Review on the Fundamentals of English Language

I. Parts of Speech

Basic Elements of Grammar

The words in the English Language can be designated to one of the eight categories,
known as the “Parts of Speech.” The meaning and the way the words are used in a
sentence will determined what parts of speech these words are. The term “Parts of
Speech” refers to the eight general divisions into which the 750,000 words of the
English language are classified. They are the grammatical elements that go into a
sentence. The grouping is based on the particular function performed by each word.
Some words may perform several functions and are classified into various groups.

The word ‘Speech” is used in the broader sense of language or discourse to denote any
and every form of expressing thought, not only in its limited sense of “Oral Expressions.”
Etymologically, the word “Speech” means the faculty of uttering articulate sounds to
express thoughts or the physical power of expression.

The eight parts of speech are: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives,
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Some grammarians consider the
interjection only as a special kind of adverb. Other consider the words like, “the,” “a,”
and “an” to be separate parts of speech.

a. NOUN

A noun refers to or names something, which may be a person, place, thing, idea,
animal, action, quality, and a point in time. It is therefore, noun is a naming word. It is
used as a label with which we identify people or things. It is used as a label with which
we identify people or things. It may refer to things we see, or perceive with other senses
or abstract.

Person – Juan Dela Cruz

Place – Santiago City
Thing – Box, Chair
Idea – Liberty
Animal – Dog, Cat, Cow
Action – Run, Dance
Quality – Kind, Honest
Point in time – Today, Tomorrow
Things we see – Books, Building
Perceive by other senses – Scent, Taste
Abstract – Idea, Belief

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1. Classification of Nouns. - Nouns are classified into: (i) Proper and Common,
(ii) Concrete and Abstract, (iii) Countable and Uncountable (iv) Collective, (v)
Diminutive, (vi) Agent, (vii) Recipient, (viii) Mass, and (ix) Compound Nouns.

i. Proper and Common Nouns. - Proper nouns, also called proper names, are
the official names of particular or specific persons, places or things. They may
be:

a. Personal Names – Juan Dela Cruz

b. Names of Nationalities – Filipino, American, Mexican
c. Names of Religions – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Hinduism
d. Geographic Names – Cagayan River, Chico River, Pasig River
e. Names of Holidays – Christmas, Valentine’s Day, Labor Day
f. Names of unit of time – Sunday, Monday

Proper nouns are always capitalized. Some proper nouns have two or more parts
(e.g,. Nissan Car; Parker Pen).

Common nouns, which identify general categories, may refer to any one of a
class or kind of:

a. People - Lawyer, Policeman

b. Place – Court, School
c. Thing – Book, Pen

They are the names of persons, places or things of which there may be many of
the same kind. Millions of people share the name “citizen” or “nation.” Many
types of weapons share the same name “handgun.” Common nouns are not
capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence.

Sometimes the name of a particular person is given a general meaning. The

proper noun then becomes a common noun (e.g,. He is the modern Bonifacio).

ii. Concrete and Abstract Nouns. – A concrete noun names a member of a

class or a group of persons, places or things which may be counted and
perceived by the senses. What it names is physical, visible and tangible (e.g,.
bicycle, court house, gun).

An abstract noun usually names:

a. Concepts or general ideas - Justice, Freedom, Tyranny

b. Denotes Quality – Beauty, Kind
c. A state of Condition – Poverty, Famine
d. Action – Reading, Listening

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What it names are invisibles and intangibles that exist only in the mind and
cannot be perceived by the senses. The abstract noun is used to deemphasize
an unfavorable fact. Instead of the concrete phase “after Juan’s ten-wheeler truck
crashed into Pedro’s tricycle,” one might use the abstract phase “after the
accident.”

A material noun, a kind of concrete noun, is used to name the matter or

substance of which things are made (e.g,. cloth, gold, milk, rice).

iii. Countable and Uncountable Nouns. – Common nouns may be further

classified into countable and uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns, also called unit or count nouns, name objects which can be
counted or divided. They may either be:

a. Common Nouns - Bird, Tree, Onion

b. Collective Nouns – Union, Team, Committee

Count nouns can be divided into units (e.g,. one cat, four cats). They can be
placed after the indefinite articles “a” and “an.”

Uncountable nouns, also called mass, abstract, or non-count nouns, name

objects that cannot be counted (e.g,. music, water, wheat, rice), natural
phenomena (e.g,. heat, cold, light, darkness), and quality (e.g,. kindness). They
are always singular and do not have any plural forms. Neither do they take “a,”
“an,” and “many” before them.

iv. Collective Nouns. – A collective noun denotes a group of persons, animals or

things that are considered a single unit (e.g,. Orchestra, Committee, Faculty,
Class). Most collective nouns are singular (e.g,. My staff helps in legal research).

v. Diminutive Nouns. – A diminutive noun is a derivative indicating something

small, young, or loved and sometimes belittled (e.g,. Bird – Birdie; Book –
Booklets; Swan – Cygnet).

vi. Agent Nouns. – An agent noun is one that indicates a being or a thing that
acts for or in place of another, or one that acts by authority of another (adviser,
attorney, donor).

vii. Recipient Nouns. – A recipient noun indicates one who receives something,
one to whom an act is done or upon whom a privilege is conferred (e.g,. Grantee,
Mortgagee, Payee).

viii. Mass Nouns. – A mass noun is one that describes complete objects
considered in a mass quantity (e.g,. People, Nation).

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ix. Compound Nouns. – Compound nouns are combinations of words that
function as nouns in a sentence. They may consist of two or more nouns, a noun
and a modifier or two or more elements that are not nouns (e.g,. Catfish, Fire
Drill, Football Game, Religious Freedom, Big Deal, By-Product, Brother-in-law,
Jack-of-all-trade).

x. Predicate Noun. – A predicate noun follows a linking verb. It is the same

person, place, or thing as the subject and defines it.

xi. General and Specific Nouns. – General and specific nouns are relative
qualities of nouns. “Animal” is a general noun; “Dog” a specific noun.

