Lesson 2

Data Structure and Presentation

Data Structure for Electronic Processing

​ The structure of data for computer-based analysis is shown below. It is suggested that
the data be encoded in EXCEL program. If analysis will be made using a statistical package, it
would be easy to import the data set.

​ The letters along the first row are the columns in the Excel page.

A B C D E F G H I J
RespID Age Sex civstat rank educ Yrspost BDScore SupPrac NATperf
1 62 1 2 4 3 5 -3 94 49.22
2 42 2 2 2 2 1 -7 76 49.22
3 59 2 2 3 2 1 -6 102 72.6
4 38 1 2 2 1 1 -3 106 51.06
5 48 2 1 3 3 3 0 81 42.23

​ Variable labels should have 8 characters only, thus, some variables are shortened.

respID = respondent’s identification

civstat = civil status
rank = teaching rank
educ = highest educational attainment
yrspost = number of years in the position
BDScore = bradin dominance score
SupPrac = supervisory practices
NATperf = performance in the National Achievement Test

​ The sample set uses the following codes in the converting qualitative data into dummy
variables.

Sex: ​ 1 = Male​ ​ 2= Female

Civstat: 1 = Single​ ​ 2 = Married
Rank:​ 1 = Teacher 1​ ​ 2 = Teacher 2​ ​ 3 = Teacher 3​ 4: Mater Teacher I
Educ: ​ 1 = BS​ ​ ​ 2 = MA​ ​ ​ 3 = Ph.D.

Data Presentation

​ Research data can be presented in many ways. These means are categorized as table
or figure.

Tables

​ A table is a presentation of data in rows and columns. It has a stub column and column
headings. Inside the table are the statistical data.

​ At CSU Graduate School, the table has five horizontal lines: 2 ruled lines to begin, one
single line to separate the column headings from the table data, and another 2 ruled lines to close

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the table. As shown in the example, there are no vertical lines inside the table. Only the gridlines
appear inside the column headings.

Single line here Double lines here

Table 10. Dominant conflict management style of school administrators based on the
overall assessment of the administrators themselves and their teachers

Administrators Teachers
Style Frequency Frequency
(n = 45) Percent (n = 225) Percent

Solution-oriented 29 64.5 27 12.00

Non-confrontational 11 24.4 114 50.67

Control 5 11.1 84 37.33

​ The table has a table number (usually Arabic) followed by a period. Two spaces after is
the caption or table title. At CSU Graduate School, only the first letter of the first word is in capital
letters, except when there are proper nouns that follow. The carry-over of long captions is typed
single spaced just below the first letter of the title.

Figures

​ Any illustrative material that presents data is a figure. It may include graphs (pie graph,
line graph, bar graph, pictograph), maps, templates, etc.

​ The figure has a title written below it. The word Figure is typed followed by the figure
number (also in Arabic) then a period. Two spaces after, the figure title is written. Just like the
table caption, the carry-over of long title is typed single spaced just below the first letter of the
title.

A histogram is a graphical representation of the information in a frequency table using a

bar graph. The histogram should have the variable being measured in the data set as its
horizontal axis, and the class frequency as the vertical axis. Each data class will be represented
by a vertical bar whose height is the frequency of the class and whose width is the class width.

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Example:

​ ​ Figure 1. Frequency distribution of scores obtained by students in Algebra.

Notice that the bar for each class is centered at the class midpoint, and the bars for successive
classes touch.

A frequency polygon is a line graph representation of the information in a frequency table.

Like a histogram, the vertical axis represents frequency and the horizontal axis represents the
variable being measured in the data set. To construct the graph, a point is plotted for each class
at its midpoint and with height given by the frequency of the class. The points are then connected
by straight lines.

Example:

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of scores obtained by students in

Algebra.

A circle graph is shaped like a circle. It is divided into fractions that look like pieces of pie,
so sometimes a circle graph is called a pie graph. Many times the fractional parts are different
colors and a key explains the colors.

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 A picture graph uses pictures or symbols to show data. One picture often stands for more
than one vote so a key is necessary to understand the symbols.

Producing Effective Tables and Figures

Producing effective tables and figures requires careful planning that begins at the
manuscript writing stage itself. Here’s how to go about it (Velany Rodrigues, 2013):
●​ First, check out what your target journal has to say on the issue. Some
journals limit the number of tables and figures and also have specific
guidelines on the design aspects of these display items.

