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1 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION
2022
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2 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

UNITS

1. SOLID STATE

2. SOLUTIONS

3. ELECTRO CHEMISTRY

4. CHEMICAL KINETICS

5. SURFACE CHEMISTRY

6. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS

7. P BLOCK ELEMENTS

8. d and f BLOCK ELEMENTS

9. CO ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

10. HALO ALKANES AND HALO ARENES

11. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

12. ALDEHYDES KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

13. AMINES

14. BIO MOLECULES

15. POLYMERS

16. CHEMISTRY IN EVERY DAY LIFE

EDITORIAL BOARD
FIROZ T ABDULLA, HSST Sel.Grade Chemistry
Seethi Sahib HSS Taliparamba
UNNIKRISHNAN P, HSST Sel.Grade Chemistry
AKS GHSS Malappattam
RAJU C V, HSST HG Chemistry
Shenoy Smaraka GHSS Payyannur
NITHIN N, HSST Junior Chemistry
Moothedath HSS Taliparamba
PREMJITH K M, HSST Junior Chemistry
Sivapuram HSS Sivapuram
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1.SOLID STATE
Solids are substances having definite shape and definite volume. In solids, the particles
are closely packed and the force of attraction between the particles is strong.
1. Classification of solids
Based on structural features
Crystalline solids
Long range order of arrangement
Sharp melting point and heat of fusion
Anisotropic in nature (Physical properties are different in different directions)
Eg : Quartz,Diamond
Amorphous solids
Short range order of arrangement
No sharp melting point and heat of fusion
Isotropic in nature(Physical properties are same in all directions)
Eg :Plastic,Rubber
Based on nature of particles
Molecular solids Ex:- HCl, SO2
Ionic solids Ex:-NaCl, MgO
Metallic solids Ex:-Fe, Cu, Ag
Covalent solids Ex:-SiO2,C (diamond),
2.Crystal lattice
The regular three dimensional arrangements of constituent particles of a crystal in
space is called crystal lattice or space lattice.
3.Unit cell
A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice.
4.Types of unit cell
Primitive Unit Cells:
Here the constituent particles are present only at the corners of the unit cell.
Centred Unit Cells:
Here the constituent particles are present at the corners and other positions of the
unit cell. These are of three types:
i. Body-centred unit cells: Here the constituent particles are present at the body centre
and at the corners of the unit cell.
ii. Face-centred unit cells: Here the constituent particles are present at the centre of
each faces and at the corners of the unit cell.
iii. End-centred unit cells: Here the constituent particles are present at the centre of
any two opposite faces and at the corners of the unit cell.

5.Number of atoms in different cubic unit cell

➢ Primitive (or simple cubic unit cell): 1(all particles are at the corners ,8 x 1/8=1)
➢ Body-centred cubic (bcc) unit cell: 2 (Particles at all the corners and at the centre,
8×1/8 +1=2)
➢ Face-centred cubic (fcc) unit cell:4 (Particles at all the corners and centre of each
faces 8×1/8 +6×1/2 = 4)
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6.Close packing in solids

In solids the particles are closely packed. In close packed structures the particles are
considered as hard spheres.
7.Packing Efficiency
The percentage of the total space occupied by spheres (particles) is called packing
efficiency.
Volume occupied by all the spheres in the unit cell × 100
Packing Efficiency = Total volume of the unit cell

Type of close packing Packing efficiency(%)

fcc / ccp / hcp 74
bcc 68
primitive /simple cubic 52
8.Imperfections in solids (Crystal Defects)
The deviation from the regular orderly arrangement of particles of a solid is termed as
imperfections or crystal defects. The crystal defects are broadly classified into two –
• point defects: The imperfection around a point (an atom) in a crystalline substance
• line defects: The imperfection along a row
Point defects are 3 types.
a. Stoichiometric defect (Thermodynamic point defect): The defect which do not disturb the
stoichiometry of solid.
Two types of stoichiometric point defect shown by ionic solids are
Schottky defect and Frenkel defect.
Schottky Frenkel
Due to the missing of equal number of Dislocation of cations from the lattice site to
anions and cations from the lattice site. the interstitial site
Density decreases Density remains same
Cations and anions have similar size Ionic size difference is large
Higher coordination number Lower coordination number
Eg: NaCl, KCl, CsCl, AgBr Eg: ZnS, AgCl, AgBr, AgI

b. Non stoichiometric point defect

The defect which disturb the stoichiometry of the solid is called non-stoichiometric point defect
(a) Metal excess defect due to anion vacancies:
In this defect, the anion is missing from lattice site. To maintain electrical neutrality,
electron is occupied in the anionic vacancies. This centre is called F-centre (Colour centre).
Due to the formation of F-centre, the crystals become coloured.
Examples:- Heating of NaCl in an atmosphere of Na develops yellow colour, ie, excess of
Na in NaCl gives yellow colour, Similarly, Excess of K in KCI gives violet colour and excess of Li
in LiCl gives pink colour.
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(b) Metal excess defect due to extra cation at interstitial site

In this defect, extra cations are present at the interstitial site. To maintain electrical
also present at the neighboring interstitial site.
Examples:- When ZnO is heated, it loses oxygen and turns yellow in colour. Here excess
Zn formed present at the interstitial site and equivalent number of electrons are also
accommodated in the neighbouring interstitial site.
(c) Metal deficiency defect due to cation vacancy
In this defect, some cations are missing from lattice site. To maintain electrical
neutrality an adjacent metal atom acquires extra positive charge.
Examples:- FeO. FeO is mostly found with a composition of Fe.95O
c. Impurity Defects:
It is the defect arising due to the presence of foreign particles in a crystal. Eg. when
molten NaCl is crystallised in presence of small amount of SrCl 2, some Na + ions are replaced
by Sr ²+ ions and some cationic vacancies are formed. The no. of cationic vacancies produced is
equal to the number of Sr ² + ions occupied. Another example is a solid solution of CdCl 2 and
AgCl

9.Properties of solids.
➢ Electrical properties:
Conduction of Electricity in metals, semi-conductors and insulators - Band Theory
According to band model, in metal there are two types of bands-valence band and
conduction band. Valence band is the lower energy electron occupied band and conduction
band is the higher energy unoccupied band.
In metals, the valence band is either partially
filled or it is overlapped with the conduction band.
So electron can easily flow from the valence hand to
the conduction band.
In semi-conductors, there is a small energy gap
between the valence band and conduction band and
only a few electrons can enter into the conduction band.
So they conduct only partially.
In insulators, the gap between the valence band and the conduction band is large
and so they do not conduct electricity.

➢ Magnetic properties of Solids

a. Paramagnetic substance: The substance which is weakly attracted by magnetic field.
Paramagnetism is due to the presence of unpaired electrons. It do not show magnetism in the
absence of magnetic field. Example: O₂, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+
b. Diamagnetic substance: The substance which is weakly repelled by magnetic field.
Diamagnetism is due to the presene of paired electrons. Example:- NaCl, H ₂O, benzene
c. Ferromagnetic substance:-The substance which is strongly attracted by magnetic field . It
retains magnetism even in the absence of magnetic field. Ferromagnetism is due to the
spontaneous alignment of magnetic moments (domains) in the same direction.
Example:- Fe, Co, Ni, CrO₂, Gd (Gadolinium)
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d. Antiferromagnetic substance: The substance which are expected to have high magnetic
moments but actually it possess zero magnetic moments. It is due to the alignments of
magnetic moments in the opposite direction alternatively. Example:- MnO
e. Ferrimagnetic substance: The substance which are expected to have high magnetism but
actually it possess small magnetic moments.Here magnetic moments are cancelled each other.
Example:- Fe3O4, (magnetite), ZnFe2O4, (Zinc ferrite), MgFe2O4, (Magnesium ferrite)

2. SOLUTIONS
Solutions are homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
➔ Solute:Substance in lesser quantity
➔ Solvent :Substance in higher quantity
➔ Solubility :Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved
in specific amount of solvent at a temperature.

1.Solubility of gas in liquid

The solubility of a gas in a liquid depends pressure applied which is explained by Henry's law
➢ Henry's law: “As the pressure of gas increases solubility of gas in liquid also increases”
Partial pressure (p) of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction (X) of
the gas in the solution. ic. P=KHX (KH is Henry's constant) KH value is inversely proportional
to solubility of a gas in a liquid
➢ Applications of Henry's law:
(i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks or soda.
(i) Bends experienced by Scuba divers. (Medical condition created by solubility of nitrogen
in the blood). To avoid bends, oxygen taken in oxygen cylinder is diluted with less soluble
Helium
(iii) Anoxia experinced by peoples at high altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen is less
than the ground level.
➢ Effect of temperature the solubility of a gas in a liquid
When temperature increases, the value of KH is increases. Therefore solubility of the
gas in liquid decreases. Therefore aquatic life is more comfortable in cold water.

2.Vapour pressure of Liquid-Liquid solution

Raoult's Law: For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial
vapour pressure of each component in the solution is
directly proportional to its molefraction.
For component 1, P1∝X1 P1=P10X1
and for component 2, P2 ∝ X2 or P2 =P20 X2
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3.Ideal solution:
The solution which obeys Raoult's law are called ideal solutions.
Here ∆H mix = 0 and ∆V mix = 0
For a binary solution contains two components A (solvent) and B (solute),A-A (solvent-
solvent) and B-B(solute-solute) interactions are equal to the A-B (solvent-solute) interactions.
Examples of ideal solution:
(1) solution of n-hexane and n-heptane
(2) solution of bromo ethane and chloro methane
(3) benzene and toluene
4.Non ideal solution
The solution which does not obey's Raoult's law are called ideal solutions.
Here ∆H mix not equal to 0 and ∆V mix not equal to 0
The total vapour pressure of such solution is either higher or lower than predicted by Raoult's
law. Therfore non ideal solution divided into two
➢ Non ideal solution showing Positive deviation from Roults law:
The observed value of partial vapour pressure greater than that of theoretical value( A-B
interaction less than A-A and B-B)(Change in volume and enthalpy will greater than zero)
Eg:- Ethanol and acetone
➢ Non ideal solution showing Negative deviation from Roults law:
The observed value of partial vapour pressure less than that of theoretical value( A-B
interaction greater than A-A and B-B) (Change in volume and enthalpy will lower than zero)
Eg: Chloroform and acetone

Non ideal solution showing Non ideal solution showing

Positive deviation Negative deviation

5.Azeotropic mixtures (Azeotropes) or Constant boiling mixture:

They are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and
boil at a constant temperature. For such solutions, it is not possible to separate the components
by fractional distillation.
They are two types-
➢ minimum boiling azeotrope
The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum
boiling azeotrope at a particular composition.
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➢ maximum boiling azeotrope

The solutions which show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling
azeotrope at a particular composition.
6.Colligative Properties
Colligative property is the property which depend upon the number of solute particles
and does not depend upon their nature. They are
(1) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(2) Elevation of boiling point
(3) Depression of freezing point
(4) Osmotic pressure
Applications of Colligative Properties
Used to determine molar mass of non volatile solute (M₂) using the following equations

7.Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure,Reverse osmosis

➢ Osmosis :- It is the flow of solvent molecules from lower concentration side to a
higher concentration side through a semi-permeable membrane
Eg, for semi-permeable membrane are egg membrane, all animal and plant
membrane, Cellulose acetate.
➢ Osmotic pressure :- It is defined as the excess pressure that must be applied on
solution side to stop osmosis
➢ Reverse osmosis :- The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than
osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side. Here solvent is flowing from lower
concentration to higher concentration through semi permeable membrane. This process
is called reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water and in
water purifiers.
8.Isotonic, Hypotonic & Hypertonic Solutions
The solutions having same osmotic pressure at a temperature is called Isotonic solution
Eg : blood and 0.9% (m/v)NaCl solution
The solution having high osmotic pressure than other is called Hypertonic solution
The solution having lower osmotic pressure than other is called Hypotonic solution
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8.Importance of colligative properties

(i) Osmotic pressure is used to measure molecular mass of proteins, polymers and other
macromolecules because of two reasons:
(a) osmotic pressure is measured at room temperature
(b) molarity is used instead of molality.
(ii) Anti freeze solutions (eg. Glycol) are used in automobile radiators to prevent the freezing
of water (depression of freezing point).
(iii) NaCl and CaCl2, is used to remove ice from road because it depress the freezing point
of water.
(iv) The osmotic pressure of fluid inside the blood cell and that of 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCI
solution are equal , they are isotonic (solutions having same osmotic pressure).
Therefore, 0.9%(mass/volume) NaCI solution is used in intravenous injections.
9.Abnormal molecular mass
Molecular mass calculated on the basis of colligative properties may be lower or higher
than the normal value. Such molecular mass is called abnormal molar mass. Abnormal
molecular mass is due to the following reasons.
(i) Dissociation of particles Due to dissociation of particles, the number of
particles increases. Therefore colligative property increases, Hence molecular mass decreases
Eg: KCI solution (Here KCI dissociated in to K and Cl-. Therefore number of particles
increases.)
(ii) Association of particles. Due to association of particles, the number particles
decreases. Therefore colligative property decreases and hence molecular mass increases.
Eg: Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) in benzene, ( In benzene, acetic acid dimerises due to hydrogen
bonding. Therefore number of particles decreases).

