Data processing and

information

By Mujjuzi Yasin
 Information.
Data and information • When data item are given context and
meaning.
Data • They become information a person
reading the information will then
•Data is raw numbers letters symbols know what it means .
letters, symbols, sound, all images with
no meaning, some. Some examples of • Data is given in context by identifying
data what sort of data it is.
•P95BR. • This still does not make it information,
but it is a step on the way to become
•@BBCclick information.
•359
•2355.99R
Questions
• A company a create website using style sheet.
1. Identify one item of data that will be used by the company this.
2. Describe how this item of data can become information.
 Data sources
Direct data sources.
• Data collected from a direct data source (primary source ) must
be used for the same purpose for which it was collected .
• Direct data source data that is collected from the purpose for
which to be used.
• For example, a sport shop wants to find out what other shops
are charging For trainers, there are various direct resources
from which this data can be collected These could include :
• visiting the other shops and noting down the prices.
• Visiting other shops website and noting down the prices.
• carrying out a survey of other shop’s owners to ask their
prices .
Direct data collection methods
• Questionnaires, can be used to gather specific data such as opinions
about an invent that has taken place.
• Questioners are particularly useful when there are many respondents and
the statistical analysis. Will be carried out .
• question here need to be structured, carefully to:
• elicit the information required
• enable analysis of the data effectively
• gather enough information without putting people off from completing
the questionnaires.
• Online questionnaires enabled quicker analysis of data because the users fill
in the data online and then the data is entered into database .
• online questionnaires save time because no further data entry by a third
party is necessary.
 Direct data collection
methods
• Interviews,are another direct source of
information . questions are asked directly to
respondent and the interviewer can ask the
respondent to elaborate on their answers.
• Interviews are used to collect data about a
topic and can be structured or unstructured .
• Observation, is the method of data collection
in which the data collectors watch what
happens in a given situation.
• The observer collects data by seeing for
themselves what happens rather than
depending on their answers from
interviewees or the accuracy of completed
the questions
 Direct data collection
methods

• Data logging, involves the use of computers and

sensors to gather data, which is then analyzed,
stored, and presented, often through graphs and
charts.
• These systems can capture and display data in real-
time as events occur.
• Data is typically collected over a period, either
continuously or at set intervals, to observe trends.
• This process entails recording information from
various sensors, and the analysis usually requires
specialized software.
 Uses of direct data source
• The use of direct data is illustrated in the scenario of • 3. New Route Passengers: The estimated number of
planning a bus route alteration for a new housing passengers who would use the new route. This could
development. The committee aims to convince a bus be obtained through questionnaires given to
company to change the route to better serve residents on the new development.
residents. To support their case, they need original • 4. Impact on Daily Lives: Understanding how the
data that includes: proposed route change would affect villagers' daily
• 1. Walking Times: The time it takes to walk from the lives. Face-to-face interviews are suggested to gather
new development to existing bus routes. This could honest responses, though this method might take
more time compared to other data collection
be collected by physically walking from various methods.
points in the development and timing the journey.
• 2.Existing Route Passengers: Data about the number
of passengers currently using the existing route. This • For each data point, specific methods are proposed:
could be gathered using sensors near bus doors that
count passengers boarding and disembarking,
helping calculate passenger numbers at different
stops.
Uses of direct data source
• Walking Times: Direct measurements by physically
walking the routes from different points in the
development.
• Existing Route Passengers: Data loggers or sensors on
buses to track passenger counts at various stops along the
existing route.
• New Route Passengers: Use of questionnaires distributed
among residents on the new development, collecting
their intended usage of the new route.
• Impact on Daily Lives: Conducting face-to-face interviews
to gather detailed feedback on how the proposed change
would impact villagers' daily routines.
• The chosen methods reflect considerations of accuracy,
efficiency, and practicality.
• Data logging, sensors, questionnaires, and interviews are
all employed to obtain a comprehensive understanding of
the situation, which can then be presented to the bus
company to support the route alteration proposal.
 • Indirect data sources involve obtaining
information from third-party entities.
Indirect data • Data collected from an indirect data source
source (secondary source ) already existed for another
purpose.
• For example
• Carrying out a survey of customers who have
purchased the trainers from the other shops.
• looking at till receipt from shop.
 Application of
indirect data sources