2. Formation of Nouns. - Nouns may be formed in the following manner:

i. By changing the form of adjectives (e.g,. Absent – Absence; Cruel – Cruelty;

dark – darkness; hot – heat).

ii. By adding a suffix to the adjective (e.g,. reasonable – reasonableness).

iii. By combining an adjective and a noun or a noun and an adjective (e.g,. black
bird).

iv. By combining an adverb and a verb or a verb and an adverb (e.g,. busybody,
spoonful).

v. By combining a noun, a conjunction and another noun (e.g,. trial and error).

vi. By combining a gerund and a noun or a noun and a gerund (e.g,. firing squad,
decision-making).

vii. By changing the form of other nouns (e.g,. agency – agency; boy – boyhood;
man – manhood).

viii. By combining a single letter and a noun (e.g,. A-Bomb, D-day, T-shirt).

ix. By combining two nouns (e.g,. butter + milk = buttermilk; milk + tea = milktea).

x. By combining a noun, a verb and “er” (e.g,. flyswatter).

xi. By combining possessive nouns and nouns (e.g,. traveler’s check).

xii. By combining a participle and a noun (e.g,. offshoot, aftershock, input,

downpayment).

xiii. By combining a preposition and a noun (e.g,. indoor, upstage).

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xiv. By combining a verb and a noun or a noun and a verb (e.g,. killjoy, car wash,
turkey shoot).

xv. By changing the form devised from verbs (e.g,. lead – leader – leadership).
Some nouns formed from verbs do not change their form (e.g,. catch – catch).

xvi. By changing the form of the verb (e.g,. admit – admission, agree –
agreement, hate – hatred, give – gift).

xvii. By adopting the verb form without any change in spelling (e.g,. catch –
catch, fight – fight, fly – fly, cheat – cheat).

xviii. By combining a verb and a participle (e.g, show-off, write-off).

xix. By combining a verb and “ing” (e.g,. fund-raising, copy-editing).

xx. By combining three or more words (e.g,. justice of the peace, lord of the
jungle, son of a gun).

3. Number of Nouns

i. Singular and plural. – Nouns have number. They may be singular when
referring to one person or thing and plural when naming more than one person or
thing. Nouns that have numbers are count nouns.

a. Collective nouns may require the singular or plural verbs. It the

collective noun in a sentence represents the individuals acting as one unit,
the noun is considered singular and takes a singular verb. If the sentence
indicates that the individual is acting separately, the noun is plural and
takes a plural verb;

Example:

1. My staff helps in legal research.

2. The police have different theories about the murder case.

When the individuals composing a group are acting separately, it is better

to use such expressions as “the members of.” Such expression clearly
indicates that the individuals are acting separately.

Example:

1. The board of directors is in a meeting. (Acting as a unit)

2. The board of directors have given their contributions. (As
individuals)

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 b. Some nouns are the same in both singular and plural forms (e.g., deer,
bison, dice, news, advice, staff, information, personnel, and faculty);

c. Data is now used for both the singular and plural forms. Formerly, the
singular form of data was “datum,” which is now archaic;

d. In the use of percentages or other words that mean part of a whole, use
a plural verb when the sentence implies a plural noun and a singular verb
when the same sentence implies a singular noun;

Example:

1. A majority of the employees commute to work by train.

2. A clear majority favors the acquisition.

e. When used with numbers, the following nouns have the same form
whether they refer to one or more than one unit (e.g., three thousand, two
dozen, two yoke of oxen);

f. “None” may be followed by either a singular or a plural verb. It is

followed by a plural verb when the phrase that modifies it contains a plural
noun (e.g., none of the men); and

g. The agreement based on meaning and the agreement based on

grammatical form sometimes conflict. Careful writers follow the
grammatical agreement in such sentences. Agreement based on meaning
may be employed in informal writing and speaking.

ii. Singular Nouns

a. Some nouns are always treated as singular even if they are plural in
form (e.g., news, alms, civics, physics, mumps, rabies, politics, and
economics);

b. When thought of as a single unit, expressions of time, money, and

quantity take a singular verb. (e.g., Ten hours is enough to prepare a
brief.);

c. Evidence takes the singular form even if there are many bits of
evidence. (e.g., The evidence points to the guilt of the accused.);

However, if there is another plural word used as a subject, then the plural
verb is used. (e.g., All the pieces of evidence point to the guilt of the
accused.);

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 d. Uncountable nouns do not form plural. They are always in the singular
form. (e.g., rain, water, swarm, hair, flock, rice, and air); and

e. Mass nouns take the singular form. A noun denoting something that
normally cannot be counted but that may be countable when it refers to
different units or types, (e.g., Coffee, bread, tea, grass, rice, air, water,
bacon, and blood);

iii. Plural Nouns. - There are various ways of forming the plural of nouns, like;

a. Generally, nouns ending in a consonant are made plural by adding “s”

to the singular, whenever said letter unites with the nouns without forming
an extra syllable (e.g., book – books; dog – dogs; hat – hats);

b. Some nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a consonant add “es.”

(e.g., potato – potatoes; hero – heroes);

c. Some nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a consonant, add “s” not

“es.” (e.g., piano – pianos; piccolo – piccolos; tobacco – tobaccos);

d. Some nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a consonant add either “s”

or “es.” (e.g., cargo – cargos or cargoes; buffalo – buffalos or buffaloes;
grotto – grottos or grottoes; innuendo – innuendos or innuendoes; and
zero – zeros or zeroes);

e. Nouns ending in sibilants, like “s,” “sh,” “ch,” “x,” and “z,” add “es” to the
singular. (e.g., brush – brushes; church – churches; kiss – kisses; box –
boxes; quiz – quizzes; Lopez – Lopezes);

The extra syllable is necessary in order to pronounce the plural form of the
word.