➔ Van't Hoff factor i= Normal molecular mass

Abnormal molecular mass
For association i < 1 For dissociation i >1

3. ELECTRO CHEMISTRY
It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the relationship between chemical energy
and electrical energy and their inter conversions.
1.Daniel cell.
It is constructed by dipping a Zn rod in ZnSO 4 solution and a Cu rod in CuSO4 solution.
The two solutions are connected externally by a metallic wire through a voltmeter and a switch
and internally by a salt bridge.
(i)Cu2+ + 2 e-→ Cu(s) (Reduction /In right half cell)
(ii) Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2 e- (Oxidation /In left half cell)
Left half cell-Oxidation-Anode-Negative( LOAN)
Right half cell-Reduction-Cathode-Positive.
Here electron flow occurs from Zinc rod to Copper
rod,and the conventional current flows from Copper rod to
Zinc rod.
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2. Electrode Potential(Eel)
The tendency of a metal to lose or gain electron when it is in contact with its
own solution is called electrode potential,(Eel). Electrode potential measured at standard
conditions is known as Standard electrode potential(E0el).
The cell potential is the difference between the electrode potentials (Reduction
potentials) of the cathode and anode.
Ecell = E cathode - E anode = E right - E left
For Daniel cell, the symbolic cell representation is Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq)//Cu2+(aq)/Cu(s)
3. Measurement of Electrode Potential is done with the help of SHE/NHE.
SHE can be represented as Pt(s)/H2(g)/H+(aq) when it acts as anode
and as H+(aq)/H2(g)/Pt(s) when it acts as cathode.
4. Electrochemical series
It is a series in which various electrodes are arranged in the increasing order of their
Electrode Potential. Important applications of ECS are
➢ To compare the relative reactivity of metals.
➢ To predict the displacement reactions.
➢ To predict the liberation of H2 gas from mineral acids

5. Nernst equation –Various forms

For a general electrode reaction M n+(aq) + ne– → M(s)

• Electrode potential

• Cell potential for Daniel cell

• Free energy and EMF of cell

• EMF of cell and Equilibrium constant

6.Variation of Molar conductivity ( Λm ) with concentration

It is the conductivity of 1 mole of an electrolytic solution kept between two electrodes with
unit area of cross section and at a distance of unit length.
Molar conductivity decreases with the concentration of the electrolyte
while conductivity increases with the concentration.
➢ For both strong and weak electrolyte, the molar conductivity increases with dilution (or
decreases with increase in concentration)
➢ In case of weak electrolytes there is a sudden increase in molar conductivity during
dilution where as in case of strong electrolyte a slight increase is observed
➢ When dilution reaches maximum or concentration approaches zero, the molar
conductivity becomes maximum and it is called the limiting molar conductivity (Λm0).
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11 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

➢ When dilution reaches maximum or concentration approaches zero, the molar

conductivity becomes maximum and it is called the limiting molar conductivity (Λm0).

For strong electrolytes, the relation between Λm and concentration can be given as:
Λm = Λm0 - A√C (Debye Huckel Equation)
Where ‘C’ is the concentration and A is a constant .
The variation of Λm for strong and weak
electrolytes is shown in the graphs
For strong electrolytes, the value of ˄m0can
be determined by the extrapolation of the graph.

7. Kohlrausch’s law

The law states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the
sum of the individual Molar ionic conductances of the anions and the cations of the electrolyte.
Let the molar ionic conductances of anion and cation at infinite dilutions are λ + and λ –
respectively,Then
0 0 0
Λm = υ+ λ+ + υ-λ-

Where υ+and υ- represents the total number of cations and anions produced by one unit
formula of an electrolyte.
Applications
Determination of ˄m0of weak electrolytes.
By knowing the ˄m0 values of strong electrolytes, we can calculate ˄m0 of weak
electrolytes. For e.g. we can determine the ˄m0of acetic acid (CH3COOH) by knowing the ˄m0 of
CH3COONa, NaCl and HCl as follows:
˄m0(CH3COONa) +˄m0(HCl) - ˄m0(NaCl) = ˄m0 CH3COOH
Determination of degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes
By knowing the molar conductivity at a particular concentration (˄m) and limiting molar
conductivity (˄m0), we can calculate the degree of dissociation (α) as,
α = ˄m
˄m0
8.Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Faraday’s first law
It states that the amount of substance deposited or liberated at the electrodes (m) is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity (Q) flowing through the electrolyte.
Faraday’s second law
It states that when same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different
substances, the amount of substance deposited or liberated is directly proportional to their own
equivalent masses.
Products of electrolysis
Electrolyte Product at Anode At cathode
Aq.NaCl Chlorine Hydrogen
Molten NaCl Chlorine Sodium
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9. Batteries/ Commercial cells

Non- rechargeable cells – Primary cell Drycell, Mercury cell
Rechargeable cells – Secondary cells Lead storage cell,Ni-Cd cells.
Cells Anode Cathode Electrolyte Overall cell reaction
Dry Cell Zn Graphite Ammonium 2Zn(s) + MnO2 + NH4+→
(Leclanche container +MnO2 chloride 2Zn2+ + MnO(OH) + NH3
cell) (NH4Cl).
Mercury cell Zinc – Paste of HgO Paste of KOH Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) →
(Button cell) mercury and carbon and ZnO ZnO(s) + Hg(l )
amalgam
Lead storage Lead Grid of lead 38% H2SO4 Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq)
cell packed with → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
lead dioxide
(PbO2)
✔ Mercury cell has a constant potential of 1.35 V since the overall reaction does not
involve any ion in solution. Mercury cell is suitable for hearing aids, watches, etc.
✔ In Lead storage battery cell reaction can be reversed by passing current through it in
the opposite direction. The most important secondary cell is, which is used in automobiles
and inverters.
10. Fuel cells
➢ These are galvanic cells which convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen,
methane, methanol,etc. directly into electrical energy.
➢ One example for fuel cell is Hydrogen – Oxygen fuel cell, which is used in the Apollo
space programme.
➢ Here hydrogen and oxygen are bubbled through porous
carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous Sodium hydroxide
solution.
The electrode reactions are:
Cathode: O2(g) + 2H2O(l ) + 4e–→4OH–(aq)
Anode: 2H2 (g) + 4OH–(aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e–
Overall reaction is: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l )
Advantages
➢ The cell works continuously as long as the reactants are supplied.
➢ It has higher efficiency
➢ It is eco-friendly (i.e. pollution free)
➢ Water obtained from H2 – O2 fuel cell can be used for drinking.
11. Corrosion
It is the slow destruction of the metal due to the attack of various atmospheric gases
with the metallic surface .Some common examples are: The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver,
formation of green coating on copper and bronze (verdigris) etc.
Rusting of iron is an electrochemical phenomenon. Chemically rust is hydrated ferric
oxide (Fe2O3. x H2O)
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13 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Methods to prevent corrosion

• Barrier protection By coating the metal surface with paint, varnish etc.
• Sacrificial protection By coating the metal surface with another electropositive metal like
Zinc, Magnesium etc. The coating of metal with zinc is called Galvanisation and the
resulting iron is called Galvanized iron.
• Anti-rust solutions.
• Cathodic protection.

4.CHEMICAL KINETICS
1.Rate of a chemical reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is the change in concentration of any one of the reactant or
product in unit time.
2.Average rate and instantaneous rate

a) Average rate
The rate of a reaction at a particular interval of time is called Instantaneous Rate of a reaction.
2HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g)

rav =

b)Instantaneous Rate of a reaction

The rate of a reaction at a particular instant of time is called Instantaneous Rate of a reaction.
For a general reaction, aA + bB → cC + dD,
The instantaneous rate is given by

3. Factors affecting rate of a reaction

1. Concentration of the reactants 2. Temperature 3. Presence of catalyst
4.Dependence of rate of reaction on concentration:
For a general reaction, aA + bB → cC + dD, Rate α [A]X[B]Y or
r = k [A]X[B]Y
(where x and y may or may not be equal to a and b)
In the above equation ‘k’ is a constant called rate constant of the reaction
5.Rate law expression:
The representation of rate of reaction in terms of molar concentration of reactants as experimentally
determined is called rate law or rate equation or rate law expression. r = k[A]X [B]Y

6.Unit of Rate constant

1-n -1
(mol / L) s
Where n is Order of reaction

7. Elementary and complex reactions

A reaction that takes place in a single step is called elementary reaction. While a reaction that occurs
in more than one step is called a complex reaction.
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14 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

8. Order of reaction:
It is the sum of powers of the concentration of the reactants in the rate law expression
For a general reaction, aA + bB → cC + dD;
r = k [A]X [B]Y, Order of the reaction = x + y
Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction.
9. Examples for zero order reactions :
A zero order reaction means that the rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of
reactants.
➢ Some enzyme catalysed reactions
➢ Thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface
➢ Reactions which occur on metal surfaces . (The decomposition of gaseous
ammonia on a hot platinum surface is a zero order reaction at high pressure.)

10. Examples for 1 st order reactions :

➢ Hydrogenation of ethene:
C 2 H 4 (g) + H 2 (g) → C 2 H 6 (g); r = k[C 2 H 4 ]
➢ All natural and artificial radioactive decay
11.Pseudo First order reaction:
Reactions which are not truly first order ,but become first order under special conditions are
called pseudo unimolecular or pseudo first order reaction
➢ Inversion of cane sugar
➢ Ester hydrolysis
12. Molecularity of a reaction:
It is the number of reacting species (molecules, atoms or ions) which must collide simultaneously in
order to bring about a chemical reaction
No Order Molecularity
1 It is the sum of the powers of the It is the total number of reactant species collide
concentration terms in the rate law simultaneously in a chemical reaction
expression
2 It is an experimental quantity It is a theoretical quantity
3 It can be zero or fractional It cannot be zero or fractional
4 It is applicable to both elementary and It is applicable only to elementary reactions
complex reactions

13. Integrated rate equations

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15 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

14.Graphical representation for zero and first order reaction

15. Half life of a reaction ( t 1/2 )

It is the time required for half of the reactant converted in to product
Half life of a zero order reaction: Half life of a first order reaction:

• For zero order reaction t 1/2 ∝ [R]0 .