• Two examples of such sources are the

electoral register and businesses collecting
data from customers.
• The electoral register, also known as the
electoral roll, contains details of eligible
voters and is used for various purposes like
elections and credit checks.
• Businesses gather personal information
from customers and often share it with
other organizations, sometimes facilitated
by data brokers who collect sensitive
personal data from online activities.
 Advantages and disadvantages of direct and indirect

Direct Indirect
The data will be relevant because what is Additional data that is not required will exist
needed has been collected. that may take time to sort through and some
data that is required may exist.

The original source is known and so can be The original source may not be known and so
trusted it can't be assumed that it is reliable.

It can take a long time to gather original data The data is immediately available.
rather that use data that already exist.

A large sample of statistical data can be If statistical analysis is required, then there are
difficult to collect for one-off purpose more likely to be large samples available.
Questions
Qualities of information 2. Relevance:

1. Accuracy: • Data collected must be relevant to its intended

purpose.
Information should be free from errors and mistakes.
• Data must meet user requirements and serve a
• Accuracy depends on the accuracy of collected data purpose.
before processing.
• Mistakes can occur during data collection, leading to • Irrelevant data collection wastes time and
inaccuracies. resources.
• Verification and validation methods help ensure • Data can be too detailed, too general, or
accuracy.
unrelated geographically.
• Clear and unambiguous questions are essential in data
collection. • Example

• Open-ended questions might lead to biased or • Being given a bus timetable when you want
ambiguous responses. to catch a train.
• Being told the rental price of car when you
want to by the car
 Qualities of information

3. Age 4. Level of Detail

• The age of information impacts its quality and • Information should have the right level of detail
usefulness. for its purpose.

• Information needs to be up-to-date to reflect • Too much detail can make it hard to extract
current conditions. essential information.

• Outdated information can lead to inaccurate • Concise presentation enhances usefulness and
decisions and results. comprehension.

Examples include:

• The number of residence in a town based on a

census from 2011, but 500 new homes have
been built in the town since
 • Look at the invitation
• Describe how accuracy,
Qualities of information relevance ,level of details and
completeness affect the quality
of information in the invitation.
5. completeness
• All information that is required must be
provided in order for it to be good quality.
• Not having all the information required
mean it cannot be used properly.
For example,
• a person has booked their car in for a
service over the phone. The mechanic at the
garage tells them the name of the street but
doesn’t give the building number.
 1. Identify three factors that could affect the quality of
information
Questions 2. describe how the age of information could affect the
quality of the information within a user guide for a
mobile phone.
 Encryption

Encryption is a way of scrambling data so that only authorized people can understand the information.

It is the process of converting information into a code which is impossible to understand.

This process is used whether the data is being transmitted across the internet or is just being stored.

It does not prevent cyber criminals intercepting sensitive information, but it does prevent them from understanding
it.

Technically, it is the process of converting plaintext to ciphertext.

Employing data encryption is a safe way for companies to protect their confidential information and their reputation
with their clients, since the benefits of encryption do not just apply to the use of the internet.
Information should also be encrypted on computers, hard-disk drives, pen drives and portable devices, whether
they be laptops, tablets, or smartphones.

The misuse of the data on these devices will be prevented, should the device be hacked, lost or stolen.
 The need for encryption

