CLASS 12 : PHYSICS

FORMULA
BOOK
(ii) 1 q
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS At very large distance i.e. r >> a E 
k q1q2 1 q1q2 40 r2
 Coulomb’s law : F   
r2 4 r 2  Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform
→→ →
 Relative permittivity or dielectric constant : electric field :   p  E or   pE sin 

 or K   Potential energy of an electric dipole in a
r 0 uniform electric field is U = –pE(cos2 – cos1)
 Electric field intensity at a point distant r from
1 q where 1 & 1 are initial angle and final angle
a point charge q is E  between
4 0 r2 → →
 Electric dipole momentm,  Electric flux  E  dS

 Electric field intensity on axial line (end on  Gauss’s law :

position) of the electric dipole
(i) At the point r from the centre of the electric  Electric field due to thin infinitely long straight
1 2pr wire of uniform linear charge density 
dipole, E  . 
4 0 (r2  a2 )2 E ,
2r
(ii) At very large distance i.e., (r > > a),
2p (i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R
E 1 q
40r 3 E
4 r2
 Electric field intensity on equatorial line (board (ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R
on position) of electric dipole
1 q
E
(i) At the point at a distance r from the centre 4 R2
1 p
(iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r < R
of electric dipole, E  .
40 (r  a2 )3/ 2
2
E=0
(ii) At very large distance i.e., r > > a,  Electric field due to a non conducting solid
1 p sphere of uniform volume charge density 
E . and radius R at a point distant r from the centre
40 r3
of the sphere is given as follows :
 Electric field intensity at any point due to an (i) At a point outside the sphere i.e., r > R
1 q
electric dipole E  1 p 1  3cos2  E ·
40 r3 4 r2
 Electric field intensity due to a charged ring (ii) At a point on the surface of the sphere
(i) At a point on its axis at distance r from its i.e., r = R
1 q
1 qr E ·
centre, E  4 R2
40 (r2  a2 )3/ 2

Physics 1
 → →
(iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R  Relationship between E and V
r →
E  1 ·q r E  V
30 4 R3
 Electric field due to a thin non conducting where
infinite sheet of charge with uniformly charge
  Electric potential energy of a system of two
surface density  is E  
20 1 q1q2
point charges is U  
 Electric field between two infinite thin plane 40 r12
parallel sheets of uniform surface charge  Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius
density  and –  is E = /0. R is C = 40R

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND  Capacitance of an air filled parallel plate

CAPACITANCE
capacitor
W
 Electric potential V    Capacitance of an air filled spherical capacitor
q ab
C  4
 Electric potential at a point distant r from a 0
ba
point charge q is V  q   Capacitance of an air filled cylindrical capacitor
40r 2 L
 The electric potential at point due to an electric C 0
 b 
dipole ln  
1 p cos  a 
V
4 0 r2  Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
 Electric potential due to a uniformly charged with a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K,
spherical shell of uniform surface charge completely filled between the plates of the
density  and radius R at a distance r from the
capacitor, is given by 
centre the shell is given as follows :
(i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R  When a dielectric slab of thickness t and
1 q dielectric constant K is introduced between the
V
40 r plates, then the capacitance of a parallel plate
(ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R
1 q capacitor is given by C  d  t01A 1 
V
 
40 R K 
(iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r > R
1 q  When a metallic conductor of thickness t is
V
40 R introduced between the plates, then capacitance
 Electric potential due to a non-conducting solid of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
sphere of uniform volume charge density r and
radius R distant r from the sphere is given as
follows :  Energy stored in a capacitor2 :
1 1 1Q
(i) At a point outside the sphere i.e. r > R U CV 2  QV 
1 q 2 2 2 C
V
40 r 1 2
 Energy density : u  0E
(ii) At a point on the sphere i.e., r = R 2
1 q 1 1 1 1
V
40 R Capacitors in series :   ..... 
 CS C1 C2 Cn
(iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R
1 q(3R2  r2 )  Capacitors in parallel : CP = C1 + C2 +......+ Cn
V
40 2R3