• It is clear that t 1/2 for a zero order reaction is directly proportional to the initial
concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional to the rate constant.
• For first order reaction t 1/2 is independent of initial concentration of reactant

16.Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction Reaction

➢ Arrhenius equation
.This is an equation which relates rate constant with temperature
A :Arrhenius Factor, Ea:Activation energy

As temperature increases k increases thus rate of reaction also increases.

For every 10°C rise in temperature, the rate of reaction becomes almost double.
➢ Expression for activation energy if different temperature and different
rate constant are given below

Ea = activation energy, k1 and k2 are the values of rate

constants at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
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16 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

➢ Activation energy (Ea):

The energy requierd to form an activated complex
Activation energy (E) = Threshold energy - Actual energy possessed by reacting molecules
17.Effect of Catalyst
Catalyst provides an alternate path of lower activation energy to the reactant molecules.
18. Threshold energy:
The minimum energy that the reacting molecules must posses in order to undergo effective
collisions to form product is called threshold energy

5.SURFACE CHEMISTRY
1.ADSORPTION
The presence of excess concentration of a molecular species at the surface rather than in
the bulk of a surface is called adsorption.
● Types of Adsorption

Physisorption Chemisorption

1. It arises because of van der Waals’ forces 1. It is caused by chemical bond

between adsorbate and adsorbent. formation between adsorbate and
adsorbent.
2. It is not specific in nature. 2. It is highly specific in nature.

3. It is reversible in nature. 3. It is irreversible

4. Enthalpy of adsorption is low 4. Enthalpy of adsorption is high

● Factors influencing adsorption of gases on solids.

➢ Nature of adsorbate:
➢ Surface area of adsorbent:
➢ Temperature:( The adsorption occurs readily at low temperature)
➢ Effect of Pressure- Adsorption Isotherms
NOTE: Generally extend of adsorption of gases increases with increase in pressure.
1. Freundlich adsorption isotherm:

The variation in of extent of adsorption

(x/m) with pressure(P) at constant temperature
can be expressed by means of a curve termed as
adsorption isotherm.
Freundlich adsorption isotherm:
Mathematical exprssion is given as
x/m= k.P1/n (n > 1) or
log x/m = log k + 1/n log P

For Adsorption from Solution Phase, x/m = kC1/n (C is the concentration)

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17 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

2.Applications of Adsorption
➔ Production of high vacuum:
➔ Gas masks
➔ Control of humidity:
➔ Separation of inert gases:
II.CATALYST
Substances, which alter the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing any
chemical change is called catalyst, and the phenomenon is known as catalysis, divided into
two groups:
(a) Homogeneous catalysis (b) Heterogeneous catalysis
The reactants and the catalyst are in the The reactants and the catalyst are in
same phase different phases

Eg: Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur Iron as catalyst in haber process for the
trioxide with dioxygen in the presence of NO manufacture of ammonia.
gas
3.Mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis
Adsorption Theory:-
➢ (i)Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
➢ (ii) Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
➢ (iii) Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst’s surface through
formation of an intermediate.
➢ (iv) Desorption of reaction products from the catalyst surface, and thereby,
making the surface available again for more reaction to occur.
➢ (v) Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst’s surface.

4.Important features of solid catalysts are :

1.Activity :-ability to increase rate of a reaction
2.Selectivity:-ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product selectively,

5.Shape- Selective Catalyst - Zeolites

Zeolites are good shape-selective catalysts because of their honeycomb-like structures.
They are microporous aluminosilicates with three dimensional network of silicates in which
some silicon atoms are replaced by aluminium atoms giving Al–O–Si framework.
Uses
➢ It converts alcohols directly into petrol
➢ Removal of permanent hardness.
➢ widely used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for cracking of hydrocarbons and
isomerisation

6.Characteristics of enzyme catalysis

➢ Most highly efficient:
➢ Highly specific nature:
➢ Highly active under optimum temperature and PH
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18 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

III.COLLOIDS
A colloid is intermediates of true solution and suspension with range of diameters of
particle between 1 and 1000 nm.
7.Classification of colloids
• Based on Nature of attraction between Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium
Lyophillic sols(solvent loving) Lyophobic sols(solvent hating)

1.There is much attraction existing between There is less attraction existing between
Dispersed medium and Dispersed phase. Dispersed medium and Dispersed phase.
Eg;starch sol Eg; Gold sol
2.Formed by simply mixing Dispersed medium Requires special methods.
and Dispersed phase
3.Reversible sols. Irreversible sols.
4.Stable Unstable

Based on Type of Particles of the Dispersed Phase

(i) Multimolecular (ii) Macromolecular colloids: (iii)Associated colloids
colloids: (Micelles):

These are formed by the These type colloidal systems There are some substances
association of atoms or contain macromolecules with which at low concentrations
smaller molecules of particle size in colloidal behave as normal strong
diameter < 1nm to form range. Examples are starch, electrolytes, but at higher
species having size in the cellulose etc concentrations they exhibit
colloidal range. colloidal behavior.
For example, a gold sol. Eg: Soap solution

8.Preparation of Colloids
• Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method.
Colloidal sols of metals such as gold, silver, platinum, etc., can be prepared by this method.
In this method, electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed in the
dispersion medium.
• Peptization
Peptization may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by
shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte.

9. Purification of Colloidal Solutions :

(i) Dialysis: (ii) Electro-dialysis: (iii) Ultrafiltration:

It is a process of removing a Dialysis by applying Ultrafiltration is the

dissolved substance from a an electric field is process of purification of
colloidal solution by using a bag named electro dialysis. the colloid by using ultra
made up of semi permeable filter paper.
membrane.
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19 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

10.Properties of colloids :
• Tyndall effect:
When a strong beam of light is passed through colloid, the path of the path of the
beam can be observed,termed as Tyndall effect. The Tyndall effect is due to the
scattering of light by colloidal particles. Zsigmondy used Tyndall effect to set up
an apparatus known as ultramicroscope.
• Brownian movement:
Zig-zag motion of colloidal particles in the dispersion medium
• Charge on colloidal particles:
Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge.
• Electrophoresis:
The movement of colloidal particles towards anode or cathode under an applied
electric potential
• Coagulation
The process of settling of colloidal particles is called coagulation of the sol.
When excess of an electrolyte is added to colloidal solution, negative ion causes the
precipitation of positively charged sol and vice versa.

11.Hardy-Schulze rule.
It has been observed that, generally, the greater the charge of the coagulating ion
added, the greater is its power to cause coagulation.This is known as Hardy-Schulze rule.
In the coagulation of a negative sol, the flocculating power is in the order:
Al3+>Ba2+>Na+
Similarly, in the coagulation of a positive sol, the flocculating power is in the order:
[Fe(CN)6]4– > PO4 3– > SO4 2– > Cl–

12.Protection of colloids
Lyophilic colloids used for protecting Lyophobic sols from coagulation.
13.Emulsions :
Colloids where both the Dispersion phase and Dispersion medium are liquids.
There are two types of emulsions.
Oil dispersed in water (O/W type) Water dispersed in oil (W/O type).

Eg;Milk and vanishing cream Eg;butter ,cold cream,code liver oil

Emulsifying agents : Proteins,gums Emulsifying agents : Long chain alcohols,

lampblack,
Applications of colloids
Colloids are widely used in the industry. Following are some examples:
➢ Electrical precipitation of smoke:
➢ Purification of drinking water:
➢ Medicines: Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature.
➢ Tanning:
➢ Cleansing action of soaps and detergents:
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20 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

6.GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS

1.Minerals and Ores

➢ Minerals: Naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust obtained by
mining.
➢ Ore : Out of many minerals only a few from which the metal is conveniently get
extracted. For eg;Bauxite,china clay etc are minerals of Aluminium,but bauxite is
selected as the ore.
All the ores are minerals but all the minerals are not ores.
Gangue: The impurities associated with the ores .

2.Metallurgy:
The entire scientific and technological process used for isolation of the metal from
its ores . The extraction and isolation of metals from ores involve the following major steps:
● Concentration / Benefaction of the ore,
● Extraction of the metal from its concentrated ore, and
● Purification / Refining of the metal.

1.CONCENTRATION / BENEFACTION OF THE ORE,

Removal of the gangue from the ore.
i) Hydraulic Washing (gravity separation or levigation)
In such process a running stream of water is used to wash the powdered ore.The lighter
gangue particles are washed away and the heavier ores are left behind.
ii) Magnetic Separation
If either the ore or the gangue is capable of being attracted by a magnetic field, then
such separations are carried out (e.g., in case of iron ores). The powdered ore is carried on a
conveyer belt which passes over a magnetic roller .The magnetic roller attracts the magnetic
components and they are collected as a heap near that roller. The non magnetic components
form a heap away from the impurities.
iii) Froth Floatation Method
This method has been in use for removing gangue from sulphide ores.
In this process, a suspension of the powdered ore is made with water. To it pine oil is added.A
blast of air is blown through the pipe of a rotating agitator . As a result, froth is formed which
carries the ore to the surface(froth being lighter) and is skimmed off. It is then dried for
recovery of the ore particles.

iv)Leaching
The process consists in treating the powdered ore with a suitable chemical reagent which
can selectively dissolve the ore but not the impurities.
Leaching of Alumina from bauxite

Bauxite NaOH Sodium CO2 Hydrated Heating Pure Alumina

aluminate Al2O3
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21 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Metal Ores Concentration methods

Iron( Fe) Haematite,Magnetite, Siderite. Magnetic Separation

Copper (Cu) Copper glans, Copper Pyrites Froth Floatation Method

[ Malachite]
Zinc (Zn) Zinc blende Froth Floatation Method
[ Calamine]
Aluminium (Al) Bauxite Leaching

II. EXTRACTION OF THE METAL FROM ITS CONCENTRATED ORE

Extraction from concentrated ore involves two major steps
(a) conversion to oxide by calcination and roasting
Calcination: Roasting:
Heating the ore in limited supply of air. The ore is heated in excess supply of air at a
This removes the volatile impurities temperature.
and moisture and at the same time During roasting,impurities such as S,P,As
decomposes any carbonate into oxide. etc are removed as their volatile oxides.
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g) 2ZnS + 3O2 →2ZnO + 2SO2

(b) reduction of the oxide to metal.

Extraction of iron from Haematite. (Using Blast furnace)
Haematite(Fe2O3) is mixed with limestone(CaCO3) and Coke(C) are put into the blast
furnace .Coke act as a fuel as well as reducing agent and limestone as flux.
At 500 – 800 K (lower temperature range in the blast furnace)–the temperature is
lower and the iron oxides (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) coming from the top are reduced in steps to FeO.
3 Fe2O3 + CO → 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + 4 CO → 3Fe + 4 CO2
Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2
At 900 – 1500 K (higher temperature range in the blast furnace): Coke burns in
CO2 to form CO which reduces FeO to Fe
C + CO2 → 2 CO
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
Limestone(flux) is also decomposed to CaO which removes silicate impurity of
the ore as slag. The slag is in molten state and separates out from iron.
CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (Slag) + CO2
Different types of Iron
Pig iron Cast iron Wrought iron
Iron coming out from Carbon content (about 3%) The purest form of commercial
Blast furnace contains and is extremely hard and iron (with less than 0.08%
about 4% carbon and brittle. carbon) It is soft,malleable
many impurities and ductile.
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22 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Extraction of Copper from Cuprous oxide.