●​ Next, decide whether to use tables and figures or text to put across key
information.(Refer to Table 1 below for help on making this decision.)

●​ After you’ve decided to use a display item, choose the display item that
best fits your purpose based on what you wish readers to focus on and
what you want to present.(Refer to Table 1 below for more information.)

●​ Finally, follow the best-practice guidelines outlined in section 3 and review

the examples presented in section 4 of this paper to ensure that your
tables and figures are well-designed.

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Table 1: How to choose between tables, figures, and text to present data

Best practices for presentation of tables and figures in scientific papers​

​
General guidelines

1.​ Ensure that display items are self-explanatory: Some readers (and
certainly reviewers and journal editors) turn their attention to the tables
and figures before they read the entire text, so these display items should
be self-contained.
2.​ Refer, but don’t repeat: Use the text to draw the reader’s attention to the
significance and key points of the table/figure, but don’t repeat details. So
for example, you could highlight your main finding (e.g., “We found that
the treatment was effective in only 24% of the cases, as shown in Figure
1”), but don’t repeat exact values (e.g., “As Table 2 shows, 32% of the
subjects chose Option 1, 12% chose Option 2, 10% chose Option 3, and
46% chose Option 4”). This defeats the very purpose (efficiency and
clarity) of having a table or figure.
3.​ Be consistent: Ensure consistency between values or details in a table
(e.g., abbreviations, group names, treatment names) and those in the
text.

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 4.​ Give clear, informative titles: Table and figure titles should not be vague
but should concisely describe the purpose or contents of the table/figure
and should ideally draw the reader’s attention to what you want him/her
to notice17 (e.g., Advantages and disadvantages of using sleep therapy
with patients suffering from schizophrenia). Also ensure that column
heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., are clearly and appropriately
labelled.
5.​ Adhere to journal guidelines: Check what your target journal has to say
about issues like the number of tables and figures, the style of
numbering, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc., and follow these
instructions carefully.

Guidelines for tables

1.​ Combine repetitive tables: Tables and figures that present repetitive
information will impair communication rather than enhance it. Examine
the titles of all your tables and figures and check if they talk about the
same or similar things. If they do, rethink the presentation and combine
or delete the tables/graphs.
2.​ Divide the data: When presenting large amounts of information, divide
the data into clear and appropriate categories and present them in
columns titled accurately and descriptively.
3.​ Watch the extent of data in your tables: If the data you have to present is
extensive and would make the tables too cluttered or long, consider
making the tables a part of the Appendix or supplemental material.
4.​ De-clutter your table: Ensure that there is sufficient spacing between
columns and rows and that the layout does not make the table look too
messy or crowded.

Guidelines for figures

1.​ Ensure image clarity: Make sure that all the parts of the figure are clear:
Use standard font; check that labels are legible against the figure
background; and ensure that images are sharp.
2.​ Use legends to explain the key message: Figure legends are pivotal to the
effectiveness of a figure. Use them to draw attention to the central
message as well as to explain abbreviations and symbols.
3.​ Label all important parts: Label the key sections and parts of schematic
diagrams and photographs, and all axes, curves, and data sets in graphs
and data plots.
4.​ Give specifics: Include scale bars in images and maps; specify units
wherever quantities are listed; include legends in maps and schematics;
and specify latitudes and longitudes on maps.7

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Examples of well-prepared tables and figures

This section presents one example each of a well-prepared table and a

well-designed figure.

The table below is taken from a dietary study on chick-rearing macaroni

penguins and is an example of an effective table for the following reasons:

1. The title clearly describes what the table is about.

2. The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the
data presented.
3. The data is divided into categories for clarity.
4. It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without
reference to the entire paper.
5. Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying
information.
6. Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is
clean; and the font is legible.

Examples of an effective figure (graph)

The figure below from a paper on the efficacy of oyster reefs as natural
breakwaters27, scores on several counts:

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 ​

1. The informative title that immediately tells the reader what to expect in
the graph.

2. The axes are labeled clearly.

3. The key clearly identifies what each element in the graph stands for.

4. A figure legend at the bottom draws the reader’s attention to the graph's
key points.

5. A note at the bottom acknowledges the source.

6. The graph is 2-dimensional, with no clutter.

Reference:
http://www.editage.com/insights/tips-on-effective-use-of-tables-and-figures-in-research-p
apers

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