2 Physics
  Relationship between , V and r
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
or r  R  V  1
 Current, I  q where  emf of a cell, r internal resistance and R
t
 Current density J  I (Electricity, Class 10) is external resistance
A P R
 Wheatstone’s bridge  
 Drift velocity of electrons is given by Q S
→
→ eE  Metre bridge or slide metre bridge
vd   
m The unknown resistance, R  Sl .
 Relationship between current and drift velocity 100  l
I = nAe vd  Comparison of emfs of two cells by using
 Relationship between current density and drift 1 l 1
potentiometer  
velocity 2 l2
J = nevd   l  l resistance of a cell by
Determination of internal
|v | qE/ m q potentiometer r  1 2 R
Mobility,   d
 
 l 

E E m  2 
electric work done
 Resistance   Electric power P  
time taken

 Conductance : G  1 . P  VI  I 2 R 
V2
.
R R
 The resistance of a conductor is (Electricity, Class 10)
m
m l l where  
R  MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
ne2 A A ne2 
 Conductivity :  Force on a charged particle in a uniform electric
2
ne   . .
1  vd e
   ne As    field F  qE
 m  E m  Force on a charged particle in a uniform
 .
 If the conductor is in the form of wire of length magnetic field F  q (v  B) or F  qvB sin 
l and a radius r, then its resistance is  Motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field
(i) Radius of circular path is
 If a conductor has mass m, volume V and
density d, then its resistance R is
(ii) Time period of revolution is
1 qB
(Electricity, Class 10) (iii) The frequency is   T  2m
 A cylindrical tube of length l has inner and
The angular frequency is
outer radii r1 and r2 respectively. The resistance (iv) Bq
between its end faces is  Cyclotron frequency,   
l
R . 2m
 r22  r12   Biot Savart’s law
 Relationship between J,  and E .  Idl sin  .  I (dl  .r)
0 0
J = E dB  or dB 
 The resistance of a conductor at temperature
4 r2 4 r3
 The magnetic field B at a point due to a straight
t°C is given by Rt = R0 (1 + t + t2)
wire of finite length carrying current I at a
 Resistors in series Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 perpendicular distance r is
I
 Resistors in parallel 1  1  1  1 . B 0
[sin   sin ]
Rp R1 R2 R3 4r
(Electricity, Class 10)

Physics 3
  The magnetic field at a point on the axis of the  If  is the angle between plane of the coil and
circular current carrying coil is the magnetic field, then torque on the coil is
0

B 2NIa2  = NIAB cos = MB cos


4 (a2 x2 )3 / 2  Workdone in rotating the coil through an angle

 Magnetic field at the centre due to current  from the field direction is
carrying circular arc W = MB (1 – cos )
0 I  Potential energy o f a magnetic dipole
→ →
B . U   M  B   MB cos
4a
 An electron revolving around the central
 The magnetic field at the centre of a circular
nucleus in an atom has a magnetic moment and
coil of radius a carrying current I is
0 2I 0 I it is given by
B 
4 a 2a
If the circular coil consists of N turns, then  Conversion of galvanometer into a ammeter
  I 
B  0 2NI  0 NI S   I g Ig G
4 a 2a  
. .  Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter
 Ampere’s circuital law ○ B  dl  0 I. V
R G
 Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight Ig
solid cylindrical wire of radius a, carrying  In order to increase the range of voltmeter n
current I times the value of resistance to be connected in
(a) Magnetic field at a point outside the wire series with galvanometer is R = (n – 1)G.
i.e 0I  Magnetic dipole moment
. (r > a) is B  M  m (2l )
2r
(b) Magnetic field at a point inside the wire  The magnetic field due to a bar magnet at any
 Ir point on the axial line (end on position) is
i.e. (r < a) is B  0
(c) Magnetic field at2a
2
a point on the surface of a 0 22Mr2 2
 4 
axial
B
(r  l )
0 I
wire i.e. (r = a) is B  For short magnet l2 << r2
2 a  2M
 Force on a current carrying conductor in a Baxial  0

uniform magnetic field 4r 3

→ → The direction of Baxial is along SN.
F  I (l  B)or F = IlB sin  The magnetic field due to a bar magnet at any
 When two parallel conductors separated by a point on the equatorial line (board-side on
distance r carry currents I1 and I2, the magnetic position) of the bar magnet is
field of one will exert a force on the other. The 0M
force per unit length on either conductor is Bequatorial 
4(r 2  l2)3 / 2
0 2I1I2 For short magnet
f 
4 r 0M
 The force of attraction or repulsion acting on Bequatorial 
4 r 3
each conductor of length l due to currents in The direction of Bequatorial is parallel to NS.
two parallel conductor is F  0 2I1I2 l.  In moving coil galvanometer the current I
4 r passing through the galvanometer is directly
 When two charges q1 and q2 respectively proportional to its deflection ().
moving with velocities v1 and v2 are at a
I   or, I = G.
distance r apart, then the force acting between k
them is where G   galvanometer constant
NAB
0 q1q2 v1v2
F
4 r2  Current sensitivity :
 Torque on a current carrying coil placed in a