f. Nouns ending in a silent “s” do not change their form to become plural.
(e.g., one corps – ten corps; one chassis – ten chassis);

g. Nouns ending in an unvocalized “e” and “s,” add “s.” (e.g., due – dues;
face – faces; house – houses);

h. Nouns ending in “y” preceded by a consonant change the “y” to “i” and
add “es.” (e.g., enemy – enemies; lady – ladies; fly – flies);

i. Noun ending in “y” preceded by a vowel add “s” add “s” without changing
the final “y.” (e.g., attorney – attorneys; valley – valleys);

j. Some nouns ending in “f” or “fe” change the “f” or “fe” to “ves” and add
“s.” (knife – knives; half – halves; wolf – wolves);

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 Some nouns ending in “f” do not change the “f” but merely add “s.” (e.g.,
chief – chiefs; roof – roofs). There are also some nouns ending in “f” have
two plural forms but each has a different meaning. (e.g., staff – staffs,
meaning “personnel” and staves, meaning “sticks.”);

Note: Staff refers to “all of the employees at a business,” or especially a school,

where the teachers as a group are called "the staff." A completely different
meaning of staff is a long wooden stick or rod, particularly one that has a specific
purpose — like a walking stick or a weapon.

k. Proper nouns, other than those ending in “ch,” “s,” “sh,” “x,” and “z,”
form their plural by adding “s” to the singular. (e.g., John – Johns;
Peterson – Petersons);

l. Proper nouns ending in “ch,” “s,” “sh,” “x,” and “z,” form their plural by
adding “es.” (e.g., Lynch – Lynches; Jones – Joneses);

m. Some proper nouns ending in “man” form their plural by adding “s.”
(e.g., German – Germans; Ohoman – Ohomans);

n. Proper nouns ending in “y” form their plural by adding “s.” (e.g., Three
Marys; Cadburys);

o. The plural of titles is formed in the regular manner other nouns are
formed (e.g., attorney – attorneys; judge – judges; Miss – Misses; Master
– Masters);

However, the plural of “Mr.” is “Messr.” There is no plural form for “Mrs.”

p. When there is a title with a name, either but not both the name or title
may be made plural. (e.g., Misses Park or two Miss Parks; Doctors Reyes
or The Doctor Reyeses);

q. Some nouns have two plural forms but with different meanings;

Example:

1. Brother – brother - brethren

2. Index – indexes (record) - indices (e.g., symbols)

r. The modern form of the plural of money is “moneys.” Its old plural form
was “monies.”;

s. Some nouns have irregular plurals (e.g., mouse – mice);

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 t. Some nouns add “en” to the singular to form the plural (e.g., ox – oxen);

u. Some nouns add “ren” to the singular. (e.g., child – children);

v. Some nouns change the vowels to form the plural (e.g., man –men;
woman – women; tooth – teeth; goose – geese);

w. Nouns plural in form and meaning take a plural verb. (e.g., annals;
belongings, clothes, goods, links, proceeds, pants, pliers, remains, riches,
and scissors);

Some of these nouns may be made to denote a singular idea by the use
of the phrase “a pair of” before the said nouns. (e.g., Scissors – a pair of
scissors; Pants – a pair of pants; Shoes – a pair of shoes);

x. Some nouns are singular in form but are used with a plural verb. (e.g.,
cattle, police, and people);

y. Abstract nouns are singular in form. But some abstract nouns take the
plural form if a variance of the object described is stressed. (e.g., right –
rights; damage – damages; ability – abilities);

z. Some nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning, take an
“s” to take a plural form. (e.g., The peoples of Asia are developing
economically);

aa. Come compound words divided by a hyphen add “s” to the base word
of the compound to take the plural form (e.g., courts – martial; notaries-
public; commanders-in-chief). Some grammarians say that court-martials
and notary-publics are acceptable;

bb. Some compound words written as solids are made plural by adding an
“s” or “es.” (e.g., courthouses; toothbrushes);

cc. Letters, figures, symbols, signs and words used as words from their
plural by adding an apostrophe and “s.” (e.g., three A’s; five 9’s); and

dd. Many nouns of foreign origin retain the plural in their own language.
(e.g., agendum – agenda; alumna – alumnae, alumnus – alumni; datum –
data).

4. Formation of Possessive Nouns

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The inflicted form of a noun that indicates possession or ownership of something
is called “the possessive.” The formation of the possessive form of nouns
depends on whether the noun is animate or inanimate.

i. Animate Objects. – The possessives of animate object are as follows:

a. Singular nouns, not ending in “s” or “z” sound, add an apostrophe and
“s.” (e.g., the boy’s toy; the man’s hat; the lady’s bag);

b. Singular nouns ending in “s” or an “s” sound, add only the apostrophe.
(e.g., H.G. Wells’ books; Keats’ odes). This is also the rule in nouns
ending in “x” and “z.”

Some writers add the apostrophe and “s” if the added “s” is heard as a
separate syllable when pronounced. (e.g., horse’s mouth; press’s types;
the boss’s desk; actress’s costume). Some grammarians say that some
nouns may form their possessive by either adding apostrophe and “s” or
an “s” alone. (e.g., goddess – goddess’ or goddesses). Corbett and Finkle
advise that you can take your choice but just be consistent;

c. Abbreviations with period, add an apostrophe and “s.” (e.g., Ph.D.’s);

d. Abbreviations without periods, add “s” without the apostrophe. (e.g.,

IOUs);

e. Acronyms, add “s” without the apostrophe. (e.g., MERALCOs,

NAWASAs); and

f. Dates, add “s” without the apostrophe. (e.g., 1950s, 1990s, 2000s)

ii. Inanimate Objects

a. As a general rule, the formation of the possessive of the inanimate

objects is made by using the “of” phrase, not the apostrophe and “s.” The
sentence “The author of the book is Juan Dela Cruz” is better than “The
book’s authors is Juan Dela Cruz.” The use of the “of” phrase avoids the
piling up the possessives. In other words, avoid using the possessive case
of an inanimate object.