Most of the ores are sulphide and some may also contain iron. Exraction of Cu from Copper
pyrites involves following steps.
The sulphide ores are roasted/smelted to give oxides:
2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu2O + 2SO2
The oxide can then be easily reduced to metallic copper using coke:
Cu2O + C → 2 Cu + CO
Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite (Hall-Heroult process)
Electrolyte :purified Alumina,Al2O3 is mixed with Crayolite,Na3AlF6
Role of Crayolite: which lowers the melting point of the mixture and brings conductivity.
Cathode: iron tank lined inside with carbon.
Anode:A number of carbon rods dipping in the molten electrolyte.
The electrolytic reactions are:
Al2O3 → 2Al3+ + 3 O2-
At Cathode: Al3+ + 3e– →Al(l)
At Anode: C(s) + O2–→CO(g) + 2e– ( C(s) + 2O2– →CO2(g) + 4e– )
Ellingham diagram
It is the graphical representation of standard Gibbs free energy change for the formation
of various oxides of elements ,ΔfG0 againstTemperature.
Application:To understand the variation in the temperature requirement for thermal
reductions and to predict which element will suit as the reducing agent for a given metal
oxide.
Any metal will reduce an oxide of
another metal that lies above it in
an Ellingham diagram.
Ex: Al can reduce FeO, ZnO, Cu2O
but Al can not reduce MgO at a temperature
below 1350 0C. Above this temperature,
Al can reduce MgO.
III. PURIFICATION / REFINING OF THE METAL.
Removal of impurities from the crude metal.
Important Refining methods are,
(i) Distillation
This is very useful for low boiling metals like zinc and mercury. The impure metal is
evaporated to obtain the pure metal as distillate.
(ii)Liquation
In this method a low melting metal like tin can be made to flow on a sloping surface. In this
way it is separated from higher melting impurities.
(iii)Electrolytic refining
Copper is refined using an electrolytic method. Anodes are of impure copper and pure
copper strips are taken as cathode. The electrolyte is acidified solution of copper sulphate and
the net result of electrolysis is the transfer of copper in pure form from the anode to the
cathode:
Anode: Cu →Cu2+ + 2 e– Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e– →Cu
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23 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

(iv)Zone refining
A circular mobile heater is fixed at one end of a rod of the impure metal. The molten
zone moves along with the heater as it moves forward. During this time the pure metal
crystallises out of the melt and the impurities pass on into the adjacent molten zone. The
process is repeated several times and the heater is moved in the same direction. At one end,
impurities get concentrated. This end is cut off. This method is very useful for producing
semiconductor and other metals of very high purity, e.g., Ge, Si, B,Ga and In.
(v)Vapour phase refining
Mond Process for Refining Nickel: Van Arkel Method for Refining for
Zirconium

Step1 : Ni(s) + 4CO(g) → Ni(CO)4 (g) Step:1 Zr(s)+ 2I2 (g) → ZrI4(g)

Step 2: Ni(CO)4(g) → Ni(s) + 4CO(g) Step 2: ZrI4(g) → Zr(s) + 2I2(g)

1800K

Refining method Metals

(a) Distillation Zn,Cd,Hg (Low boiling)
(b) Liquation Sn,Bi,Pb (Low melting)

(c) Electrolytic refining Cu,Zn

(d)Mond Process Ni
(e)Van Arkel Method Zr,Ti

(f) Zone refining Ge,Si (Semi conductors)

7. P BLOCK ELEMENTS
I.AMMONIA
1.Industrial Method of Preparation of Ammonia ( Haber process )
3.On a large scale, ammonia is manufactured by Haber’s process.
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) → 2NH 3 (g);∆ f H = – 46.1 kJ /mol
Accordance with Le-Chatelier’s principle,
To increase the formation of ammonia,
➢ High pressure that is a pressure of 200 × 105 Pa (about 200atm Pressure),
➢ Low temperature a temperature of 700 K(optimum temp),
➢ use of a Catalyst such as iron oxide with small amounts of K2O and Al2O3 to
➢ increase the rate of attainment of equilibrium.
2.Structure of ammonia
Triagonal pyramidal Structure
It has three bond pairs and one lone pair of electrons
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24 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

3.Properties
1.In the solid and liquid states, it is associated through hydrogen bonds that accounts for its
higher melting and boiling points
2. Ammonia is a lewis base,the one pair of electrons is available for donation. Therefore, it
acts as a Lewis base.The presence of a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom of the
ammonia molecule makes it as Lewis base.
3.It donates the electron pair to the metals and forms co-ordinate linkage with metal
ions .Formation of such complex compounds helps in the detection of metal ions such
as Cu , Ag+ ,due to its characteristic colour
2+

4.Why does NO2 dimerise ? NO2 contains odd number of valence electrons. It behaves as a
typical odd molecule. On dimerisation, it is converted to stable N 2O4 molecule with even
number of electrons.

II .NITRIC ACID
5.Industrial Preparation of Nitric acid (Ostwald's process )
This method is based upon catalytic oxidation of NH 3 by atmospheric oxygen.
NO thus formed combines with more oxygen to form NO2 which dissolves in water to form
HNO3 and can be concentrated by
distillation up to 68% by mass.
Further concentration to 98% can
be achieved by dehydration with
concentrated H2SO4 .

6.Structure of Nitric acid

7.Properties
1.Action with Metals:-Concentrated nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent and attacks most of
metals except noble metals such as gold and platinum.
Cu reacts with dilute HNO3 to give NO and with concentrated acid to give NO2
3Cu + 8 HNO3 (dilute) → 3Cu(NO 3 )2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Cu + 4HNO3 (conc.) → Cu(NO 3 )2 + 2 NO2 + 2H2O
Zn reacts with dilute HNO3 to give N2O and with concentrated acid to give NO2 .
4Zn + 10HNO3 (dilute) → 4 Zn(NO 3 )2 + 5H2O + N2O
Zn + 4HNO3 (conc.) → Zn (NO 3 )2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
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25 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

2. Cr, Al do not dissolve in concentrated nitric acid because of the formation of a passive film
of oxide on the Surface.
3..Concentrated nitric acid oxidises non–metals and their compounds. Iodine is oxidised to
iodic acid, carbon to carbon dioxide,sulphur to H 2 SO 4 , and phosphorus to phosphoric acid.
I 2 + HNO 3 → HIO3 + 10NO 2 +H 2 O
C +HNO 3 → CO 2 + H 2 O + NO 2
S 8 + HNO 3 → H2SO4 + NO 2 + H 2 O
P 4 + HNO 3 → H3PO 4 + NO2 + H 2 O
8.Brown Ring Test:
Brown ring test is carried out by adding dilute ferrous sulphate solution to an
aqueous solution containing nitrate ion, and then carefully adding concentrated sulphuric acid
along the sides of the test tube. A brown ring [Fe (H2O) 5 (NO)] 2+ at the interface between
the solution and sulphuric acid layers indicates the presence of nitrate ion in solution.
NO 3- + 3Fe + 4H+ → NO + 3Fe + 2H 2 O
2+ 3+

Fe2+ + H2O → [ Fe ( H 2 O ) 6 ] 2 +
2+
[ Fe ( H 2 O ) 6 ] + NO → [Fe (H2O) 5 (NO)] 2+ + H 2 O
(brown ring)
The familiar brown ring test for nitrates depends on the ability of Fe 2+ to reduce nitrates
to nitric oxide, which reacts with Fe2+ to form a brown coloured complex.

9.Phosphorus — Allotropic Forms

White phosphorus Red phosphurus It is polymeric, consisting of

discrete tetrahedral P4 molecule chains of P4 tetrahedra linked together

10.Phosphine PH3
In the laboratory, it is prepared by heating white phosphorus with concentrated NaOH
solution in an inert atmosphere of CO2
P 3 + NaOH + 3H2O → PH 3 +NaHPO2
PH3 is basic in nature:- PH3 reacts with acids like HI to form PH 4 I which shows that it is basic
in nature. PH3 + HI → PH 4I
PH3 is acting as a Lewis base Due to lone pair on phosphorus atom,
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26 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

III.PHOSPHORUS HALIDES
Phosphorus forms two types of halides, PX 3 and PX 5 (X = F, Cl, Br).
Phosphorus Trichloride
11.Preparation
1.It is obtained by passing dry chlorine over heated white phosphorus and also obtained by the
action of thionyl chloride with white phosphorus.
P 4 + 6Cl 2 → 4PCl 3
P 4 + 8 SOCl 2 → 4PCl 3 + 4SO 2 + 2S 2 Cl 2
12.Structure
It has a pyramidal shape in which phosphorus is sp3 hybridised.
13.Properties
Solution PCl 3 hydrolyses in the presence of moisture giving fumes of HCl.
PCl 3 + 3H 2 O → H 3 PO 3 + 3HCl
Phosphorus Pentachloride
14.Preparation
1.Phosphorus penta chloride is prepared by the reaction of white phosphorus with
excess of dry chlorine.
P 4 + Cl 2 → PCl 5
15.Structure
In gaseous and liquid phases, it has a trigonal bipyramidal
structure as shown. The three Equatorial P–Cl bonds are equivalent,
while the two axial bonds are longer than equatorial bonds. This is
due to the fact that the axial bond pairs suffer more repulsion as
compared to equatorial bond pairs
16.Properties
When heated, it sublimes but decomposes on stronger heating.
PCl 5 → PCl 3 + Cl 2

17.Oxo acids of phosphurus

➢ H3PO2 hypophosphurus acid

➢ H3PO3 orthophosphurus acid
➢ H3PO4 orthophosphuric acid
➢ H4P2O7 pyrophosphoric acid

18.Sulphur — Allotropic Forms

➢ Rhombic sulphur (α-sulphur)
➢ Monoclinic sulphur (β-sulphur
Both rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have S8 molecules.
These S8 molecules are packed to give different crystal structures.
The S8 ring in both the forms is puckered and has a crown shape.
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27 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

19.Oxoacids of Sulphur
Sulphur forms a number of oxoacids such as
➢ H2SO3 , Sulphurous acid
➢ H2SO4 , Sulphuric acid
➢ H2S2O7 , pyro sulphuric acid( oleum)
➢ H2S2O8 , peroxodisulphuric acid

IV.SULPHURIC ACID
Sulphuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals
20.Preparation by Contact Process
Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact Process which involves three steps:
➢ Burning of sulphur or sulphide ores in air to generate SO2.
➢ Conversion of SO2 to SO3 by the reaction with oxygen .
2SO2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2SO3 ( g ) ; ∆rH 0 = − 196.6 kJ/mol
The reaction is exothermic, reversible and the forward reaction leads to a decrease in
volume. Therefore, low temperature and high pressure are the favourable conditions for
maximum yield. There for according to
Le-chatlier’s principle
low temperature 720 k
high pressure of 2 bar
Catalyst vanadium pent oxide V2O5 is used here
➢ Absorption of SO3 in H2SO4 to give Oleum (H2S2O7 ).
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (Oleum)
➢ Dilution of oleum with water gives H2SO4 of the desired concentration
H2S2O7 +H2O → H2SO4 (Oleum)
21.Properties
1. It dissolves in water with the evolution of a large quantity of heat. Hence, care must be
taken while preparing sulphuric acid solution from concentrated sulphuric acid. The
concentrated acid must be added slowly into water with constant Stirring.

2.Concentrated sulphuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent. Many wet gases can be dried by
passing them through sulphuric acid,provided the gases do not react with the acid.