• Whenever you send personal information across the internet, whether it is credit card
information or personal details, there is a risk that it can be intercepted.
• Once it is intercepted the information can be changed or used for purposes such as identity
theft, cyber-fraud, or ransomed off.
• Data is scrambled or jumbled up so that it is completely unreadable.
• When a message/information is intercepted//accessed it is unreadable/ can't be understood
... (1)
• ... so, therefore, it is useless (1)
• ... to a hacker (accept alternative examples of 3rd party or just ‘third party’) (1)
• It protects customers when they bank/shop online/any other suitable
• example from any area of use (MUST BE protecting data) ... (1) ... as the data cannot be used
for identity theft (1)
• Data can only be decrypted by the receiving computer if it has the private/decryption key (1)
 Methods of encryption
• Symmetric encryption, also known as 'secret key
encryption', involves both the sender and receiver
using the same key to encrypt and decrypt messages.
• This method is faster than asymmetric encryption but
faces the challenge of securely sharing the private key.
• The sender must transmit the encryption key to the
recipient prior to decryption, which raises security
concerns as the key could be intercepted and
misused.
• To address this issue, some companies employ
asymmetric encryption to share the secret key and
then use symmetric encryption for actual data
encryption.
 Methods of encryption
• Asymmetric encryption
• Often called public-key encryption (1)
• Uses two different keys// one public and one private/secret (key)
(1)
• No need to transfer a key (with the message) (1)
• The public key/key held by the person doing the encryption is
used to encrypt the data (1)
• The corresponding private/secret key is used to decrypt the data
(1)
• The public key is published to everyone (1)
• The private key is kept secret (1)
• Anyone with a copy of the public key can encrypt information (1)
• Only the private key holder can read the information (1)
• It is not possible to deduce the private key from the public key (1)
Uses of encryption
Hard-disk encryption
• When a file is written to the disk, it can be automatically encrypted by encryption
software
• Full disk encryption is when the data is encrypted as soon as it is saved to the hard
disk
• When a file is read from the disk the decryption/encryption key/password is
needed to decrypt it
• When a file is read from the disk, the software automatically decrypts it… … while
in some types of hard disk encryption leaving all other data on the disk encrypted
• (All) the files on the disk are encrypted/ It’s the encryption of data on that disk…
• …except in some cases the operating system
• Whether the disk stays in the computer or moved to another computer it is still
encrypted
• Only the person/computer with the secret/decryption/encryption key/password
can understand the data on the disk/data can’t be read without the
• decryption/encryption key/unauthorised people cannot read the data
 • You've provided a comprehensive overview of email encryption and its
importance in securing sensitive information during email communication. Let's
break down the key points you've mentioned:
1. Encryption of Connection:
• Encrypting the connection to the email provider's server using protocols like
SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security) ensures that hackers
cannot intercept login details and the content of messages as they travel between
your device and the server.
• This prevents eavesdropping and data theft during transit.

Email 2. Message Encryption:

encryption • Encrypting the content of the email messages themselves ensures that even if a
hacker intercepts the message, they won't be able to understand its contents
without the decryption key.
• Asymmetric encryption is commonly used for this purpose, where the sender
uses the recipient's public key to encrypt the message, and the recipient uses
their private key to decrypt it.
3. Encryption of Saved or Archived Messages:
• Encrypting saved or archived messages on your device adds an extra layer of
protection, making it difficult for hackers to access your stored emails even if they
manage to breach your computer's security settings.
 Encryption in HTTPS websites
• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is used to securely browse the internet, protecting
sensitive data from interception and fraud.
• Unlike regular HTTP, it employs SSL/TLS encryption to ensure security.
• Websites with HTTPS have digital certificates from trusted authorities, verifying their
authenticity.
• This prevents data tampering during transfer and encrypts information between clients and
servers.
• HTTPS enables secure transmission of confidential data like credit card info.
• Secure sites are identified by the HTTPS prefix and a padlock icon in the URL.
• HTTPS works by a handshake between the browser and server, creating a session key for further
communication.
• Asymmetric encryption creates the session key, while symmetric encryption encrypts data
afterward for efficiency.
• Each session uses a new session key. Benefits of HTTPS include data confidentiality and higher
search engine rankings. However, loading times can be longer due to certificate management
and expiration checks.
 • Encryption is the scrambling of data… …it converts plaintext to ciphertext... …into
meaningless groups of symbols…

Question: • … can’t be understood by unauthorised people/read without the decryption key…

• …without encryption messages can be stored as plain text, making it easy for anyone to read
When and understand
personal data • Encryption keeps personal data secure…
is sent across • … …such as credit card numbers and personal information from computer hackers
the internet, • If personal information is intercepted, but it can't be understood, it is of no use...