Example:

1. The dog’s collar’s latch was broken.

2. The latch of the collar of the dog was broken. (this one is better,
and most probably the correct construction).

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 There are exceptions to the rule that inanimate objects from their
possessive by using the “of” phrase. These are the cases when the
possessive case is used in idioms. These exceptions are the expressions
of:

1. Time (e.g., a day’s work; today’s weather; time’s flight; a month’s

salary; a week’s notice);

2. Nature (e.g., the earth’s surface; the world’s progress; the river’s
depth; the star’s light; the tree’s roots);

3. Money (e.g., a dollar’s worth);

4. Measurement (e.g., an arm’s length);

5. Groups of people (e.g., the union’s stand; the nation’s concern);

and

6. Words like “the book’s success,” “the law’s delay,” the razor’s
edge,” “the season’s greetings,” and the “water’s edge.”

The “of” phrase to form the possessive is also used when the use
of the apostrophe and “s” would be awkward.

Example:

Wrong: The director of the Health, Education and Welfare

Bureau’s message was sent to the President.

Correct: The message of the director of Health, Education

and Welfare Bureau was sent to the President.

iii. Other Rules on Formation of the Possessive of Nouns

a. The possessive of a compound noun is formed on the last word of the

compound. (e.g., His father-in-Law’s business.);

b. Joint ownership is indicated by placing the apostrophe with the last

word in the combination. (e.g., Pedro and Juan’s desk [both share the
same desk];

c. Separate or individual ownership is indicated by placing the apostrophe

with each member of the combination. (e.g., Pedro’s and Juan’s desk
[each has a separate desk);

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 d. A tend is to omit the apostrophe in names of organization and
institutions, except when the name ends in “men.” However, there are
cases where the word before the institutions is used as an adjective and
not to show possession. (e.g., Teachers College; Lions Club; Business’s
Club);

e. When each words in a series possesses something different, all the

words must be in the possessive. (e.g., Jose’s and Pedro’s paintings are
similar);

f. When each word is a series possesses the same thing, the possessive
formed unless only on the last word. (e.g., He is Mr. Cruz and Mr. Juan’s
tailor.);

g. A noun that immediately precedes a gerund should be in the

possessive form unless said noun is inanimate object. (e.g., The senator’s
voting was divided.);

h. Sometimes a noun that ordinarily would be in the possessive is followed

by an appositive. In such a case, the apostrophe or the apostrophe and “s”
are added to the appositive. (e.g., The filing is Miss Cruz, the filing clerk’s
responsibility.); and

i. Nouns that form their plural I ways other than by adding an “s,” form their
possessive by adding “s.” (e.g., Women’s, Men’s, Children’s).

5. Gender

A gender indicates whether the noun signifies the male sex, female sex, either
sex or neither sex. A noun that refers to a male is said to be of the masculine
gender, while a noun that refers to a female is said to be of the feminine gender.

Masculine: (Man, Boy, Brother, Father, Nephew)

Feminine: (Woman, Girl, Sister, Mother, Niece)

Some nouns can refer to both male and female. These nouns are said to have
common gender (e.g., Baby, Cousin).

Nouns signifying either sex are called indeterminate in gender (e.g., Child,
Sibling) while those signifying absence of sex are called neuter (e.g., Pencil,
Book, Tree).

The feminine gender may be formed:

i. By using an altogether different word (e.g., Boy – Girl; King – Queen);

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 ii. By adding “ss” or “ess” to the Masculine, with or without changing a vowel of
the masculine (e.g., Prince – Princess; Negro – Negress).

iii. By having a special ending (e.g., Hero – Heroine; Executor – Executrix);

iv. By adding a prefix (e.g., He-goat, She-goat); and

v. By changing the suffix (e.g., grandfather – Grandmother; Landlord –

Landlady).

6. Positions of Nouns

Nouns are usually found in set positions, such as before the verb (e.g., A horse
neighs), after the verb (e.g., Clean the toilet), or after a preposition (e.g., running
for mayor).

For emphasis, a noun may be placed after a pronoun in the third person. (e.g.,
He, Pedro Santos, is the man we need for the job.).

7. Noun/Pronoun Agreement

A singular pronoun requires a singular antecedent and a plural pronoun, a plural

antecedent. When a subject is introduced as either plural or singular, any
pronoun that refers to the subject should be consistent in number.

The following are faulty noun-pronoun agreements:

1. Each of us has their specialization.

2. All of us have prepared himself.
3. Everyone is as young as they feel.

Note: These sentences are erroneous, so what should be the correct

construction?

In English, the generic “he” and its derivation forms (“his” and “him”) are used to
refer to nouns of common gender, like teachers, writers or judges. So as not to
be accused of sexiest bias, writers used the phrase “he” or “she” or change the
subject to the plural form (e.g., All students must bring their lunch boxes).

The following are correct noun-pronoun agreements:

1. Many of us study our lessons before we go to class.

2. One should say his prayers before sleeping.
3. All of us are ready to take care of ourselves.

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b. PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun that has already been mentioned in a
previous sentence. It is used when one does not want to repeat a noun in the same or
subsequent sentence. In other words, it is a substitute for noun. It designates a person,
place or thing without naming him or it.
The use of pronouns avoids the monotonous repetition of the same noun. If pronouns
do not exist, you have to give your full name every time you refer to yourself. If you refer
to another person you have to repeat his name as many times when you refer to him.

Evaluate the difference when pronoun does not exist in a sentence or paragraph, the
construction will become awkward.
Example:
1. Without Pronoun: Pedro went to Pedro’s room and took out Pedro’s
bathing suit because Pedro will be going to the beach party given by
Pedro’s officemates. (Awkward to read).
2. With the use of Pronoun: Pedro went to his room and took out his
bathing suit because he will be going to the beach party given by his
officemates.
A pronoun may also replace: (i) another pronoun, (ii) a noun phrase, (iii) a noun clause,
or (iv) a whole sentence. The sentence should not contain different ideas, otherwise the
use of the pronoun will cause confusion.
Example:
1. He who does not submit his term paper shall not pass. (another
pronoun)
2. She sings in a very lively way. I like it. (noun phrase)
3. No one knows where the robbers will strike next. I don’t really know.
(noun clause)
4. Our offensive has failed. It means disaster. (a whole sentence)
The word “pronoun” comes from the Latin word “pro” meaning “for” or “in place of” and
“nomen” meaning “name.” There are only about 50 pronouns in the English language
and ten of them are among the 25 most commonly used words in said language.
Pronouns have little specific meanings by themselves. Whatever meaning they have
derived from the context in which they are formed.

