Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.

‫أ‬

Digestive system
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract–oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small and intestine, rectum and anus –and its associated glands (salivary glands, liver,
and pancreas). Its function is to obtain the molecules necessary for the growth and energy
needs of the body.
Digestion begins in the mouth where food ground by the teeth; saliva also initiate
carbohydrate digestion, digestion continues in the stomach and small intestine. Water
absorption occurs in the large intestine, causes the undigested contents to become
semisolid.
General structure of the digestive tract:
It is a hollow tube composed of lumen whose diameter varies surrounded by a wall made
up of four layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa.
The mucosa comprises an epithelial lining, a lamina propria of loose connective tissue
rich in blood and lymph vessels sometime contains glands and lymphoid tissues, and the
muscularis mucosa, usually formed from thin inner circular and outer longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle, the mucosa is frequently called the mucous membrane.
The submucosa is composed of dense connective tissue with many blood and lymphatic
vessels and a submucosal plexus (Meissnner's nerve plexus). It may contain glands and
lymphoid tissue.
The muscularis contains two layers of smooth muscles inner circular and outer
longitudinal layer, it also contain the Myenteric (Auerbach ) nerve plexus which lies
between these layers.
The serosa is a thin layer of loose connective tissue, rich in blood and lymphatics,
adipose tissue, and a simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium). In places where the
digestive organ is bound to other organs or structures, the serosa is replaced by a thick
adventitia, consisting of connective tissue containing vessels and nerves, without the
mesothelium.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)

 Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Figure 1. Schematic structure of a portion of the digestive tract with various components and their
functions.

The functions of the epithelial lining are to provide a selectively permeable barrier to
fascilitate the transport and digestion of food, to promote the absorption of the products
of digestion, and produce hormones that affect the activity of digestive tract. The
abundant lymphatic nodules in the lamina propria and submucosa layer is to protect the
epithelial lining, this is because of the majority of the epithelium of digestive tract is
simple, thin epithelium. The lamina propria is rich in macrophage and lymphoid cells
some of which produce antibodies (mainly IgA).
The muscularis mucosa promotes the movement of the mucosa independent of other
movement of the digestive tract, and increase the content with food. The contraction of
the muscularis layer generated and coordinated by nerve plexuses, propel and mix the
food in the tract. These plexus is formed by nerve cell aggregate (small autonomic
ganglia), the number of these ganglia increase in region of greatest motility.
 In certain diseases, such as Hirschsprung disease, the plexuses in the digestive
tract injured and results in the disturbances of the digestive tract motility, with
frequent dilatation in some areas.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)

 Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Figure 2: Infant with Hirschsprung disease

 The abundant innervation from the autonomic nervous system that the digestive
tract receives provides an explanation of the action of emotional stress on the
digestive tract –a phenomenon of importance in psychosomatic medicine.
The oral cavity:
This cavity is lined with keratinized or non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
The keratin layer found in gum and hard palate, the lamina propria (LP) has several
papillae, and rest on bone. Nonkeratinized epithelium covers the soft palate, lips, cheeks,
and the floor of mouth, the LP has papillae similar to those of the dermis.
In the lips, a transition from the nonkeratinized to keratinized epithelium can be
observed.
Tongue:
The tongue is a mass of striated muscle covered by mucous membrane, the muscle fibers
cross one another in three planes. Because the connective tissue of the LP penetrates the
spaces between muscle fibers, the mucous membrane is strongly adherent to the muscle
fibers. The mucous membrane is smooth on the ventral surface. The tongue dorsal
surface is irregularly covered anteriorly by a great number of small eminence called
Papillae. The post one third of the dorsal surface is separated from the anterior two third
by a V-shaped boundary called (sulcus terminalis). Behind this boundary are lingual
lymphoid tonsils.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)

 Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Papillae:
Papillae are elevations of the oral epithelium and LP there are 4 types:
1-Filiform p:
Have an elongated conical shape, they are quite numerous, and present over the entire
surface of the tongue, their epithelium does not contain taste buds, is keratinized.
2-Fungiform P:
They resemble mushrooms, have a narrow stalk with dilated upper part, contain scattered
taste buds and irregularly located among the filiform P.
3- Foliate P:
Are poorly developed in human, contains many taste buds.
4-Circumvallate P:
They are 7-12 extremely large circular P, are distributed in the V region in the post part
of the tongue. Numerous serous (Von Ebnor glands) drain their content into the deep
groove that encircle the P and provide continuous flow of fluid over the taste buds, this
flow is important in removing food particles from the taste buds to receive and process a
new gustatory stimuli. There are scattered mucous glands in the oral cavity act in the
same way as the serous glands.
There are four qualities in human taste perception: saltiness, sourness, sweetness and
bitterness.

