamental period, 58

Column, 36, 83 Geodesic dome, 71,109

Composite structures, 55 Glass, 72
Compression:
force, 45 Industrialization, 113
stress, 48 Inflated structures, 106
Concrete, 66 Integration of building subsystems, 7, 13,
Creep, 56 18
Interior space division, 10
Damping, 59 Internal forces, 38, 44
Dead load, 3f Investigation of structural behavior, 61
Diagonal stress due to shear, 51
Dimensional limits on structures, 12,14, Lamella structures, 109
18,20 Lateral bracing, 22, 27, 35,41,82, 85
Dome, 100 Live load, 31
Ductility, 50 Loads:
Dynamic effects, 31,57 combined, 36
dead,31
Earthquakes, 34 dispersion, 32
Economy, 5 dynamic, 31,57

135
136 Index

earthquake, 30, 34 direct, 49

gravity, 30 shear, 49
live, 31 thermally induced, 53
sources, 30 three dimensional, 52
static versus dynamic, 31 time-related, 56
wind, 30, 33 Stress-strain relations, 49
Structural design, 60
Masonry, 69, 72 Structural safety, 3
Mast structures, 110 Structural systems:
Materials, design considerations, 62 attributes, 76
Moment effect, 36 * categorization, 78
Monopode structures, 113 types of:
Multilevel buildings, 17 arch, vault and dome,
100
Optimization, 5 flat span, 12, 18, 91
geodesic, 71, 109
Plastics, 69, 73, 74, 108 inflated, 73, 106
Post and beam, 83 lamella, 109
Prestressed concrete, 95 mast, 110
monopode, 113
Reactions, 36 post and beam, 83
Rigid frame, 37, 38, 88 rigid frame, 37, 88
Roofs, 13 surface, 78,103
tension, 102
Safety: truss, 95
factor, 3 wall, 11,79
fire, 1 Subterranean buildings, 23
structural, 3 Surface structures, 78, 103
Shear:
force, 45 Tension:
stress, 49 force, 44
Single space buildings, 14 stress, 48
Soil, 52, 57,72, 117 structures, 36, 102
Slenderness, 39 Thermal effects, 31,53
Stability, 39 Time-related effects, 56
Steel, 63 Torsion, 47
Stiffness, 42 Trusses, 95
Strain, 48
Strength: Vault, 100
design method, 4
of structures, 41 Walls, 11,79
Stress: Wind, 30, 33
basic types of, 48 Wood, 63
combinations, 51 Working stress method, 4
t

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