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(i) Antecedent. – The word or words which the pro noun replaces are called their
references or antecedents. Some grammarians also call the references the
principals. Pronouns refer to their antecedents and the antecedents are referred
to by the pronouns. The antecedent of “I” is the person speaking or writing. The
antecedent of “you” is the person being addressed.
The antecedent may be implied. In the sentence “Who goes there?”, the pronoun
has no corresponding antecedent but it still stands in place of a noun. The
pronoun “I” is a rule used without an express antecedent. It is awkward for a
person to repeat his own name after “I” every time he uses this pronoun. The
name referred to by “I” is implied.
There are cases when a noun has to be repeated because the use of pronouns
“this,” “that,” “they,” “it,” or “which” can refer to more than one previously
mentioned noun, the noun should be repeated, otherwise the sentence becomes
unclear. For example, “Mary’s mother says that Mary doesn’t think she cares to
go to the party.” To remove the ambiguity, just write, “Mary’s mother says, I don’t
think Mary cares to go to the party.”
The pronoun must be placed near and should follow its antecedent.
Example:
Wrong: When she wrote her first novel, Josefa was living in Cebu.
Correct: When Josefa wrote her first novel, she was living in Cebu.
To easily distinguish multiple antecedent, make one plural and another singular.
Example:
A teacher should talk to his pupil in simple language if his vocabulary is
limited.
In this example, it is not clear who has a limited vocabulary, the teacher or the
pupil. To correct this ambiguity, just write: “A teacher should talk to his pupils in
simple language if their vocabulary is limited.
(ii) Number. – Number simply shows whether the pronoun is singular or plural.
Personal and indefinite pronouns should agree with the verbs in number.
Example:
1. Both of them have passed the Board Examinations.
2. Neither of them has passed the Board Examinations.
Singular pronouns used as subjects and joined by “or” or “nor,” “either….or,” and
“neither…Nor” require a singular verb. (e.g., Either he or she is at fault.).

15
A relative pronoun has no number with it. It has the noun that is replaced by the
pronoun that determines whether the verb should be singular or plural. (e.g.,
There are only 20 of you when there should be 22 present.).
When the emphasis is on “how much,” the verb is singular, and when the
emphasis is on “how many,” the verb is plural. The pronoun “You” always require
a plural verb.
When two antecedents are joined by “and,” use plural pronouns (they). But if the
antecedents are joined by “either,” “nor,” “or” when they form a unit, use a
singular verb.
A collective noun used as an antecedent takes a singular pronoun when it refers
to a group acting as a unit and a plural pronoun when it refers to the group acting
as individuals.

Example:
1. The police is on red alert. (acting as one unit).
2. The police are in their combat uniform. (acting individually).
(iii) Person. – “Persons” shows whether the pronoun represent the speaker, the
one spoken to, or the one spoken about. “Person,” as a grammatical term,
includes things (it, its).
Personal pronouns stand for three persons, (e.g., first person [I, me], second
person [you, she, he, it, we], and third person [they, them, those]). Personal
pronouns have radical changes in form, except in the second person, where
singular and plural are identical.

1. Classification of Pronouns

Pronouns are classified into: (i) adjective, (ii) indefinite, (iii) demonstrative, (iv)
expletive, (vi) intensive, (vii) interrogative, (viii) personal, (ix) possessive, (x)
reciprocal, (xi) reflexive, and (xii) relative pronouns.

i. Adjective Pronouns. - An adjective pronoun is one that may be used as an

adjective to modify a noun or another pronoun. It is also called pronominal
adjective. Demonstrative and indefinite pronouns may be used as an adjective
pronoun. (e.g., your, her, his, its).

ii. Demonstrative Pronouns. – As their name suggests, the function of

demonstrative pronouns is to point out people or things and draw our attention to
them. They point definitely to the persons or things referred to and tell their
relationship to the speaker.

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 There are only two demonstrative pronouns – “this” and “that” with their plurals
“these” and “those.” “This” and “these” denote something close at hand; “that”
and “those” denote something father away.

“This” and “that” modify singular nouns; “these” and “those” modify plural nouns.
Some grammarians classify “such” and “one” as demonstrative pronouns.
Demonstrative pronouns may refer to:

a. People or things already mentioned. (e.g., I like our garden better than
that of our neighbor’s.);

b. People or things about to be mentioned. (e.g., That is my cousin’s

house, and these are his children.); and

c. A group of words expressing a single thought and regarded as

equivalent to nouns. (e.g., You must buy your tickets in advance; this is
essential.).

Demonstrative pronouns may be used as subjects or objects of sentences.

Demonstrative pronouns should not be confused with demonstrative adjectives.
The latter always precedes a noun.

Example:

1. This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)

2. This car is mine. (demonstrative adjective).

iii. Distributive Pronouns. – Distributive pronouns stand for persons or things

individually. They are used to separate some beings or objects form others in the
same sentence. These pronouns are: each, everyone, everybody, and either.

Note: that a distributive pronoun is always singular and as such it should be followed by
a singular noun and verb.

iv. Expletive Pronouns. – Expletive pronouns do not take the place of any noun
but stand rather independently of all noun references or relationships. The
pronouns “it” and “there,” when used as subjects, are expletives. In the sentence
“it rains,” the pronoun “it” does not take the place of any noun. There is no way of
substituting a noun for the preposition.

The pronoun “it” may refer to both the singular and the plural.

Example:

1. It is Pedro who owns that lot.

2. It is the cats and dogs about which I am concerned.

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v. Indefinite Pronouns. – Indefinite pronouns refer to unspecified persons or
things. They are general and indeterminate in their references to objects and
living beings. They do not identify the nouns for which they stand.