it is often • ... the act of hacking in this case is pointless

encrypted. • It does not prevent hackers intercepting personal data but it prevents them from
understanding it
Analyse the • Two types of encryption asymmetric and symmetric…
encryption of • …symmetric and asymmetric use a private key but asymmetric uses a public key as well
personal data /symmetric uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt but asymmetric uses different keys…
• …symmetric uses a private key to encrypt and decrypt /symmetric is where both sender and
when it is receiver use a private key…
sent across • …asymmetric uses a public key to encrypt and a private key to decrypt /sender uses a public
key and receiver uses a private key
the internet.
• Can only decrypt using a decryption key/only authorised users have the decryption key…
• … Symmetric is a faster method than asymmetric… … Symmetric is less secure than
asymmetric Data is encrypted using an encryption key
 Advantages of Encryption:
Advantages and 1. Security: Encryption protects sensitive information from unauthorized
Disadvantages of access and cyber threats, ensuring data confidentiality and integrity.

Different 2. Prevents Tampering: Encrypted data cannot be altered without the

decryption key, reducing the risk of data manipulation.
Protocols and 3. Identity Protection: Encryption prevents identity theft by securing
Methods of personal and financial details during transmission.
Encryption: 4. Intellectual Property Protection: Encrypted data, such as company
secrets, is safeguarded from being stolen and sold to rivals.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Encryption helps comply with data protection
regulations by ensuring privacy and security.
6. Confidential Communication: Encrypted communication enables
secure exchange of confidential messages.
7. Higher Search Rankings: Websites using encryption (HTTPS) tend to
rank higher on search engines, improving visibility.
 Disadvantages of Encryption:
1. Processing Overhead: Encryption requires additional processing power,
leading to increased load times and resource usage.
2. Latency: Encryption involves multiple handshakes between client and
server, causing slight delays in data transfer.
3.Key Management: Proper management of encryption keys is essential;
loss of keys can lead to data loss.
4. Ransomware Risk: Hackers can use ransomware to encrypt data and
demand payment for decryption.
5. User Inconvenience: Encrypted data can be challenging to recover if
keys are lost, potentially leading to data loss.
6. Performance Impact: Asymmetric encryption is slower due to its
mathematical complexity compared to symmetric encryption.
7. Compatibility Issues: Some protocols or encryption methods may not
be supported by certain operating systems or applications.
 Advantages of SSL/TLS:
• 1. Simplified Management: SSL/TLS requires digital certificates mainly
for servers, reducing management complexity.
• 2. Easier Setup: Setting up and managing SSL/TLS VPNs tends to be
simpler than IPsec.

Comparing • 3. Cost Savings: SSL/TLS VPNs often do not require purchasing

additional client software, potentially saving money.
SSL/TLS with Disadvantages of SSL/TLS:

IPsec: 1. Client Software Download: SSL/TLS may require extra software for non-
web applications, which could be hindered by firewalls.
2. Limited OS Support: Certain operating systems may not support
SSL/TLS VPN tunnels while supporting IPsec.
3. Weaker Security:Optional user authentication in SSL/TLS may weaken
security compared to IPsec.
 Questions
1. Briefly describe what is meant by symmetric
encryption.
2. Write a sentence about each of the three
uses of encryption.
3. Explain the difference between HTTP and
HTTPS
Checking the accuracy of
data
 • Validation takes place when data is
input into a computer system.
• The purpose is to ensure the data is
sensible and conforms to defined
rules.
• Accurate data input is crucial for
Validation obtaining precise outcomes during
data processing.
• Data entry, especially in computer
systems, can be time-consuming.
• Minimizing errors during data entry or
transfer is vital to avoid additional time
spent on corrections or re-entry.
 Methods of
validation
• Presence check
• A presence check is used to
ensure that data is entered .
• If data is entered, then it is
accepted.
• If data is not entered, then
the user will be presented
with an error message asking
them to enter data
Range check
• A range check ensures that data is within a defined range.
• A limit check has a single boundary.
• This could be the highest possible value or the lowest possible value or
lowest possible value.
• A range check includes two boundaries, which would be the lower
boundary.
• These symbols are used when comparing with a boundary:
• > greater than
• < less than
• >= greater than or equal to
• <= less than or equal to
Type check
• A type check ensures that data
must ne of a defined datatype.
• Examples of type check
include:
• If an age is entered, it must be
an integer.
• If grade is entered, it must be
text with no numbers
• If price is entered, it must be
numerical.
• If date of birth is entered, it must be
a date.
 Length check