uniform magnetic field
 Voltage sensitivity :
 = NIABsin = MBsin

4 Physics
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance.
The emf induced in the secondary coil is given
 Gauss’s law for mag netism by
→ →
  B  S  0 S   M
dIP
all area
elements S dt
 Horizontal component : where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance.
BH = B cos  Coefficient of coupling (K) :
 Magnetic intensity M
K
B = H L1L2
 Intensity of magnetisation  The coefficient of mutual inductance of two
Magnetic moment M long co-axial solenoids, each of length l, area of
I 
Volume V cross section A, wound on air core is
 Magnetic susceptibility 0N1N2 A
I M
m  l
H  Energy stored in an inductor
 Magnetic permeability
1 2

B U LI
H 2
 Relative permeability :  During the growth of current in a LR circuit is
I = I0 (1 – e–Rt/L) = I0(1 – e–t/)
where I0 is the maximum value of current,
 Relationship between magnetic permeability  = L/R = time constant of LR circuit.
and susceptibility  During the decay of current in a LR circuit is
  1   with    I = I0e–Rt/L = I0e–t/
r m r
0  During charging of capacitor through resistor
C
 Curie law : m  T q = q0(1 – e–t/RC) = q0(1 – e–t/)
C
  (T  T ) where q0 is the maximum value of charge.
 = RC is the time constant of CR circuit.
m
T  TC C
 During discharging of capacitor through resistor
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION q = q0e–t/RC = q0e–t/
 Magnetic Flux ALTERNATING CURRENT
  B  A  BA cos 
 Mean or average value of alternating current or
 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
d voltage over one complete cycle
  T
dt
 When a conducting rod of length l is rotated
 I0 sin t dt
Im or I or Iav  0 T 0
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B, then
induced emf between the ends of the rod is  dt
0
T

V0 sin t dt
|| = B = BA (l2) Vm or V or Vav  0
T 0
 The self induced emf is 0 dt
d dI 
   L Average value of alternating current for first
dt dt half cycle is
 Self inductance of a circular coil is T/2

0N2 R
2 0 I0 sin t dt

2I0
 0.637I0
L  Iav  T/2

 Let IP be the current flowing through primary 0 dt
coil at any instant. If S is the flux linked with
 Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average
secondary coil then
value over first half cycle is
S  IP or S = MIP

Physics 5
 T/2 V sin tdt 1
 r 
0
2V 2 LC
Vav  0  0  0.637V0
T/2

0 dt
 Quality factor
 Average value of alternating current for second
cycle is
T

Iav 

T/2
I0 sin tdt
  2I 0   0.637 I0
T 

T/2
dt
 Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average  Average power (Pav) : V I
value over second half cycle is P V I cos  0 0
cos 
T
av rms rms
2
 V0 sin tdt
2V0  Apparent power : P  V I 
V0I0
Vav  T / 2    0.637 V0 v rms rms
2
T 

T/2
dt  Efficiency of a transformer,
 Mean value or average value of alternating output power V I
 input power  V SIS .
current over any half cycle P P

Iav  2I0  0.637I0

 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2I
Iav  0  0.637I0  The displacement current is given by
 Root mean square (rms) value of alternating
current
I0  Four Maxwell’s equations are :
Irms or Iv   0.707I0  Gauss’s law for electrostatics
2
Similarly, for alternating voltage 
V0 
Vrms   0.707 V0 Gauss’s law for magnetism
2
  Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
→ → dB
 Inductive reactance : ° E  dl   dt
XL = L = 2L  Maxwell-Ampere’s circuital law
 Capacitive reactance : X 1 1
 
C
C 2C
The impedance of the series LCR circuit.  The amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields

 
1 2 in free space, in electromagnetic waves are
Z  R2  (XL  XC )2  R 2  L  related by
C
1 1 E0
 Admittance  or Y  
E0  cB0 or B0 
Impedance Z c
The speed of electromagnetic wave in free
 Susceptance  1 space is
Reactance 1
 Inductive susceptance  1 c 
Inductive reactance 00
or S  1  1  The speed of electromagnetic wave in a
L
XL L 1 medium is
Capacitive susceptance 
 Capacitive reactance
1 1
or SC    C
X C 1/ C  The energy density of the electric field is
 The resonant frequency is 1
uE   E2
2 0

6 Physics
 The energy density of magnetic field is  Superficial magnification :
1 B2 area of image 2
uB  mS  m
2 0 area of object
 Average energy density of the electric field is 1 1 1

1
Mirror's formula   
u  E 2 u v f
E
4 0 0
 Newton’s formula is f 2 = xy,
 Average energy density of the magnetic field
sin i 1
is  Laws of refraction :  
2
1B 2 1 2 sin r
 uB   0
 0E0  Absolute refractive index :
4 0 4
 Average energy density of electromagnetic
wave is
1
u  E2
2 0 0
 Intensity of electromagnetic wave sin (i  r)
Lateral shift, d  t
1 cos r
I  u  c   Ec 2

2 0 0 (Light, Reflection and Refraction, Class 10)

 Momentum of electromagnetic wave  If there is an ink spot at the bottom of a glass
U
p (complete absorption) slab, it appears to be raised by a distance
c
2U
p (complete reflection)
c
 The poynting vector is  When the object is situated in rarer medium,
→ 1 → →
S
 E  B the relation between 1 (refractive index of
0 rarer medium) 2 (refractive index of the
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS spherical refracting surface) and R (radius of
curvature) with the object and image distances
 When two plane mirrors are inclined at an is given by
angle  and an object is placed between them, 1 2 2  1
the number of images of an object are formed   
u v R
due to multiple reflections.
 When the object is situated in denser medium,
360 Position of Number of the relation between 1, 2, R, u and v can be
n
 object images obtained by interchanging 1 and 2. In that
case, the relation becomes
even anywhere n–1     1
2 1 1  2 or  1  2  2
odd symmetric n–1   
u v R v u R
asymmetric n  Lens maker’s 1formula  1 1 
360  (  1) 
 If is a fraction, the number of images  R1 R2 
 f 
formed will be equal to its integral part.  Thin lens formula
(Light, Class 8)
 The focal length of a spherical mirror of radius
R is given by  Linear magnification
size of image (I) v
m  .
size of object (O) u
 Transverse or linear magnification
 Power of a lens
size of image v
m 
size of object u
 Longitudinal magnification :  Combination of thin lenses in contact
dv 1 1 1 1
mL       ....
du F f1 f2 f3

Physics 7
 The total power of the combination is given by Length of tube, L = vo + fe
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...  When the final image is formed at least distance
 The total magnification of the combination is of distinct vision,
given by
m = m1 × m2 × m3 ....
 When two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 where uo and vo represent the distance of object
are placed coaxially and separated by a distance and image from the objective lens, fe is the focal
d, the focal length of a combination is given by length of an eye lens.
1 1 1 d  f D 
F  f1  f2  f1 f2 . Length of the tube, L  vo   e 
f
 e  D 
 In terms of power P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2.  Astronomial telescope
(Light, Reflection and Refraction, Class 10) fo
magnifying power, M 
 If I1, I2 are the two sizes of image of the object of fe
size O, then O  Length of tube, L = fo +  fe D 
I1I2
 The refractive index of the material of the  f  D 
e
prism is
WAVE OPTICS
(A  m ) 
sin 
  2   For constructive interference (i.e. formation of
sin  
A
2
bright fringes)
 For nth bright fringe,
where A is the angle of prism and m is the angle
d
of minimum deviation. Path difference  x  n
  R n
D
 Mean deviation   V . where n = 0 for central bright fringe
2
n = 1 for first bright fringe,
 Dispersive power,
n = 2 for second bright fringe and so on
angular dispersion (V  R )
  d = distance between two slits
mean deviation ()
D = distance of slits from the screen
V  R
 , xn = distance of nth bright fringe from the
(  1)
  centre.
D
where   V R
 mean refractive index  xn  n
2 d
 Magnifying power, of simple microscope  For destructive interference (i.e. formation of
angle subtended by image at the eye dark fringes).
M 
angle subtended by the object at the eye  For nth dark fringe,
d 
tan  path difference  x  (2n  1)
  D 2
tan  n

where
 When the image is formed at infinity (far
n = 1 for first dark fringe,
point), D
M n = 2 for 2nd dark fringe and so on.
f xn = distance of nth dark fringe from the centre
 When the image is formed at the least distance
D
of distinct vision D (near point),  x n  (2n 1)
2 d
 Fringe width,   D
d
 Magnifying power of a compound microscope  Angular fringe width,     
M = mo × me D d
 If W1, W2 are widths of two slits, I1, I2 are
 When the final image is formed at infinity
intensities of light coming from two slits; a, b are
(normal adjustment),
vo  D  the amplitudes of light from these slits, then
M
u  f  W1