3. Sulphuric acid removes water from organic compounds; it is evident by its charring action
on carbohydrates.
C 12 H 22 O 11 +H 2 SO 4 → 12C + 11H 2O
4..Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a moderately strong oxidising agent.
Cu + 2 H 2 SO 4 (conc.) → CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O
S + 2H 2 SO 4 (conc.) → 3SO2 + 2H 2 O
C + 2H 2 SO 4 (conc.) → CO2 + 2 SO 2 + 2 H 2 O
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28 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

INTER HALOGEN COMPOUNDS

When two different halogens react with each other, interhalogencompounds are formed.
They can be assigned general compositions as
XX’ , XX’3 , XX’5 and XX’7 where X is halogen of larger size and X’ of smaller size
and X’ is more electronegative than X .
As the ratio between radii of X and X’ increases, the number of atoms per molecule also
increases. Thus, iodine (VII) fluoride should have maximum number of atoms as the ratio of
radii between I and F should be maximum. That is why its formula is IF 7 (having maximum
number of atoms).
22.Preparation
The inter halogen compounds can be prepared by the direct Combination or by the
action of halogen on lower inter halogen compounds. The product formed depends upon some
specific conditions, For example,
Examples
ClF , ClF3 , BrF5 , IF7

23.Structure
Their molecular structures are very interesting which can be explained on the
basis of VSEPR theory The XX3 compounds have the bent ‘T’shape, XX 5 compounds square
pyramidal and IF7 has pentagonal bipyramidal structures

24.properties
1.. In general, inter halogen compounds are more reactive than halogens (except fluorine).
This is because X–X′ bond in Inter halogens is weaker than X–X bond in halogens
except F–F bond.

6. XENON-FLUORINE COMPOUNDS
Xenon forms three binary fluorides, XeF 2 , XeF4 and XeF6 by the direct reaction of elements
under appropriate experimental conditions.
XeF2 , XeF4 , XeF6

Xe (g) + 2F 2 (g) → XeF 4 (s) Xe (g) + F 2 (g) →XeF 2 (s)

(1:5 ratio) (xenon in excess)
XeF4 (g) + 3O2F2 (g2) → XeF6 (s) +O2 Xe (g) + 3F 2 (g) → XeF 6 (s)
(1:20 ratio)
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29 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

25.Structure
(a) Xenon fluorides The structures of the three xenon fluorides can be deduced from VSEPR
and these are shown in Figure . XeF 2 and XeF 4 have linear and square planar structures
respectively. XeF 6 has seven electron pairs (6 bonding pairs and one lone pair) and would,
thus, have a distorted octahedral structure as found experimentally in the gas phase.

(b) Xenon-oxygen fluorides

Preparation of XeOF4and XeO2F 2
Partial hydrolysis Of XeF 6
XeF6 + H2 O → XeOF4 + 2 HF
XeF6 + 2 H2O → XeO2F2 + 4HF
(c) Xenon-oxides
Preparation of XeO3
Hydrolysis of XeF 4 and XeF 6
XeF6 + 3 H2O → XeO3 + 6 HF
XeO 3 is a colourless explosive solid and has a pyramidal molecular structure . XeOF4 is a
colourless volatile liquid and has a square pyramidal molecular structure

8. d and f BLOCK ELEMENTS

1.Magnetic properties
The magnetic moment of transition element is only determined by spin angular
momentum, depending upon the number of unpaired electrons and is calculated by using the
‘spin-only’ formula, i.e.,
where n is the number of unpaired electrons ,
μ is the magnetic moment and unit is Bohr magneton (BM).

For example ,Ti 3+ [Ar]B 4s0 3d1 One unpaired

electron in d orbital So
Root 1(1+2) = root 3 = 1.73 BM
Calculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion
in aqueous solution if its atomic number is 25.
For atomic number 25, electronic configuration
is [Ar] 4s2 3d5 the divalent ion in aqueous solution
will have configuration [Ar]4s0 3d5
d5 configuration (five unpaired electrons).
The magnetic moment, μ is
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30 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

2, Formation of Coloured Ions

Colour of transition metal is due to d-d transition
Ion with d0 and d10 are colourless or white
because no unpaired electrons are available
for excitation
all other ions with d electrons 1 to 9 are having
characteristic colour due to d-d transition

3.Complex Formation
A few examples K4[Fe(CN)6 ] , K3[Fe(CN)6 ] , [Cu(NH3)4 ]SO4 and Fe(CO)5
Transition metals forms number of complex compounds. This is due to the comparatively
a)smaller sizes of the metal ions,
b)their high ionic charges and the
c)availability of d orbitals for bond formation.
4.Catalytic properties
Catalytic property of transition metals is due to their ability to adopt multiple
oxidation states and to form complexes.
Examples for Catalysis:- Vanadium(V) oxide in Contact Process,
Finely divided iron in Haber’s Process, and
Nickel in Catalytic Hydrogenation

5.Oxidation state ... shows variable valency

Transition elements show variable oxidation states because energies of ns sub level and
(n-1)d sub level are almost equal.Highest oxidation state of transition metal is exhibited in its
oxide or fluoride. Because of small size and high electronegativity, oxygen or fluorine can
oxidise the metal to its highest oxidation state.

6.Hardness and Melting points

Except Zn, Cd and Hg transition metals are hard and they have high melting point. The
high melting points of these metals are attributed to involvement of greater number of
unpaired electrons. Greater the number of unpaired electrons stronger will be metallic
bonding and higher will be melting points.
Among all transition elements W has highest melting point Zn, Cd and Hg do not
contain unpaired electrons. Therefore, they are soft metals.

7.Alloy formation
Transition elements form alloys due to similar size e.g. Manganese steel

8. Formation of interstitial compounds

Transition metals forms interstitial compounds because small atoms like H, C or N are
trapped inside the
crystal lattices of transition metals . As a result they have high melting points than those of
pure metals. They are very hard.
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31 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Some important compounds of Transition elements

1.POTASSIUM DICHROMATE K2Cr2O7
9.Preparation
Dichromates are generally prepared from chromate, which in turn are obtained by the
fusion of chromite ore ( FeCr2O 4 ) with sodium or potassium carbonate in free access of air.
The reaction with sodium carbonate occurs as follows:
4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7O2 → 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2
The yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified with sulphuric acid to give a
solution from which orange sodium dichromate, Na 2Cr2O7.2H2O can be crystallised after
cooling.
2Na2CrO4 + 2 H2SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4+ H2O
The solution of sodium dichromate Is treated with potassium chloride.
Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
Orange crystals of potassium dichromate crystallise out.
10.Properties of Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
i) The chromates and dichromates are interconvertible
in aqueous solution depending upon pH of the solution.
2 CrO42- (yellow) + 2H + → Cr 2O72- (orange) + H2O
Cr 2O7 2- (orange) + 2 OH- → 2 CrO4 2- (yellow) + H2O
ii) Oxidising action
It acts as strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3[O]
Therefore acidified K2Cr2O7 oxidises
i)Potassium Iodide to Iodine
K2CrO7 + H2SO4 + KI → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4 )3 + H2O + I2
ii)Hydrogen Sulphide to sulphur
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + H2S → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4) 3 + H2 O + S
11. Structures of chromate ion, and dichromate ion,
CrO4 2- Cr2O7 2-

2. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE KMnO4

12.Preparation
Generally prepared From Pyrolusite ore ( MnO2)
Step 1 Pyrolusite is fused with KOH in presence of air and an oxidizing Agent
MnO2 + KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 +H2O
Step 2 The dark green coloured Potassium manganate (K2MnO4 ) Disproportionate in
acidic medium giving permanganate
K2MnO 4 + H + → KMnO4 + MnO2 +H 2O
The purple solution obtained on evaporation gives crystal of potassium permanganate
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32 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Commercial method of preparation of Potassium permanganate

Step 1 Pyrolusite is fused with KOH in presence of air and an oxidizing Agent
MnO2 + KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 +H2O
Step 2 Electrolytic oxidation of Potassium manganate gives potassium permanganate
At anode, MnO 4 2- → MnO4- + e-
At Cathode, 2H+ + e- → H2
Formed MnO 4 - reacts with K+ to form KMnO4
The purple solution obtained on evaporation gives crystal of potassium permanganate
13.Properties of Potassium Permanganate
Oxidising action
KMnO 4 acts as strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium
KMnO 4 + H 2 SO 4 → K2 SO 4 + MnSO4 + H 2 0 + 5[O]
Therefore acidified KMnO 4 oxidises Many compounds
Acidified KMnO4 oxidises
i)Ferrous ion to ferric ion
KMnO 4 + H2SO4 + Fe 2+ → K 2SO 4 + MnSO4 + H2O + Fe 3+
ii)Hydrogen sulphide in to sulphur
KMnO + H SO + H S → K SO + MnSO + H O
+S
4 2 4 2 2 4 4 2

14.Structure of Manganate and permanganate ion

15. Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids are 14 elements coming after Lanthanum starting from Lutetium and ends
in Lawrencium .In lanthanide filling of electron takes place in 4f sub shell before 5d orbitals.
It belongs to sixth period.
General electronic configuration is ns2 (n-1)d 0,1 ( n-2) f 1 -14 .
The common oxidation state of lanthanoid is +3. Example La3+,Ce3+......
16. Lanthanoid contraction --Atomic and ionic Radii
Steady and slow decreasing of atomic and ionic radii of lanthanoids from La 3+ to
Lu3+ is called as Lanthanoid contraction.
Reason for lanthanoid contraction
This is Because of ineffective shielding effect of 4f orbital
due to its diffused shape, As a result , the shielding effect caused
by one 4f electron by another is less than one d electrons by
another with increasing nuclear charge along the series. As a
result whole nuclear power reaches to outermost shell and size
slowly decreases
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33 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Consequence of lanthanoid contraction

1. The radii of some elements of second transition series is similar to third transition series
Eg:- Zr and Hf , Nb and Ta
2. Lanthanoids occur together in nature and separation become difficult
17. Use of lanthanoids
1. Misch metal is alloy of lanthanoids (about 95% lanthanoids, about 5% iron and traces of
S,C, Ca and Al). Misch Metal is used in Mg based alloy to produce bullets, shell etc.
2. Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in petroleum cracking.

9. CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Ligands The ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the coordination entity
are called ligands.
Unidentate:-When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor atom, the ligand is
said to be unidentate. Example Cl– , H2O , NH3 etc..,
Didentate :- When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms as in the ligand is said to be
didentate
Example H2NCH2CH2NH2 (ethane-1,2-diamine) or C2O4 2– (oxalate),
Polydentate:-when several donor atoms are present in a single ligand the ligand is said to be
polydentate.
Example N(CH2CH2NH2)3,
Note:- Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate ligand. It can
bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion.