• A length check ensures data is of • Format check

a defined length or within a range • It ensures data matches a defined
of lengths. format. It is sometimes known as a
• Examples of length check include: picture check and data has to follow a
• A password ,must be at least pattern. Examples
six characters long.
• A grade must be exactly one
character long.
• A product code must be at
least four characters and not
more than six characters.
 Methods of validation
• Consistency check
• Lookup check • It compares data in one field with
• A lookup check tests to see if data data in another field that already
exists in a list. exits within a record, to see
whether both are consistent with
• For example , when asking a user each other.
for their gender, they can respond
with male of female.
• A lookup check compares the data
that has been entered with a
limited number of valid entries.
• If it matches one of these then it is
allowed, but if it does not then an
error message is produced.
 A check digit

• A check digit is utilized to validate data as it's being entered, particularly for numerical data
stored as alphanumeric strings.
• It's commonly used to verify the accuracy of data like ISBNs.
• The check digit is calculated based on a specific formula: for an ISBN, the first 12 digits are
multiplied by alternating values (1 for odd positions and 3 for even positions), the results
are summed and divided by 10.
• If the remainder is 0, it becomes the check digit; otherwise, the remainder is subtracted
from 10.
• The check digit is added to the end of the string, acting as a 13th digit.
• This calculation occurs before data is entered, like during ISBN allocation.
• If they don't match, it indicates an error, often due to digit transposition. For instance,
mistyping "9781447606189" instead of "9781474606189" would result in a recalculated
check digit of 5 instead of 9, leading to an error message.
 Verification
• Is the process of checking that the data entered into
the computer system matches the original source.
Visual checking
• A method of verification can be for the user check
visually that the data entered matches the original
source.
• This can be done by reading the data displayed on
screen and comparing it with the original data.
• They can see the differences and then correct the
mistakes.
 Verification
Double data
• It entry involves entering the same data
twice, with the first version being stored
initially.
• A computer then compares the second entry
to the first, identifying any discrepancies.
• The data entry person is notified by the
computer of any differences, allowing them
to review and correct errors if needed before
proceeding.
• This method is similar to visual verification,
as both ensure accurate data replication
rather than validating the accuracy of the
original data
 • 2. Odd Parity: In odd parity, the total
number of set bits in the data group,
Verification including the parity bit, should always be
odd.
• Parity check • The parity bit is set to 0 if the count is odd,
and to 1 if the count is even.
• is a method of verification used in data transmission and
storage to detect errors. • Similar to even parity, if a single bit is
• It involves adding an extra bit, known as a parity bit, to a flipped, the parity check will identify the
group of bits (usually a byte) to ensure that the total error.
number of set (1) bits in the group is either even (even • Parity check is a simple and straightforward
parity) or odd (odd parity). error-detection technique, but it has
• This extra bit is calculated based on the existing data bits. limitations.
• Here's how it works: • It can only detect odd numbers of bit
• 1. Even Parity: In even parity, the total number of set bits errors. If two or more bits are flipped, the
(1s) in the data group, including the added parity bit, error might go undetected.
should always be even. • Additionally, parity check doesn't provide
• If the count of set bits is already even, the parity bit is set any means to correct errors; it only detects
to 0. If the count is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. their presence.
• This way, if a single bit gets flipped during transmission or
storage, the parity check will detect the error, as it will
result in an odd total count of set bits.
 Verification
• Checksum
• However, such a checksum might not catch
• A checksum is a method used to verify the swapped bytes.
accuracy of data transmission between devices.
• Encryption algorithms, like hash functions, are
• It ensures that data received matches the data sometimes used to calculate more secure
sent. checksums, which are then compared by the
receiving device to the sent checksum.
• Unlike byte-by-byte parity checks, checksums
operate on entire files of data. • Common checksum algorithms include MD5 and
SHA-1, though newer ones like SHA-2 and SHA-3 are
• They are employed when transmitting data over more robust due to weaknesses in the older
networks or the internet. algorithms.
• Checksums are calculated using various • Checksum values are usually expressed in
algorithms. For instance, a basic checksum could hexadecimal format, a base-16 counting system.
be the file's byte count. This ensures data integrity during transmission.
 Control total
• Control totals are very similar to hash to
total.
• Hash total can use any field and the sum of
the data used may not have any meaning.
Verification
• Control totals have some useful meaning.
• For example, a control total could be the
number of items in the batch that is to be
input, or the total of prices for individual
items on an order.
 Common errors when copying data are transcription and
transposition errors .