I1

a2
o  e 



W2 I2 b2

8 Physics
 Imax (a  b)2 (0), then maximum kinetic energy of the
 emitted electron is given as
Imin I (aIb)2
Fringe visibility V  max min Kmax = h – 0
 Imax  Imin For  > 0 or eV0 = h – 0 = h – h0
1 1 
 When entire apparatus of Young’s double or eV0  Kmax  hc    .
slit experiment is immersed in a medium of   0 
refractive index  then fringe width becomes
 de Broglie wavelength, 
D D   If the rest mass of a particle is m , its de Broglie
   
d d  0

 When a thin transparent plate of thickness t and wavelength is given by

refractive idnex  is placed in the path of one  v2 
1/ 2
h 1  2 
of the interfering
unaffected but thewaves, fringe width
entire pattern shifts remains
by    c 
m0v
D   In terms of kinetic energy K, de Broglie
x  ( 1) t  (  1) t
d  h
wavelength is given by   .
 Diffraction due to a single slit 2mK
Width of secondary maxima or minima  If a particle of charge q is accelerated through a
D f potential difference V, its de Broglie wavelength
 
where a a h
is given by   .
a = width of slit 2mqV

 150
D = distance of screen from the slit 1/ 2
For an electron,   V
f = focal length of lens for diffracted light Å.
 For a gas molecule of mass m at temperature
 Width of central maximum 
by
 Angular width fringe of central maximum T kelvin, its de Broglie wavelength is given
2 h
 .  , where k is the Boldmann
a 3mkT constant.
 Angular fringe width of secondary maxima or
 ATOMS
minima  a
2
a  Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
 Fresnel distance, ZF  
 N ntZ2e4
 Resolving power of a microscope N()  i

1 2 sin  (80 )2 r2K 2 sin4(/ 2)

Resolving power   The frequency of incident alpha particles
d 
 Resolving power of a telescope D scattered by an angle  or greater
1 2
Resolving power    Ze2  2 
1.22  f  nt 
40K 
d cot
2
 
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER  The scattering angle  of the  particle and
hc impact parameter b are related as
 Energy of a photon E  h  
 Ze2 cot(/ 2)
 Momentum of photon is b
E h 40K
p
c  c E h  Distance of closest approach
 The moving mass m of photon is m   .
c2 c2 2Ze2
 Stopping potential r 0 
40K
1 2
Kmax  eV0  mv max  Angular momentum of the electron in a
2
stationary orbit is an integral multiple of h/2.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation nh nh
If a light of frequency  is incident on a i.e., L  or, mvr 
photosensitive material having work function 2 2

Physics 9
  The frequency of a radiation from electrons  Balmer series
makes a transition from higher to lower orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
E  E1 transition of electron from higher energy
 2 levels (n2 = 3, 4, ) to second energy level
h
 Bohr’s formulae (n1 = 2) constitute Balmer series.
(i) Radius of nth orbit 1 1 1 
 R  2  2 
 2 n
 2 
where n2 = 3, 4, 5. ......... ,
  Paschen series
(ii) Velocity of electron in the nth orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
1
v  2Ze2 2.2  106 Z transition of electron from higher energy
 m/s.
levels (n2 = 4, 5, .... ,) to third energy level (n1
n 40 nh n = 3) constitute Paschen series.
(iii) The kinetic energy of the electron in the nth 1 1 1 1 
orbit   R  32  n2 
 2 
 Brackett series
Emission spectral lines corresponding
13.6Z2
to the transition of electron from higher
 eV.
n2 energy levels (n2 = 5, 6, 7,. ,) to fourth
(iv) The potential energy of electron in nth orbit energy level (n1 = 4) constitute Brackett
series. 1 1  1 
  R  42  n2 
 2 
27.2Z2 where n2 = 5, 6, 7. ........ ,
 eV.  Pfund series
n2 Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
(v) Total energy of electron in nth orbit transition of electron from higher energy
levels (n2 = 6, 7, 8,. .... ,) to fifth energy level
(n1 = 5) constitute Pfund series.
1 1 1 
(vi) Frequency of electron in nth orbit   R  52  n2 
2 2 2 4 15 2 where n = 6, 7,. ......... ,  2 
 1  4 Z e m 6.62  10 Z 2 
n   40    Number of spectral lines due to transition of
n3h3 n3
 