Nomenclature of Mono nuclear co-ordination compounds (IUPAC)

Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds:
(a) tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III)chloride [Co(NH3 ) 4(H2O)Cl]Cl2
(b) potassiumtetrahydroxidozincate(II) K2 [Zn(OH)4 ]
(c) potassiumtrioxalatoaluminate(III) K3 [Al(C2O4 ) 3 ]
(d) dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)ion [CoCl2 (en)2 ] +
(e) tetracarbonylnickel(0) [Ni(CO)4 ]

Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:

(a) [Co( NH3)5Cl]Cl2 pentaamminechloridoocobalt(III)chloride
(b) [Cr( H2O)6]Cl3 hexaaquachromium(III)chloride
(c) K3[Fe(CN)6] potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(III)
(d) [NiCO4] tetracarbonylnickel(0)
3+
(e) [Cr(en)3] tris(ethylene diamine)chromium(III) ion
(f) [Pt(NH3 )2Cl(NO2 )] diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)
(g) K3 [Cr(C2O4 )3 ] potassiumtrioxalatochromate(III)
(h) [CoCl2 (en)2 ]Cl dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)chloride
(i) [Co(NH3 )5 (CO3 )]Cl pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III)chloride
(j) Hg[Co(SCN)4 ] mercurytetrathiocyanato-S-cobaltate(III)
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34 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

2.Isomerism in coordination compounds:- Compounds which have same molecular

formula,but different structures and therefore different physical and chemical properties are
called isomers.
Depending upon the position and arrangement of ligands around the central metal
atom several types of isomerism are possible.Isomerism are broadly classified into two.
A. Structural isomerism
These are isomers which have different structural arrangement around the central metal
atom. The various structural isomers are.
a. Ionisation isomerism These type of isomerism arises because of the capability of
coordination compounds to produce different ions in solution.
Eg:- [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 and [ Co(NH3)5SO4]Br
b. Hydrate isomerism or solvate isomerism This type of isomerism arises because of
the capability of water molecule to appear in a variety of ways inside and outside the
coordination sphere.
Eg:- Three hydrate isomerism are possible for the molecular formulae CrCl 3 6H2O
Eg:- [ Cr(H2O) 6]Cl3 [ Cr(H2O)5Cl] Cl2.H2O [ Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl 2H2O
c. Linkage isomerism : It is shown by the complex containing ambidentate ligand with
more than one donor atom. Eg:- when NO2 - is bonded to the metal through nitrogen the
ligand is named as nitrito-N and if it is bonded to the metal through oxygen ( ONO - ) the
ligand is named as nitrito-O.
Eg:- [Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5 ONO]Cl2 -
d. Coordination isomerism This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands
between cationic and anionic entities in the complex..
Eg:- [ Cu(NH3)4] [ PtCl4] and [ Pt(NH3)4] [ CuCl4]
[ Co(NH3)6] [ Cr(CN)6] and [ Cr(NH3)6] [ Co(CN)6]
B. Stereo isomerism Isomers are those which contain same atom or group but they differ
in the spatial arrangement around the central atom. They are of two types.
a.Geometrical isomerism Also known as cis-trans isomerism. These types of isomerism arises
due to different spatial arrangements of ligands..

C.N 4 Square planar complex of formula [MX2L2 ] In a square planar complex of formula
[MX2L2 ] (X and L are unidentate),Here the two identical ligands either occupy adjacent
positions to each other(cis isomer) or opposite to each other (trans-isomer).

C.N 6 Octahedral complexes of formula [MX 2L4 ] In octahedral complexes of formula

[MX2L4 ] two ligands X may be oriented cis or trans to each other
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35 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Complexes of formula [MX2 (L– L)2 ]

This type of isomerism also arises when didentate
ligands L – L [e.g., NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 (en)] are present in
complexes of formula [MX2 (L– L)2 ]

Facial and Meridional isomerism [MA3B3 ]

Ex [Co(NH3 )3 (NO2 )3 ].
If three donor atoms of the same ligands occupy
adjacent positions at the corners of an octahedral
face, we have the facial (fac) isomer. And if the
positions are around the meridian of the octahedron,
we get the meridional (mer) isomer

b. Optical Isomerism
Optical isomers which are mirror images to each other and cannot be superimposed on
one another are called as enantiomers. Such molecules or ions that cannot be superimposed
are called chiral. The enantiomer are called dextro (d) and laevo (l) depending upon the
direction they rotate the plane of polarised light in a polarimeter (d rotates plane polarised
light to the right direction , where as l to the left).
Optical isomerism is common in octahedral complexes involving didentate ligands . In a
coordination entity of the type [PtCl2 (en)2 ] 2+, only the cis-isomer shows optical activity

Another Example
[Co(en)3 ] 2+

Bonding in metal carbonyls(synergic bonding)

Metal carbonyls are formed between metal and carbon monoxide ligands It posses both
sigma and pi bond.

Metal carbon sigma bond is formed by the

donation of lone pair of electrons from
carbonyl carbon in to vacant orbital of metal.

The metal carbon pi bond is formed by

the donation of a pair of electrons from
the filled d orbital of metal in to vacant
anti bonding orbital of carbon monoxide
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36 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

10. HALO ALKANES AND HALO ARENES

Halo alkanes or Alkyl halides are having general formulae R-X Example CH3 Cl , C2 H5 Cl
Halo arenes or aryl halides having general formulae Ar X Example C6 H5 Cl
HALO ALKANES
1. Methods of Preparation of Halo alkanes
(i)From Alkenes by Addition of hydrogen halides: by reaction with HCl.HBr,HI Propene
yields two products, however only one predominates as per Markovnikov’s rule.
CH2 = CH2 HX CH3-CH2Cl
(ii) From Alcohols ( R-OH )
Here the hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen .Many reactions are there
1. Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed along with gases
SO2 and HCl which are in gaseous state and are escapable,
R-OH + SOCl2 R-Cl + SO2 + HCl
Other Examples R-OH(1 or 2 alcohol) + HCl an. ZnCl2
0 0
R-Cl+ H2O
0
R-OH (3 alcohol ) + HCl R-Cl+ H2O

3R-OH + PCl3 3 R-Cl + H3PO3

R-OH + PCl5 R-Cl + POCl3 + HCl

(iii) By Halogen Exchange Reactions

R-X + NaI R-I + NaX (where X = Cl, Br) ( Finkelstein reaction )
R-X + AgF R-F + AgX (where X = Cl or Br) ( Swarts reaction )
2. Reactions of Halo alkanes
(1) Nucleophilic substitution reactions
The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces already existing nucleophile in a molecule
is called nucleophilic substitution reaction.

This reaction has been found to proceed by two different mechanism

(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN 2 )
➢ SN2 reaction occurs in one step.
➢ This mechanism proceeds through inversion of configuration, in the same way as an
umbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind.
➢ The reaction between methyl chloride CH3Cl and hydroxide ion OH- to yield methanol
CH3OH and chloride ion Cl- is example
CH3 Cl + OH - CH 3 OH + Cl -
➢ Rate depends upon the concentration of both the reactants. So it follows second order
kinetics.
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37 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

➢ The order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards SN2 reaction

Primary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide
➢ Tertiary alkyl halide due to three bulky group shows greater sterric hindrance
(b). Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1):
➢ SN1 reaction occurs in two steps.
➢ In the first step, the C—X bond undergoes slow cleavage to produce a carbo cation and
a halide ion. In the second step, the carbo cation is attacked by the nucleophile to form
the product.
➢ Here first step is the slowest and reversible. So it is the rate determining step. Since this
step contains only one reactant, it follows first order kinetics.
➢ The reaction between tert- butyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol is
example

➢ Rate of reaction
depends upon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl bromide ( 2-
bromo-2-methyl propane ) so it follows first order kinetics

step 1

step 2

➢ The order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards SN1 reaction

Tertiary halide > Secondary halide > Primary halide
For a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R–I> R–Br>R–Cl>>R–F.
3. Enantiomers:-
➢ The stereo isomers related to each other as an object and non- super imposable mirror
images are called enantiomers.
➢ Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely, melting point, boiling point,
refractive index, etc.
➢ They only differ with respect to the rotation of plane polarised light. If one of the
enantiomer is dextro rotatory,
the other will be laevo rotatory.

Example butan -2-ol

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38 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

4. Racemic mixture:-
➢ A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions will have zero optical
rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer will be cancelled by the rotation due to the
other isomer( internal compensation). Such a mixture is known as racemic mixture or
racemic modification.
➢ A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl or (±) before the name, for example
(±) butan-2-ol.
➢ The process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as
racemisation.
Example:- (+)Tert.butyl chloride undergo SN1 reaction mechanism to give a dl mixture
or Racemic mixture. Therefore resultant product will be optically inactive because of
internal compensation.
5. Inversion:-
➢ If nucleophilic substitution taking place by SN 2 mechanism inversion in configuration
taking place. Here nucleophile attack from the opposite side of leaving group resulting
in inversion in configuration as shown in the example (+) Methyl chloride undergo SN2
mechanism to give (-)Methyl alcohol.

(+) Methyl chloride (-)Methyl alcohol.

HALO ARENES
6.. Methods of Preparation of Halo arenes
1) From amines by Sandmeyer’s reaction:
When an aromatic primary amine (like aniline) is treated with HCl and sodium nitrite
(NaNO2) at cold condition an aromatic diazonium salt is formed. This reaction is called
Diazotisation.
When this diazonium salt is treated
with HX in presence of cuprous halide
(Cu2X2), we get a halo benzene.
This reaction is called
Sandmeyer’s reaction.

For the preparation of iodo benzene, the diazonium salt is treated with
potassium iodide (KI)
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39 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

7. Important Electrophilic substitution reactions of Halo arenes are

(i) Halogenation:-Halo
:- alkanes react with chlorine
in presence of anhydrous ferric chloride to form
o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene.

(ii) Nitration:-On nitration using Conc. HNO3 and

Conc. H2SO4 (nitrating mixture), chlorobenzene
gives o-nitro chloro benzene and p-nitro
chlorobenzene in which later is major product

(iii) Sulphonation:-On
:- sulphonation using Conc.
H2SO4, chloro benzene gives ortho chloro
benzene sulphonic acid and para chloro benene
sulphonic acid ( major product).

(iv) Friedel-Crafts alkylation Chloro benzene

when treated with methyl chloride (CH3-Cl) in
presence of anhydrous AlCl3, we get p-chloro
toluene as the major product and o-chloro toluene
as minor product

( v) Friedel-Crafts acylation :-Chloro

:- benzene
when treated with acetyl chloride (CH3-CO-Cl)
in presence of anhydrous AlCl3, we get p-chloro
acetophenone as the major product an o-chloro
acetopheneone as minor product

11. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, ETHERS

Alcohol R-OH Phenol Ar OH Ether R-O-R
ALCOHOLS R-OH
1. Nomenclature
Methyl alcohol ( Methanol ) ... CH3OH Ethyl alcohol ( Ethanol ) ....C2H5OH
2.. Preparation of Alcohols
From carbonyl compounds ( aldehydes,ketones and acids)
(i) By reduction :- by the addition of hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as platinum,
palladium or nickel.
R-CHO +H2 R-CH 2OH
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40 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

(ii) By using sodium borohydride (NaBH 4 ) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH 4 ). Aldehydes
yield primary alcohols whereas ketones give secondary alcohols.
R-CHO LiAlH 4/NaBH4 R-CH 2 OH ( 10 alcohol)
R CO R LiAlH 4/NaBH4 R2 CH-OH ( 20 alcohol)

(iii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary
alcohols in excellent yields by lithium aluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent.
LiAlH 4
R-COOH R-CH 2 OH
Commercially, acids are reduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters, followed by their
reduction using hydrogen in the presence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation).