Verification would pick up a transposition error, but most

validation checks (except a check digit) would not

The need for Verification would pick up transcription errors, but

validation might not.
both validation
Verification is checking that data that has been/is being
and verification entered into a computer has been copied correctly from the
data source

Validation is checking that the data entered is

reasonable/sensible

Neither method checks that data is accurate/correct

Questions
1. Describe the purpose of verification.
2. Identify three methods of validation.
3. Explain, using examples, why validation and
verification do not ensure that data is correct.
 Data processing
• Data processing is the conversion of raw
data into usable information, making it
understandable and valuable for decision-
making.
• It involves transforming data into formats
like graphs and reports, providing context
for comprehension by both computers
and employees.
• Three main methods of data processing
exist:
• batch processing,
• online processing, and
• real-time processing.
Batch processing
• Batch processing in IT refers to processing a collection of data all
at once, producing results without immediate user interaction.
• It's effective for handling large volumes of data and is
particularly useful when computing resources are underutilized,
like during off-peak hours.
• It involves grouping transactions or tasks into batches,
processing them collectively, and generating the required
outcomes.
• Benefits of batch processing include resource optimization,
enabling tasks to be completed when computer resources are
available, saving costs.
• It's suitable for tasks like payrolls and customer billing systems.
• Batch processing offers simplicity compared to real-time
systems and tends to be more accurate due to less human
intervention.
• It's efficient in processing multiple jobs simultaneously.
Batch processing
• Master and transaction files are essential in batch processing.
• The master file contains static data like names and department details,
while the transaction file contains changing data like hours worked.
• Before processing, the transaction file is sorted and validated.
• In many applications, including customer orders systems, these files are
used together.
• Sequential files, often stored on disks, are a common form of data storage
for batch processing.
• When searching for data, the computer accesses records one by one in a
predetermined order, which is known as sequential access.
 The steps
involved in
updating a
master file using
a transaction file
 Advantages and disadvantages of batch processing

Advantages Disadvantages
It is a single, automated process requiring There is a delay as data is not processed until
little human participation which can reduce the specific time period.
costs.
It can be scheduled to occur when there is Only data of the same type can be processed
little demand for computer resources, for since an identical, automated process is being
example at night. applied to all the data.
As it is an automated process there will be Errors cannot be corrected until the batch
none of the transcription and update errors process is complete.
that human operators would produce.
There are fewer repetitive tasks for the human
operators.
Question

• Describe how a
telephone company
might make use of both
batch and interactive
processing methods
including the use of
master and transaction
files.
 • Online processing involves immediate data
processing compared to the delayed processing of
batch methods.
• While batch processing collects data for later use,
online processing is essential for tasks needing
instant results, like supermarket checkouts or real-
time database queries.
Online • Initially, online processing referred to direct user-
central computer communication, now expanded
processing to encompass any IT activity via the internet.
• A key difference between batch and online
processing is data retrieval method: batch uses
sequential access, while online relies on direct
access for quicker record retrieval.
• This approach is crucial for tasks requiring rapid
outcomes and is integral to internet-based IT
systems.
 Uses of online
processing
• Electronic funds transfer (EFT) refers to the electronic
movement of money between bank accounts using
computer-based systems, without the need for direct
involvement of bank personnel.
• Common examples of EFT include:
• automated teller machine (ATM) transactions,
• person-to-person payments, and
• direct debits for goods or services.
• EFTs can also result from credit or debit card
transactions, whether in-store or online.
• Explain what happens after you have logged in to your
online bank account, although the process may differ
slightly from bank to bank, and assumes you are paying
someone new
Automatic stock control
• Automatic stock control is a method within IT for managing inventory
efficiently.
• It involves using automated systems controlled by computers to handle
stock with minimal human intervention.
• One common example is utilizing EFTPOS terminals in stores and
supermarkets for both payment and stock control purposes.
• During checkout, a barcode of an item is scanned by a checkout
operator, which updates the stock information in the computer system.
• These terminals include a screen, a barcode reader, a number pad, and
electronic scales, all connected to a computer network.
• The network's server contains a product file with records for each
product sold.
• Each record contains data fields such as the barcode number (unique
identifier), product details, price, size, current stock count, re-order
level, re-order quantity, and supplier details.
 Electronic Data Exchange (EDI)