The most commonly used indefinite pronouns are: all, anther, any, anybody,
anyone, anything, both, certain, each, either, else, every, everybody, everyone,
everything, few, little, many, much, naught, neither, nobody, none, nothing, one,
other, same, several, some, somebody, someone, something, and such.

Some indefinite pronouns may be used as nouns (anything, everything),

adjectives (few, little), and conjunctions (else, either, neither). Some indefinite
pronouns are always singular (anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody, anyone,
everyone, someone, each, each one, little, much, anything, everything, and
something).

Some indefinite pronouns are always plural (both, few, many, others, several,
and some). Some indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural (all, either,
neither, and none). These nouns are used with plural verbs if they refer to plural
nouns; they are used with singular verbs if they refer to singular nouns.

The main concern of indefinite pronouns is with number. With respect to

numbers, indefinite pronouns may be classified into:

a. Those that indicate a single person or thing (anyone, anything,

someone, something);

b. Those that indicate more than one (all, both, few, more);

c. Those that indicate a portion or part of something (all, any, enough,

less, little); and

d. Those that express some idea of quality (all, few, none).

When used with things that cannot be counted, the pronouns are singular. When
used with things that can be counted, they are plural.

Example:

1. All of the time is . . . .

2. All of the men are . . .
3. All is lost
4. All are recovered

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vi. Intensive Pronouns. – Intensive pronoun are used to emphasize the nouns
or pronouns to which they refer. To form the intensive pronouns, the suffixes
“self” (singular) and “selves” (plural) are added to the root pronouns.

Example:

1. He did it himself.
2. We did it ourselves.

The intensive pronouns are: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself,

herself, itself, and themselves.

An intensive pronoun should be placed in such a way that there is no question as

to the noun it is emphasizing. It is preferable to place it immediately after its
antecedent. As freeman said: “The closer the preposition, the closer the
meaning…”

vii. Interrogative Pronouns. – Interrogative pronouns are used in asking

questions, both direct and indirect. They introduce questions.

The interrogative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, what, how, when,
where, why, and the like. These are also relative pronouns.

Examples of questions using relative pronouns:

1. Who is at the door? (direct question);

2. She wondered who was at the door. (indirect question);

“Who,” “Whom,” and “Whose” are used to refer persons; “Which” is used to refer
to persons, animals and things.

“What” is usually used to refer to things, ideas or events. Baugh says that “who”
and “whose” can refer to animals.

“Which” is used in questions that do not suggest a limited number.

“Who” and “what” are used in questions that do not suggest a limited number.

“Who” is answerable by “I,” “he,” “she,” or “they.” “Whom” is answerable by “me,”

“him,” “her,” or “them.” “Whose” is answerable by “his,” “hers,” “mine,” or “their.”

American English uses “who” instead of “whom” in subject position. (e.g., Who
did the teacher call?)

Interrogative pronoun can be used t combine two questions. (How do we know

where he has gone?)

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viii. Personal Pronouns. – Persona pronouns stand for persons, places, or
things. They may refer to the speaker (I, we), the person spoken to (you) or the
person or thing spoken of or about (he, she, they, it).

The person speaking is called the first person; the person spoken to, the second
person; and the person or thing spoken about, the third parson. All personal
pronouns, except for “it,” refer to persons.

They can serve: (i) as the subject of a sentence, (ii) as the object of the verb or
preposition, (iii) to show possession, (iv) for emphasis, or (v) to refer action back
to the subject.

Example:

1. She passed the Board Examinations (subject);

2. The board of directors elected him the corporate secretary (object);
3. Your collection is valuable (possessive);
4. The principal herself presided over the meeting (intensive); and
5. He taught himself how to play the piano (reflexive).

“Mine,” “over,” “your,” “his,” “hers,” “its,” “their,” are used after forms of the linking
verb “to be” to show possessions.

“Me,” “us,” “you,” “him,” “her,” “it, and “them,” are used as direct objects after
action verbs. They are also used after prepositions as objects of the prepositions
or indirect objects.

“I,” “me,” “you,” “he,” “she,” “it,” and “they” are used as subjects and after forms of
the linking verb “to be.”

“I,” “me,” “you,” and “mine” are used for the person or persons speaking. They
refer to singular nouns.

“We,” “us,” “our,” and “ours” are also used for the person and persons speaking
but they refer to plural nouns.

“You,” “your,” “yours,” are used for the person or persons spoken to and they
refer to both singular and plural nouns.

“He,” “him,” “his,” “she,” “her,” and “hers” are used for the person spoken about.

“They,” “them,” “their,” and “theirs” are used for the persons, animals, and things
spoken about.

“It” and “its” are used for animals, things and other objects.

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ix. Possessive Pronouns. – Possessive pronouns show ownership or
possession. They are also called pronominal adjectives when they modify or
precede nouns.

Example:

1. That is my car.
2. She taught her son was the best in class.

The possessive case subject pronouns are: my, my, her, his, its, ours, and their.
The possessive case object pronouns are: mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and
theirs. The only pronoun that changes its form from possessive case subject
pronoun to possessive case object pronoun is “my.”

The possessive case is used:

1. To indicate possession (e.g., I used his cottage); and

2. Before a gerund (e.g., Our running habit was helpful).

The possessive pronouns, unlike possessive nouns, do not take an apostrophe

(e.g., pronoun – my pencil; noun – Pedro’s pencil). Possessive pronouns should
not be confused with pronoun – verb forms that sounds exactly like them (e.g., its
– it’s; their – they’re).

Pronouns preceding gerunds take the possessive form (e.g., his driving style; her
winning in the election).

x. Relative Pronouns. – Relative pronoun also called joining pronouns, refer to

definite antecedents. They introduce dependent clauses and link them to the rest
of the sentences. They are used to avoid repeating the nouns within a sentence.
They are conjunctions joining clauses to other clauses.

The relative pronouns are: that, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and
whoever. They may be used as the subject of the clause, as object or predicate
complement of the verb of a clause, or the object of the preposition in the clause.