(iv) By using Grignard reagents

Alcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents with aldehydes and
ketones.
➢ Methanal ( formaldehyde) gives primary alcohol.
➢ Other aldehydes ( Eg :Ethanal (acetaldehyde) gives secondary alcohol and
➢ ketones gives tertiary alcohol
H-CHO + RMgX R-CH 2 - OMgX H 2 O R-CH 2 -OH + MgX(OH)
Formaldehyde adduct 1 0 alcohol
R-CHO + RMgX R 2 CHOMgX H2O R 2 CHOH + MgX(OH)
Aldehyde adduct 2 0 alcohol
R 2 CO + RmgX R 3 COMgX H2O R 3 C-OH + MgX(OH)
Ketone adduct 3 0 alcohol

3. Chemical Reactions of alcohols

(i).Lucas Test:- This test is used to distinguish primary secondary and tertiary alcohols. Here
alcohols react with hydrogen halides to form alkyl halides .
Lucas reagent is a mixture of conc. HCl and anhydrous ZnCl 2 .
➢ Tertiary alcohols react with Lucas reagent and form turbidity immediately;
➢ secondary alcohols form turbidity within 5 minutes while
➢ primary alcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature. But they give turbidity
on heating.
ROH + HX → R–X + H 2 O
(ii). Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule of water) to form
alkenes on treating with a protic acid or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc chloride or alumina .
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41 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

4. Commercial Preparation of ethanol

Ethanol (C2H5OH)
It is obtained commercially by fermentation of
sugars. yeast is added which provide the enzyme
invertase and zymase .Slow Fermentation takes
place in anaerobic conditions
5. Denaturation of alcohol. The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking by mixing in it
some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine (a foul smelling liquid).
PHENOLS C6H5-OH
6. Nomenclature
Hydroxy derivative of benzene
is phenol.

7. Preparation of Phenols
i) From halo arenes
Chlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric pressure,then sodium
phenoxide is formed which on acidification we get Phenol

ii) From diazonium salts

A diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine with nitrous acid
(NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K. Diazonium salts are hydrolysed to phenols by warming with
water or by treating with dilute
acids

8. Reactions of phenols
a) Electrophilic aromatic substitution
Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place in phenol are
i) Nitration with dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K), phenol yields a mixture of ortho
and para nitrophenols.The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam distillation.
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42 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding while p-

nitrophenol is less volatile due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the
association of molecules.
ii) With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to
2,4,6-trinitro phenol. ( picric acid).

b) Kolbe’s reaction
phenol with sodium hydroxide gives sodium
phenoxide which undergoes electrophilic substitution
with carbon dioxide, Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is
formed as the main reaction product.

c) Reimer-Tiemann reaction
phenol on treatment with chloroform
in the presence of sodium hydroxide, a –CHO
group is introduced at ortho position This
intermediate on hydroysis produces salicylaldehyde.

ETHERS R-O-R
9.Nomenclature IUPAC
CH 3 O C 2H 5 Ethylmethyl ether Methoxyethane
CH 3 O CH 3 Dimethyl ether Methoxymethane
C 2 H 5 O C 2H 5 Diethyl ether Ethoxyethane
C 6 H 5 O CH 2CH 3 Ethyl phenyl ether Ethoxybenzene
10. Preparation of Ethers
Williamson synthesis
It is an important laboratory method for the preparation of symmetrical and
unsymmetrical ethers. In this method, an alkyl halide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide.

CH3X + CH3ONa CH3-O-CH3 + NaX

CH3-CH2-Br + CH3-ONa CH3-CH2-O-CH3 + NaBr
11. Reactions of Ethers
Electrophilic substitution
(i) Halogenation: anisole undergoes bromination
with bromine in ethanoic acid
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43 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

12. ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
1.Nomenclature
HCHO Formaldehyde Methanal
CH 3 CHO Acetaldehyde Ethanal
CH 3 CO CH3 Acetone Propanone
2.Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones
➢ By oxidation of alcohols: with mild oxidising agents like CrO3
[O]
Primary alcohols give aldehydes R-CH2OH R-CHO
[O]
secondary alcohols give ketones. R2CHOH R2CO
➢ By dehydrogenation of alcohols: with Cu or Silver catalyst at 573K,
Cu/573 K
Primary alcohols give aldehydes R-CH2OH R-CHO
Cu/573 K
secondary alcohols give ketones. R2CHOH R2CO
➢ By ozonolysis of alkenes: Alkenes add ozone followed by hydrolysis with zinc dust and
water, we get aldehydes or ketones.

3. Preparation of Aldehydes
➢ Rosenmund reduction. Acid chlorides
react with hydrogen in presence of Pd
supported on BaSO4, we get aldehydes.

➢ Stephen reaction.:-Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride

in the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde.

➢ Etard reaction. Chromyl chloride oxidises methyl group to a chromium complex, which
on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde

➢ By Gatterman – Koch reaction:-When benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon

monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or
cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde
➢ or substituted benzaldehyde.
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44 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

4. Preparation of Ketones
➢ From acyl chlorides:-Treatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium gives ketones.

➢ From nitriles :-Treating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields a
ketone.

➢ Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction.:- When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with

acid chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride,gives corresponding
ketone.

5. Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

a).Reduction
(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and secondary
alcohols respectively by sodium borohydride (NaBH 4 ) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4 )
as well as by catalytic hydrogenation R-CHO [H] R-CH2OH
[H]
R2CO R2CHOH
b)Reduction to hydrocarbons:
i) Clemmensen reduction The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH 2
group on treatment with zinc- amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid

ii).Wolff-Kishner reduction
with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling
solvent such as ethylene glycol .

c)Oxidation
Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common oxidising
agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, etc. Even mild
oxidising agents, mainly Tollens’ reagent and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise aldehydes.
R-CHO [O] R-COOH CH3-CHO [O] CH3-COOH
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45 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i.e., strong oxidising agents
and at elevated temperatures.

d) Aldol condensation Reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α-hydrogen
atom when treated with dilute alkali, we get β-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or β-hydroxy
ketones (ketol) respectively. The aldol or ketol thus produced on heaing undergo dehydration
to give α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. This reaction is called Aldol condensation.
2CH3-CHO dil. NaOH CH3-CH(OH)-CH2-CHO CH3-CH=CH-CHO
Ethanal 3-Hydroxybutanal (aldol) But-2-enal (Crotanaldehyde)

e)Cannizzaro Reaction: Aldehydes having no α-hydrogen atom (e.g. HCHO, C 6H5-CHO,

CCl3-CHO etc), when treated with Conc. alkali (NaOH or KOH) undergo self oxidation and
reduction (disproportionation) to form one molecule of the alcohol and one molecule of
carboxylic acid salt. This reaction is called Cannizzaro reaction.
Conc. KOH
2 HCHO CH3-OH + H-COOK
Formaldehyde methanol potassium formate

e)Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones undergo

electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl group acts as a deactivating and
meta-directing group.
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46 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

6. Tests to distinguish Aldehydes and Ketones

➢ Tollens’ test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared ammoniacal silver nitrate
solution (Tollens’ reagent), a bright silver mirror is produced due to the formation of
silver metal. The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. The
reaction occurs in alkaline medium.

➢ Fehling’s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions, Fehling solution A and
Fehling solution B. Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B
is alkaline sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt). These two solutions are mixed in
equal amounts before test. On heating an aldehyde with Fehling’s reagent, a reddish
brown precipitate is obtained. Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate
anion. Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1.Nomenclature
HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH 3 COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
C6H5 COOH Benzoic acid Benzenecarboxylic acid(Benzoic acid)
2. Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
From primary alcohols and aldehydes
Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common oxidising agents
such as potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ) in neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by
potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) and chromium trioxide (CrO 3 ) in acidic media (Jones
reagent).
alkaline KMnO4/H3O +
R-CH2OH R-COOH
CrO3/H2SO4
CH3-CH2-OH CH3-COOH
Aldehydes on oxidation with mild oxidising agents like CrO3 or Tollen’s reagent to give
carboxylic acids.
[O]
R-CHO R-COOH
[O]
CH3-CHO CH3-COOH
3. Chemical Reactions
Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:
Electron withdrawing groups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the
conjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by inductive and/or resonance
effects. Conversely, electron donating groups decrease the acidity by destabilising the
conjugate base.
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47 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

4. EsterificationCarboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence of a

mineral acid such as concentrated H 2 SO 4 or HCl gas as a catalyst.

4. Reactions with PCl 5 , PCl 3 and SOCl 2

R-COOH + PCl3 R-COCl + H3PO3
R-COOH + PCl5 R-COCl + POCl3+ HCl
R-COOH + SOCl2 R-COCl + SO2 + HCl
5. Reduction:
Carboxylic acids when reduced with lithium aluminium hydride or with diborane,
primary alcohols are formed.
i) LiAlH4/ether or B2H6 ii) H3O +
R-COOH R-CH2OH
i) LiAlH4/ether or B2H6 ii) H3O +
CH3-COOH CH3-CH2OH
6.Decarboxylation:
i) When sodium salts of carboxylic acid are heated with sodalime (a mixture of NaOH
and CaO), they undergo decarboxylation (elimination of CO 2) to form alkanes.
CaO/∆
R-COONa + NaOH R-H + Na2CO3
CaO/∆
CH3-COONa + NaOH CH4 + Na2CO3
ii) Kolbe’s electrolysis: When an aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt of
carboxylic acid is electrolysed, we get alkanes having twice the number of carbon atoms that
present in the alkyl group of the acid. This reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis.
2 R-COOK + 2H2O electrolysis R-R + 2KOH + H2 + 2CO2
electrolysis
2 CH3-COOH + 2 H2O CH3-CH3 + 2KOH + H2 + 2CO2
7.HVZ Reaction- Halogenation
Carboxylic acids having an α-hydrogen atom, when treated with halogen (chlorine or
bromine) in the presence of red phosphorus, we get α-halocarboxylic acids. This reaction is
synthetically important since the halogen atom can be replaced by other groups.

8.Electrophilic substitution reactions: The –COOH group is a deactivating group and meta-
directing. So on electrophilic substitution reactions, we get meta derivatives.
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48 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

13. AMINES
1. Nomenclature
CH 3- –CH 2 –NH 2 Ethylamine Ethanamine
CH 3 –CH 2 –CH 2 –NH 2 n-Propylamine Propan-1-amine
2. Preparation of Amines
➢ Reduction of nitriles
Nitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH 4 ) or catalytic
hydrogenation produce primary amines.

➢ Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction

Hoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by treating an amide
with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution of sodium hydroxide. The amine so formed
contains one carbon less than that present in the amide.

3.Chemical Reactions
➢ Carbylamine reaction
Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform and ethanolic potassium
hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul smelling substances. Secondary
and tertiary amines do not show this reaction. This reaction is known as carbylamine reaction
or isocyanide test and is used
as a test for primary amines.
➢ Hinsberg Test ( Reaction with Benzene sulphonyl chloride)
Hinsberg’s reagent reagent is Benzenes ulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl),
(a) primary amine with Hinsberg’s reagent yields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide.
(b) Secondary amine with Hinsberg’s reagent yields N,N-diethyl- benzenesulphonamide
(c) Tertiary amines do not react with with Hinsberg’s reagent
This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride in a different manner
is used for the distinction of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation
of a mixture of amines.
4. Electrophilic substitution
in aniline, the ortho- and para-positions to the –NH 2 group become centres of high
electron density. Thus –NH 2 group is ortho and para directing and a powerful activating
group.

(a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine

water at room temperature to give a white precipitate
of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline.
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49 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

(b) Nitration: Besides the ortho and para

derivatives, significant amount of meta
derivative is also formed.

DIAZONIUM SALTS
5. Method of Preparation of Diazoniun Salts
➢ Diazotisation.
The conversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts ( ArN 2 +X- ) is known as
diazotisation. Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with nitrous
acid at 273-278K.

6. Chemical reactions of diazonium Salts

➢ Sandmeyer reaction.
When Diazonium chloride is treated with cuprous chloride in HCl we get Chloro
benzene, with cuprous bromide in HBr we get Bromo benzene and with cuprous cyanidee in
HCN we get Cyano benzene

➢ Gatterman reaction.
Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the benzene ring by treating
the diazonium salt solution with corresponding halogen acid in the presence of copper powder.