electron from nth orbit to lower orbit is
(vii) Wavelength of radiation in the transition n(n  1)
from N .
2
n2  n1 is given by 13.6Z2
 Ionization energy  eV.
1 2  1 1  n2 2
  RZ n2  n2 13.6Z
 1 2   Ionization potential  volt.
2
n
where R is called Rydberg’s constant.  Energy quantisation
n2h2
E  where n  1, 2, 3, .........
n
8mL2
 Lyman series NUCLEI
Emission spectral lines corresponding to
the transition of electron from higher energy  Nuclear radius, R = R0A1/3
levels (n2 = 2, 3, ...,) to first energy level (n1 = where R0 is a constant and A is the mass
1) constitute Lyman series. number
1 1 1   Nuclear density,
R 
 12 n2  mass nuclear
 2 

where n2 = 2, 3, 4,......., volume of nucleus

10 Physics
 Mass defect is given by  The current in the junction diode is given by
m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] I = I0 (eeV/kT –1)
 The binding energy of nucleus is given by where k = Boldmann constant, I0 = reverse
Eb = mc2 = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN]c2 saturation current.
= [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] × 931.49 MeV/u. In forward biasing, V is positive and low,
 The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus eeV/kT > > 1, then forward current,
= Eb/A If = I0 (eeV/kT )
 Law of radioactive decay In reverse biasing, V is negative and high
dN
 N(t) or N(t)  N0et eeV/kT < < 1, then reverse current,
dt Ir = – I0
 Half-life of a radioactive substance is given by  Dynamic resistance

T1/ 2 
ln 2 0.693
 V
rd 
  I
 Mean life or average life of a radioactive Half wave rectifier
substance is given by  Peak value of current is
1 T
  1/ 2  1.44T1/ 2 Vm
I 
 0.693 m rf  RL
 Activity : R = –dN/dt
where rf is the forward diode resistance, RL is
 Activity law R(t) = R0e–t
the load resistance and Vm is the peak value of
where R0 = N0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and the alternating voltage.
R = N.  rms value of current is
 Fraction of nuclei left undecayed after n half
Irms  I2m
live is
   21 
n t/T
N 1 1/ 2  dc value of current is
 or t = nT1/2
N0 2 Im
Idc 

 Neutron reproduction factor (K)
 Peak inverse voltage is
rate of production of neutrons
 P.I.V = Vm
rate of loss of neutrons
 dc value of voltage is
Im
SEMICONDUCTOR ELETRONICS, MATERIALS, Vdc  Idc RL   RL
DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS Full wave rectifier
 Forbidden energy gap or forbidden band  Peak value of current is
h Vm
Eg  h   Im 
rf  RL
 The intrinsic concentration ni varies with  dc value of current is
temperature T as 2Im

Idcis
rms value of current 
3 Eg / kT
ni2  A0 T e
Im
 The conductivity of the semiconductor is given Irms 
by  = e(nee + nhh) 2
 Peak inverse voltage is
where e and h are the electron and hole P.I.V = 2Vm
mobilities, ne and nh are the electron and hole
 dc value of voltage is
densities, e is the electronic charge.
2Im
 The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor Vdc  IdcRL   RL
is Ripple frequency
i = nie(e + h) rms value of the components of wave
r 
 The conductivity of n-type semiconductor is average or dc value
n = eNde
2
 The conductivity of p-type semiconductor is r   Irms   1
 I 
p = eNah dc