Example:

Wrong: The flower – the flower was yellow – made her smile.
Correct: The flower, which was yellow, made her smile.

A relative pronoun may be definite or indefinite. The definite pronouns are: who,
which, and that. These pronouns occur in constructions called “relative clauses.”
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. (e.g., The girl who
won the prize is my niece.).

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“Who” is the only relative pronoun that is inflected: who (nominative case), whose
(possessive case), and whom (objective case). “Who” changes form depending
on the part it plays in the sentence. It can be a subject, but it changes to “whom”
when used as an object and to “whose” when used a possessive.

“Who” is used for human being but sometimes also for pet animals. (e.g., We had
to take Tarzan, who had been barking all night, to the veterinarian.). “Whose” is
used for human beings but sometimes for things without life also.

“Which” and “that” are used for animals and for inanimate things. Relative
pronoun without antecedents are called indefinite pronouns. The indefinite
pronouns are “who,” “whom,” “whose,” “which,” “what,” “whoever,” “whomever,”
and “whatever.”

A relative pronoun is not necessary in relative clauses which already have a

subject.

Example:

1. The man [whom] she married is my uncle.

2. The suit [which] I bought was made of silk.

The relative pronoun cannot be omitted if it is the very subject of the relative.
(e.g., The girl who spoke to you is my daughter.). Some relative pronouns refers
to persons and animals (e.g., who, whom, and whose). Relative pronouns refer
to things (e.g., which, of which).

One relative pronouns refers to both persons and things (e.g., “that”). “That may
be omitted when the sentence is clear with or without said pronoun. In such a
case the choice is left to the ear. “That” is required when a “time” words comes
between the verb and the clause. (e.g., The pilot reported Sunday that a foreign
vessel entered Philippine waters.

“Which” should stand for a specific noun in sentences, instead of referring to the
entire previously stated idea.

xi. Reciprocal Pronouns. – Reciprocal pronouns are used after action words to
imply that an action or state pertaining to one being or thing affect the other being
or thing. They express mutual relationship back and forth. They are use with
plural antecedent to indicate separate actions or conditions of the antecedents.
Examples of reciprocal pronouns are “each other” and “one another.” The
reciprocal pronouns use the apostrophe for the possessive form.

xii. Reflexive Pronouns. – Certain personal pronouns combine with the words
“self” or “selves” to make compound pronouns for use as reflexive pronouns.

22
 Their functions is to reflect back on the subject of the sentence and to emphasize
something already named. The reflexive construction shows the action of a verb
returning to the subject.

The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves,

yourselves and themselves. They are forms of personal pronouns. Use reflexive
pronouns when the subject and the object are the same.

Example:

1. He hurt himself.
2. I must stop talking to myself. (the subject and the object are the same).
3. Juan spoke to Pedro and me. (subject and the object are not the same).

Reflective pronouns are used:

1. For emphasis;
2. As object of the verb to show what a person or thing does to himself or
itself.

A common mistake is the faulty use of reflexive pronouns as the members of a

compound subject or object in place of the shorter personal pronoun.

Example:

Wrong: The judge and myself are happy with the progress at the trial.
Correct: The judge and I are happy with the progress of the trial.

Reflexive pronouns are not set off by commas.

2. Uses of Pronouns

Pronoun can be used:

i. As subjects. (e.g., I like bananas.);

ii. After the verb form “to be.” (e.g., It is he.);
iii. As objects of the verb. (e.g., The manager called me.);
iv. After prepositions. (e.g., He talk about you.);
v. As indirect object. (e.g., The manager gave him a birthday present.);
and
vi. Before nouns to show possession. (e.g., This is his seat.).

3. Pronouns and Cases

A case is the form of a pronoun that shows how it is related to the other words in
the sentence. It changes to show differences in meaning. For example, “I” is

23
used when it is the subject and it is changed to “me” when it is used as the object
of the sentence. “He” or “she” is used when it is the subject and “him” and “her”
when it is the object.

In American English, the trend is to use “who,” instead of “whom.” More

specifically, “who” is used as the subject of a sentence or a clause and never as
an object. “Whom” is used as the object of a verb or preposition.

The personal pronoun have three cases: (i) nominative or as a subject, (ii)
Adjective or as object of the verb or preposition, and (iii) genitive or possessive.

i. Nominative Case. - This case is used for pronouns that carry out the action
indicated by the verb. The nominative case pronouns are: I, he, she, it, we, you,
they, who, and whoever.

The nominative case is used for the following purposes:

a. As an object of the verb or repeated subject. The pronoun thus used is

called subject nominative or subject complement. (e.g., We boys always
go together).

b. As a predicate noun, that is, when it follows the verb “to be.” In such a
case, the pronoun must be in the same case as the word before the verb.
(e.g., It is I; It is she). However, in informal conversation, it is common to
use the object case after a form of the verb “to be.” (e.g., It is me; It is her).

To test whether you have the correct case of the pronoun, transform the
elements of the sentence. (e.g., “The boy was him” – “Him was the boy.”;
“The boy was he” – “He was the boy.”).

c. As a subject when the verb is omitted. To figure out the correct pronoun
to be used after “than” and “as,” just finish the sentence by adding the
understood verb.

Example:

1. I have known her longer than he (has known her);

2. I sing as well as he (sings);
3. Is he taller than she (is); and
4. Do you sing as well as I (do)?

d. As an appositive of the subject. (e.g., We Filipino must unite).

e. When a compound subject includes a pronoun, the pronoun must be in

the nominative. (e.g., Both Pedro and I (not me) are going to the fair.)

24
 f. As the subject of a progressive verb from that functions as an adjective
(particularly with “ing” ending).

ii. Objective Case. – This case is used for pronouns that receive the action
indicated by the verb. The objective case pronouns are: me, us, him, her, your,
them, whom, whomever.