• Electronic Data Exchange (EDI), also known as Electronic Data

Interchange, is a method of exchanging data and documents
between businesses without using paper.
• This process involves the electronic exchange of various
documents, such as orders and invoices, using a standardized
format.
• In contrast to traditional paper-based methods, EDI facilitates
quicker and more efficient data transfer between computers.
• EDI systems offer several advantages.
• They save companies money by eliminating the need for manual
document handling and data entry, which reduces labor costs.
• The automation of data entry also reduces the risk of human error.
• As a result, productivity is increased as more documents can be
processed in less time.
Business-to-business (B2B)
• Business-to-business (B2B) transactions involve buying
and selling between two businesses, contrasting with
business-to-customer (B2C) interactions.
• B2B transactions often involve higher values and larger
quantities of goods and services, as businesses tend to
buy more and higher-priced items compared to
individual customers.
• B2B processes can be facilitated through Electronic
Data Interchange (EDI) for tasks like order and invoice
exchange, and many businesses are adopting online
marketplaces for B2B transactions.
• These marketplaces connect multiple sellers with
buyers, enabling bulk orders, quantity discounts, and
online order editing.
• Sellers benefit from reduced marketing costs and setup
efforts as the marketplace handles these aspects.
 Online stores
• Online stores enables a customer to purchase a
product from anywhere in the world and have it
delivered to their home address.
• An online store uses an interactive system where the
customers can browse or search for products using a
website.
• The customer can then add those products to a
virtual shopping basket which can be paid for using
electronic fund transfer.
• The online store will send a confirmation email to the
customer and then email updates about the delivery
of the product.
 • is a form of online processing where inputs are
sent directly to the computer's central processing
unit (CPU), and the computer must respond
instantly without any delay.
• This type of processing is commonly used in
systems involving sensors, such as computer-
controlled greenhouses.
Real-time • These systems utilize sensors to monitor physical
processing variables like temperature, light, and moisture, and
send this data as input to the computer for
immediate action.
• Unlike batch processing, where tasks are processed
in groups and can lead to delayed responses, real-
time processing demands instantaneous reactions.
• It is a continuous process that runs as long as the
system is active.
 Uses of real-time processing
• The described system features a combination boiler in
containing both a pump and water-heating components.
• This constitutes a real-time central-heating system
utilizing temperature sensors to continually monitor the
house's temperature.
• A feedback loop, referred to as a 'closed system,' is
employed.
• The boiler heats water, raising the temperature, which
eventually triggers the microprocessor to switch off the
boiler.
• This leads to a temperature drop and subsequent
reactivation of the boiler, creating a repetitive cycle.
• The system's real-time nature is evident as output
affects input.
 A simple algorithm shows how the system
works:
1. User enters required temperature using keypad/ touchscreen
2. Microprocessor stores required temperature as a pre-set value
3. Microprocessor receives temperature from sensor
4. Microprocessor compares temperature from sensor to pre-set
value
5. If temperature from the sensor is lower than the pre-set value,
the microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator to open the gas
valves
6. If temperature from the sensor is lower than the pre-set value,
the microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator to switch the
pump on
7. If temperature is higher than or equal to the pre-set value, the
microprocessor sends a signal to switch the pump off and close
the valves
8. This sequence is repeated until the system is switched off
 Air-conditioning
• Air-conditioning systems are advanced
compared to central-heating setups and consist
of components like valves, compressors,
condensing and evaporating units.
• These components work together to deliver
cold air into a room through enclosed fans,
promoting air circulation.
• Focusing on a single room, the system utilizes a
temperature sensor to decide whether to
activate the fans or adjust their speed.
• Users can input their desired temperature
through a keypad or touchscreen, similar to
central heating systems.
 Guidance system for rockets
• A guidance system is used to control the movement of various objects
like rockets and missiles.
• It calculates changes in position, velocity, and other variables to direct
the object's course and speed.
• The system involves inputs from sensors and controllers, processing the
data to decide necessary actions, and producing outputs that adjust the
object's course using devices like engines and rudders.
• For missiles, a sophisticated guidance system is embedded in the nose,
which includes radar systems for scanning the surroundings, a
navigation system for calculating optimal flight paths, and a 'divert-and-
attitude-control' system to adjust thrust and direction.
• The system constantly adjusts the flight path to avoid deviations.
• This setup is a real-time system, ensuring quick adjustments to
maintain the desired path.
 Real-time Processing:
Advantages:
• Immediate Response: Real-time processing offers quick responses with
Advantages and minimal delays, making it suitable for time-critical applications.