Physics 11
 Im / 2 
 For half wave rectifier, Form factor 
   1.57
Irms 
Im I Im /  2
, I  m
2 dc 
2
 For full wave rectifier,
 I /2 
r   m   1
 Im /   I 2I
Irms  m , Idc  m
= 1.21 2 
I / 2 
 For full wave rectifier, Form factor  m   1.11
Im 2Im 2Im /  2 2
Irms  2 , Idc   Common emifler amplifier
 dc current gain
2 IC
I / 2  dc 
r   m  1
 2Im /   IB
 ac current gain
= 0.482 IC 
ac 
Rectification efficiency I B 
dc power delivered to load 
  Voltage gain Vo
ac input power from transformer secondary A    

Ro
 For a half wave rectifier, v Vi ac Ri
dc power delivered to the load is  Power gain
 R
2
P  I 2 R  Im output power (Po )
dc dc L  L Ap  input power (P )
i
 V
Voltage gain (in dB)  20 log10 o
  (r  R )
Input ac power is Vi
Im 2
P I 2
(r  R ) 
ac rms f L 2 f L = 20 log10 Av
 P
Rectification efficiency Power gain (in dB)  10 log Po
i
Pdc (I / )2 R
  m
2
L
 100% Common base amplifier
P
ac (Im / 2) (rf  RL )  dc current gain
IC

40.6
% dc 
1  rf / RL IE
 ac current gain
 For a full wave rectifier, I
ac   IC 
dc power delivered to the load is E


   Voltage gain
2
 I 2 R  2Im R
P V R
dc dc L  L Av  o
 ac  o
Input ac power is 2  Power gain Vi Ri
I 
P  I 2 (r  R )  m (r  R ) output power (Po )
ac rms f L   f L Ap  input power (P )
2 i
Rectification efficiency = ac × Av
P 81.2
  dc  (2Im / )2 RL  100%  %  Relationship between  and 
1  rf / RL
Pac
Im / 2 2 (rf  RL ) 
If rf << RL,
Maximum rectification efficiency,  = 81.2% Name Symbol Truth Boolean
Form factor of gate Table expression
Irms OR A B Y Y=A+B
 Form factor  
Idc 0 0 0
 For half wave rectifier, 0 1 1
Im Im 1 0 1
Irms  , Idc   1 1 1
2

12 Physics
AND A B Y Y=A·B area covered = d2 = 2hR
Population covered = population density × area
0 0 0
covered
0 1 0
 The maximum line of sight distance dM between
1 0 0
1 1 1 two antennas having heights hT and hR above
the earth is given by
NOT A Y
YA
0 1
1 0 where hT is the height of the transmitting
NAND A B Y antenna and hR is the height of the receiving
Y  AB antenna and R is the radius of the earth.
0 0 1
0 1 1  The amplitude modulated signal contains
1 0 1 three frequencies, viz. c, c + m and c – m.
1 1 0 The first frequency is the carrier frequency
NOR A B Y Thus, the process of modulation does not
Y  AB change the original carrier frequency but
0 0 1
0 1 0 produces two new frequencies (c + m)
1 0 0 and(c – m) which are known as sideband
1 1 0 frequencies.
XOR A B Y SB = c ± m
Y  AB  AB  Frequency of lower side band
(also 0 0 0
called 0 1 1 LSB = c – m
exclusive 1 0 1  Frequency of higher side band
OR gate) 1 1 0 USB = c + m
 Bandwidth of AM signal = USB – LSB = 2m
XNOR A B Y
Y  AB  AB  Average power per cycle in the carrier wave is
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0 where R is the resistance
1 1 1  Total power per cycle in the modulated wave
 2 
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Pt  Pc 1  
2
 Critical frequency, c = g(Nmax)1/2  If It is rms value of total modulated current
where Nmax the maximum number density of and Ic is the rms value of unmodulated carrier
electron/m3. current, then 2

 1  2
 Maximum usable frequency
It
Ic
c
MUF   c sec i  For detection of AM wave, the essential
cos i
 The skip distance is given by condition is
2
 0 
Dskip  2h    1
 c   The instantaneous frequency of the frequency
modulated wave is
where h is the height of reflecting layer of
Vm
atmosphere, 0 = maximum frequency of (t)  c  k 2 sinmt
electromagnetic waves used and c is the critical where k is the proportionality constant.
frequency for that layer.  The maximum and minimum values of the
 If h is the height of the transmitting antenna, frequency is k V k Vm
then the distance to the horizon is given by max  c  m
and min  c 
2 2
where R is the radius of the earth.  Frequency deviation
k Vm
For TV signal,   max  c  c  min 
2

Physics  13


14 Physics