➢ Coupling reactions
Reactions involving retention of diazo group
Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol to form p-hydroxyazobenzene is
known as coupling reaction. The azo products obtained have aromatic rings joined through
the –N=N– bond. These compounds are often coloured and are used as dyes. Similarly the
reaction of diazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene.
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50 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

14. BIO MOLECULES

The molecules present in living system like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
vitamins etc. which are essential for the growth and maintenance of our body are called
Biomolecules.
1.Carbohydrates ( Saccharides )
They can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which
produce such units on hydrolysis.
Sugars:- Carbohydrates which are crystalline, water soluble and sweet in taste are
called as sugars. Eg: Glucose, Fructose
Non-sugars :-Carbohydrates which are not crystalline, water insoluble and have no
sweet taste are called non-sugars. Eg: Cellulose
2.Classification of carbohydrates
Based on their behaviour on hydrolysis:
Based on this, carbohydrates are classified into three types:
➢ Monosaccharides: These are carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed in to simpler
units of polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. E.g. glucose, fructose, ribose, galactose etc.
➢ Oligosaccharides: These are carbohydrates which give two to ten monosaccharide
units on hydrolysis. They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides,
tetrasaccharides etc. E.g. Sucrose, maltose, lactose.
➢ Polysaccharides: These are carbohydrates which give a large number of
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. E.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen etc.
Carbohydrates Monomers
Sucrose Glucose,Fructose
Maltose Two units of Glucose
Lactose Glucose,Galactose
Starch,Cellulose,Glycogen A large number of Glucose
units
Based on their reducing character:
Based on this, carbohydrates are of two types – reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar.
➢ reducing sugars :-Carbohydrates which contain free aldehydic or ketonic groups.
All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Disaccharides like maltose and lactose are
also reducing
➢ non-reducing sugars.:- Those which do not contain free aldehydic or ketonic
group.sucrose is non-reducing
► Why Sucrose is a non reducing Sugar? Due to the absence of free aldehydic group in it.

3.Preparation of glucose
From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or H 2SO4 in alcoholic
solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in equal amounts.

C12H22O11 + H2O→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

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51 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

4.Glycosidic Linkage
During the formation of a disaccharide or polysaccharide, the monosaccharide units
are joined together through C-O-C linkage. Such a linkage is called glycosidic linkage.

5.Invert Sugar
Cane sugar (sucrose) on hydrolysis gives an equimolar mixture of (+)glucose and
(-)fructose.
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(+)Sucrose dextro (+) Glucose (+52.50) laevo (-)Fructose (-92.40)
Sucrose is dextro rotatory (+) but the net optical rotation of the product formed after
hydrolysis is laevo (-). So the process is called inversion of cane sugar and the product
formed is called invert sugar.

6.Starch:
Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is a polymer of glucose and
consists of two components— Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. It
is a linear polymer of glucose units.
Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80- 85% of starch. It is a
branched chain polymer of glucose units.

7.Glycogen:
The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal
starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin, a branched chain polymer of glucose
units.

8.Denaturation of Protein:
When a protein is subjected to physical change (like change in temperature) or
chemical change (like change in pH), it loses the biological activities. This process is called
denaturation of protein. E.g. coagulation egg white on boiling, curding of milk etc.

9.Nucleic acids:
They are long chain polymers of nucleotides and are responsible for transmission of
heredity. These are of two types – deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA).
The nucleotide units combine to form nucleic acid through Phospho diester linkage.
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52 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

10.Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

1. DNA is double stranded 1. RNA is single stranded

2. The pentose sugar is deoxyribose 2. The pentose sugar is ribose
3. The nitrogen bases are Adenine, 3. The nitrogen bases are Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil. Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
4. Undergo replication 4. Not undergoing replication
5. Found in the Nucleus 5. Found in Cytoplasm
6. DNA is the chemical basis of heredity 6. Protein synthesis.
and may be regarded as the reserve of
genetic information.

15. POLYMERS
Polymers are very large molecules having high molar mass and are formed by the
combination of a large number of simple molecules called monomers. The process of
formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerisation.
E.g. polythene, polypropene, polystyrene, polyesters, polyamides, synthetic fibres,
synthetic rubbers etc.
1.Classification of Polymers
a) Addition and condensation polymers
➢ Addition polymers: These are polymers formed by repeated addition
polymerisation reaction. Here the monomer molecules should possess double or triple
bonds. Addition polymers are now known as chain growth polymers.
E.g. polythene, polypropene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride etc.

➢ Condensation polymers: These are polymers formed by condensation

polymerisation reaction. In this polymerisation reaction, the elimination of small molecules
such as water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride, etc take place. Condensation polymers are now
known as step growth polymers.

a) Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics

➢ Thermoplastic polymers:
These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules. They can be
repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling. Some examples are polythene,
polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc.
➢ Thermosetting polymers:
These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules. On heating, they
undergo extensive cross links and become infusible. These cannot be reused. Some
common examples are bakelite, urea-formaldelyde resins, glyptal, terylene etc.
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53 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

2.Addition polymerisation or Chain growth polymerisation

Here the monomers add together on a large scale to form a polymer. The monomers
used are unsaturated compounds like alkenes, alkadienes and their derivatives. This type of
polymerisation leads to an increase in chain length or chain growth. So it is also called
chain growth polymerisation.

Preparation of some important addition polymers

1. Polythene: There are two types of polythene –
Low density polythene and high density polythene

➢ Low density polythene (LDP): It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene

under high pressure of 1000 to 2000 atmospheres at a temperature of 350 to 570 K in the
presence of an organic peroxide (catalyst).
It is chemically inert, tough, flexible and a poor conductor of electricity. Hence, it
is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles,
toys and flexible pipe.

➢ High density polythene (HDP): It is formed when addition polymerisation of

ethene takes place in a hydrocarbon solvent in the presence of a catalyst such as tri ethyl
aluminium and titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler- Natta catalyst) at a temperature of 333 K to
343 K and under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres.
It consists of linear molecules and has a high density due to close packing. It is also
chemically inert and more tough and hard. It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins,
bottles, pipes, etc.

2. Teflon: It is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free radical or

persulphate catalyst at high pressures.

It is chemically inert and resistant to attack by corrosive reagents. It is used in making oil
seals and gaskets and also used for non – stick surface coated utensils (non-sticky pans).

3.Condensation polymerisation or step Growth polymerisation

This type of polymerisation involves a repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-
functional monomers. It results in the loss of some simple molecules like water, alcohol etc.,
and lead to the formation of high molecular mass condensation polymers.
In these reactions, the product of each step is again a bi-functional species. Since, each
step produces a different functionalised species and is independent of each other; this process
is also called as step growth polymerisation. Some examples of condensation polymers are:
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54 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

Preparation of some important condensation polymers

1. Nylon 6,6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of hexamethylene
diamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at high temperature.

It is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile industry.

2. Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature.

It is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.

4.Rubber
1. Natural Rubber
The various polyisoprene chains are held together by weak van der Waals Forces and
has a coiled structure. Thus, it can be stretched like a spring and exhibits elastic properties.

CH2=C (CH3) -CH=CH2 →

2-methyl-1,3-bitadiene

The various polyisoprene chains are held together by weak van der Waals forces and
has a coiled structure. Thus, it can be stretched like a spring and exhibits elastic properties.

2. Vulcanisation of Rubber
To improve the physical properties of natural rubber, it is heated with sulphur and
an appropriate additive at a temperature of 373 to 415 K. This process is called
vulcanisation. On vulcanisation, sulphur forms cross links between the different poly
isoprene units and thus the rubber gets stiffened.

3. Synthetic Rubbers
➢ Neoprene (polychloroprene): It is formed by the polymerisation of chloroprene.
➢ Buna - S: It is formed by the co-polymerisation of 1,3-butadiene with styrene.
➢ Buna – N: It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1, 3 – butadiene and acrylonitrile

5 .Biodegradable Polymers
These are polymers which can be decomposed by micro organisms.
Some important examples are:
1. Poly β-hydroxybutyrate – co- β-hydroxy valerate (PHBV 2. Nylon 2–nylon 6:
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55 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

16. CHEMISTRY IN EVERY DAY LIFE

Drugs are chemicals that interact with macromolecules (biomolecules such as
protein,enzyme,nucleic acid etc)and produce a biological response. When the biological
response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and are used in
diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases. Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is
called chemotherapy.
1.Different Classes of Drugs
a).Antacids
Over production of acid in the stomach causes irritation and pain. In severe cases,
ulcers are developed in the stomach. Until 1970, only treatment for acidity was
administration of antacids, such as sodium hydrogencarbonate or a mixture of aluminium and
magnesium hydroxide.
A chemical, histamine, stimulates the secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the
stomach. The drug cimetidine (Tegamet) and ranitidine (Zantac) was designed to prevent
the interaction of histamine with the stomach wall. This resulted in release of lesser amount
of acid.
b).Neurologically Active Drugs
i) Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of
stress, and mild or even severe mental diseases. These relieve anxiety, stress,
irritability,depression,tension or excitement by inducing a sense of well-being. They form an
essential component of sleeping pills. For example,Iproniazid ,Phenelzine,
Chlordiazepoxide, Meprobamate Equanil Veronal, Amytal, Nembutal, Luminal, Valium,
Serotonin etc
ii) Analgesics - Pain killers
Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing mental confusion or some other
disturbances of nervous system. These are classified as follows:
Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
Narcotic drugs(addictive) analgesics
(i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics:
Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of non-narcotic analgesics.
These drugs have many other effects such as reducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing
platelet coagulation. Because of its anti blood clotting action, aspirin finds use in prevention
of heart attacks.
(ii) Narcotic analgesics:(Addictive)
Morphine and many of its homologues, when administered in medicinal doses, relieve
pain and produce sleep. In poisonous doses, these produce stupor, coma, convulsions and
ultimately death.

These analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of postoperative pain, cardiac pain and pains
of terminal cancer, and in child birth.
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56 SPLASH PLUS TWO CHEMISTRY

c).Antimicrobials
Caused by a variety of microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, fungi and other
pathogens. Antiseptics and disinfectants
i)Antiseptics
Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill or prevent the
growth of micro organisms. Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts,
ulcers and diseased skin surfaces. Examples are furacine, soframicine, Dettol( a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol) Bithionol, tincture of iodine (2-3 per cent solution of iodine in
alcoholwater mixture) , Iodoform ,Boric acid etc
ii) Disinfectants
Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system,
instruments, etc. They are harmful to human tissue.Eg Bleaching powder,Dettol etc
Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying the
concentration. For example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one
percent solution is disinfectant.
iii) Antibiotics
Antibiotics were classified as chemical substances produced by microorganisms (bacteria,
fungi and molds) that inhibit the growth or even destroy microorganisms.
Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes. A few
examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Penicillin Erythromycin
Aminoglycosides Tetracycline
Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
➢ broad spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to be broad spectrum antibiotics.
Ampicillin and Amoxycillin ,Chloramphenicol, Vancomycin and ofloxacin are
important broad spectrum antibiotics.
➢ narrow spectrum antibiotics.Those effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram-
negative bacteria are narrow spectrum antibiotics. Penicillin G is a narrow
spectrum.
➢ limited spectrum antibiotics.If effective against a single organism or disease, they are
referred to as limited spectrum antibiotics.
2.Artificial Sweetening agents
➢ Aspartame , Saccharin , Sucrolose, Alitame
Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft drinks because it is unstable at
cooking temperature.
3.Synthetic Detergents
Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories:
➢ Anionic detergents, Cationic detergents and Non-ionic detergents
Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic type
THE END