disadvantages • Up-to-Date Information: Information is always current, enabling

immediate actions to be taken based on the most recent data.
of different • Accurate Decision-Making: Real-time systems support accurate
decision-making due to the timely availability of data.
processing Disadvantages:
methods are as • High Costs: Real-time processing requires constant CPU usage, which
can be expensive in terms of hardware and energy consumption.
follows: • Complex Systems: Implementing real-time systems involves expensive
and complex computer setups, which might not be feasible for all
organizations.
• Resource Intensive: Real-time systems can place a heavy load on
computer resources, potentially leading to performance issues.
 Batch Processing:
Advantages:
• Cost-Effective: Batch processing utilizes the CPU during off-peak hours, minimizing costs as it doesn't require
constant high CPU usage.
• Efficient for Large Volumes: It is efficient for processing large volumes of data or transactions in a single run.
• Reduced Human Involvement: Batch processing requires fewer employees to enter data simultaneously, resulting
in wage savings.
• Error Identification: Errors are identified during processing, allowing corrective action before data is further
processed.
Disadvantages:
• Delayed Processing: Batch processing introduces delays, as data is processed after all inputs are collected, which
might not be suitable for time-sensitive applications.
• Outdated Information: Information might not be up to date until the master file is updated, which could impact
decision-making.
• Limited Real-time Actions: Real-time actions or immediate decision-making are not possible with batch processing.
 Online Processing:

Advantages:
• Maintenance and Upgrades: Online systems are easier to maintain and upgrade since system downtime can be
scheduled during off-peak hours.
• Immediate Error Handling: Errors are immediately revealed and can be addressed, improving data accuracy and
preventing further issues.
Disadvantages:
• Higher Costs: Setting up and maintaining online systems can be more expensive due to additional hardware
requirements and constant connectivity.
• Continuous Connectivity: Users and employees must be connected at all times for data entry, increasing reliance on
network availability.
• Resource Demand: Online systems can strain computer resources during peak usage times, impacting overall system
performance.
Note: Each processing method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice depends on the specific context,
user needs, and the nature of the tasks being performed.
Examination-style questions
1 A collection of data could be this: johan, Σ, $, ,, AND
Explain why these are regarded as just items of data. In your explanation give a possible context for each item
of data and describe how the items would then become information. [5]
2 A company uses computers to process its payroll, which involves updating a master file. a State what
processes must happen before the updating can begin. [2]
b Describe how a master file is updated using a transaction file in a payroll system. You may assume that the
only transaction being carried out is the calculation of the weekly pay before tax and other deductions. [6]
3 a Name and describe the purpose of three validation checks other than a presence check.
b Explain why a presence check is not necessary for all fields. [3]
4 A space agency controls rockets to be sent to the moon. Describe how real-time processing would be used
by the agency. [5]
5 Describe three different methods used to carry out verification. [3]
6 L12345 is an example of a student identification code. Describe two appropriate validation checks which
could be applied to this data. [2]
7 Describe three drawbacks of gathering data from direct data sources. [3]