The pronoun must be in the objective case when it is used:

a. As the direct or indirect object or repeated object;

Example:

1. The manager gave me a raise.

2. That book is from us.

b. As the subject of an infinitive. (e.g., I wanted her to join us.);

c. As an object when the verb or preposition is omitted. (e.g., Father gave

my sister more than [he gave] me.);

d. As an appositive of an object; and

e. After any preposition, notably “between,” “except,” and “but.” (e.g.,

Between you and me.; No one except her.).

A reflexive pronoun preceded by a preposition must be in the objective case,

unless it is used as part of an idiomatic expression. (e.g., He wrote it by himself.
[idiomatic]).

iii. Possessive Case. – The possessive case shows ownership or possession.

The possessive case of indefinite pronouns is formed in the same way as the
possessive case of nouns. Two indefinite pronouns “one” and “other,” have the
plural forms “ones” and “others.”

The personal pronouns and the pronoun “who,” have special forms to show the
possessive case, “my,” “mine,” “our,” “own,” “your,” “yours,” “her,” “hers,” “his,”
“its,” “their,” and “whose.”

a. Number

1. The indefinite pronouns like, “another,” “anybody,” “anyone,”

“each,” “either,” “everyone,”

b. Particular Pronouns

25
“It” is used for lifeless things, animals and for a body or small child when
its sex is not known. “It” can be used:

1. For expressing time, distance, weather, temperature, etc.;

2. To introduce an infinitive phrase;
3. To introduce “ing” form;
4. To introduce a clause;
5. As a subject for important verbs. (e.g., It seems he is angry); and
6. To emphasize a part of a sentence. (e.g., It was you who caused
this trouble.).

When in doubt whether to use “who” or “whom” turn the sentence around
so that you can substitute “he” or “him.” If “he” fits, the correct pronoun is
“who”; if, however, “him” fits, the correct word is “whom.”

1. You are talking to him. (e.g., Whom are you talking to?);
2. You see him. (e.g., Whom do you see?); and
3. You can trust him. (e.g., Whom you can trust?).

A pronoun following “than” takes the nominative or objective case

depending upon whether the pronouns is the subject or object of the verb.

Example:

1. Pedro is older than I (am).

2. Pedro respects Juan more than (he respects) me.

c. That and which. – Use “which” if the clause following it could be

omitted (i) without leaving the noun modified by the clause incomplete, (ii)
or without materially altering the sense of what is being said, (iii) or if could
be reasonably enclosed in parentheses; otherwise, use “that.”

“That” is used to introduce a limiting or defining clause; “which” to

introduce a parenthetical or non-defining clause.

Example:

1. The Pasig River, which flows from Pasig City to Manila, is

muddy. (The clause introduced by “which” is a parenthetical and
non-defining clause and can be deleted without changing the
meaning of the sentence.)

2. The river that flows from Pasig City to Manila is the Pasig River.
(The clause introduced by “that” is limiting and defining and cannot
be deleted from the sentence.)

26
 The New York Times uses the feminine pronoun in referring to a
country except: (i) when the name of the country includes a
common noun, and (ii) when the reference is to the country as a
physical geographical domain, rather than an abstract entity.

Example:

1. Japan will announce her position

2. The United States will announce its Position.
3. Singapore is so small one can drive around it (not her) in
one hour.

The New York Time employs the personal pronoun for animals or
ships which have names; otherwise, it use “it.”

4. Agreement

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in: (i) gender (masculine or
feminine), (ii) number (singular or plural), and (iii) person (first person,
second person and third person). Agreement based on grammatical form
is used in formal writing. Agreement based on meaning is used in informal
speech and writing.

In the sentence “Each of the lawyers in the group is a holder of a master’s

degree,” “each” and “is” are in grammatical agreement. If “is” is changed
to “are” the meaning is construed to be “all the lawyers,” thus “Each of the
lawyers are holders of a master’s degree.”

i. Gender. – Among pronouns, only personal pronouns have genders,

which are the masculine, feminine, and neuter. Even in personal
pronouns, gender is significant only in the thirds person singular, where
“he,” “her,” and “him” are masculine, “she,” “hers,” feminine, and “it” and
“its” are neuter.

If the antecedent of a personal pronoun is the masculine gender, the

pronoun must also be in the masculine gender. If the antecedent is in the
feminine gender, the pronoun must be in the feminine gender. If the
antecedent is in the neuter gender, the pronoun must be in the neuter
gender.

ii. Number. – Demonstrative pronouns must agree in number with the

nouns that follow them. (e.g., this book – these books).

Relative pronouns referring to plural antecedents require plural verbs.

(e.g., Each of those who are present should be given a certificate of
attendance.)

27
Singular pronouns (e.g,. another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,
everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, one,
somebody, someone) require singular verbs. “None” (no one) may be
followed by either a singular or plural verb. It is followed by plural verb
when the phrase that modifies it contains a plural noun (e.g., none of the
soldiers).

A pronoun agrees with the nearest antecedents.

Example:

1. Either Jose or his brothers will do their assigned task.

2. Either Jose’s brothers or he will do this assigned task.

If the pronouns used as subjects differ in number or person, the verb

agrees with the nearest subject.

iii. Person. –Personal and relative pronouns should agree with their verbs
in person. Relative pronouns should agree with their antecedent in person.

There is no pronoun in the third person singular that means “his or her” or
“he or she,” and refers to one person who may be either male or female.
Ordinarily, the masculine pronoun is used to refer to both masculine and
feminine pronouns. Another way out is to refer to both a male or female by
using “he or she.”

Use the female pronouns (she, her, or hers) and male pronouns (he, him,
and his) only when referring to specific males or females.

iv. Parallelism. – When “both” is used as a correlative conjunction with

“and” there should be a parallelism between the nouns, prepositional
phrases or clauses following it.

Example:

Wrong: He was blind both to color and form.

Correct: He was blind to both color and form.
Correct: He was blind both to color and to form.

“And” is the only conjunction paired with “both.”

Wrong: The manager invited to a meeting both the foreman as well

as the complainant.

28
Correct: The manager invited to a meeting both the foreman and
the complainant.

29