Figure 3: Surface of the tongue on the region close Figure 4: Features of the human
to its V-shaped boundary, between the anterior and tongue and distribution of papillea
posterior portions. Note the lymphoid nodules
Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)
(lingual tonsil), glands, and papillae.
 Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Taste buds:
Are onion shaped structures each one has 50-100 cells, rest on basal lamina, in its apical
portion the taste cells project microvilli that poke through an opening called the taste
pore, each T. bud is composed from taste cells and supportive cells with basal
undifferentiated cells which replace all the cells of taste bud.
Testants contact the taste cells through the taste pores and result in a depolarization of the
taste cells leading to the release of neurotransmitters that will stimulate afferent nerve
fiber connected to the nerve cells.

Figure 5: Drawing of a taste bud, showing the taste cells and the taste pore. The drawing also
illustrates several cell types (basal, taste, and supporting) and afferent nerve fibers that, upon
stimulation, will transmit the sensory information to the central gustatory neurons.

Pharynx:
The pharynx is a transitional space between the oral cavity and the respiratory and
digestive systems. It is lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial in the
region continuous with the esophagus and by ciliated pseudostratified in the region
continuous with the nasal cavity. The pharynx contains the tonsils, the mucosa also has
many small mucous glands, dense connective tissue, the skeletal muscles located outside
this layer.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)

 Histology 2024-2025 ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Esophagus:
Is a muscular tube whose function is to transport foods from the mouth to the stomach
and to prevent retrograde flow of gastric content. Transport is achieved by esophageal
peristalsis with relaxation of sphincters (upper and lower) which controlled by autonomic
nervous system. Esophagus is lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, in
the submucosa there is mucous gland-the esophageal gland –to facilitate the transport of
food and to protect the mucosa. In the LP which is near the stomach is the esophageal
cardiac gland which secrete mucous also. At the distal end the smooth muscles of the
muscular layer form the lower esophageal sphincter, in the midportion the muscular layer
formed by smooth and skeletal muscle, while the upper part composed from skeletal
muscle only.
 Gasrtoesophageal reflux disease is associated with incompetent barriers at the
gastroesophageal junction, caused by a decrease in the lower esophageal
sphincter tone or hiatus hernia. Excessive gastric distension, fatty meal, smoking,
and beverages such as tea and coffee also cause relaxation of the lower
esophageal sphincter, facilitating the reflux of gastric contents to the esophagus
producing symptoms such as heart burn chest pain.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar Al-Rubai'y, M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc, Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Stomach

Stomach is the most dilated part of GIT whose main function is to continue the digestion
of carbohydrate by adding an acidic fluid to the ingested food which is transformed into
(chyme), digestion of protein with the enzyme pepsin and the digestion of triglyceride
by the action of gastric lipase with the aid of lingual lipase. Stomach is formed from 4
regions: Cardia, fundus, body and pylorus. The mucosa and submucosa form
longitudinal folds called rugae.

The stomach

Mucosa:

The mucosa consists of surface epithelial which is simple columnar epithelial, that
invaginates into the LP, forming gastric pits. Emptying into the gastric pits are branched,
tubular glands (cardiac, gastric and pyloric). The LP is composed from loose CT with few
smooth muscles fibers and lymphoid cells. Muscularis mucosa is a layer of smooth mm.
which separate the mucosa from submucosa.

The surface epithelial secrete mucous (alkaline mucous) which form a protective gel,
that is firmly adherent to the epithelial surface. The epithelial cells also secrete

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

bicarbonate which forms a PH gradient ranging from 1 at the gastric lumen to 7 along
the surface epithelial. The ionic transport also maintain the acidic PH, in addition to that
the intercellular tight junction and the profuse circulatory bed in the submucosa which
are important to form a line of defense.

 Stress and other psychosomatic factors; ingestion of aspirin, and some

microorganism (e.g. helicobacter pylori) can disrupt this epithelial layer lead to
ulceration. An ulcer is a disruption of the mucosal integrity. The initial ulceration
may heal by the action of profuse blood supply that supports gastric
physiological activity. Any imbalance between aggression and protection may
lead to pathological alteration.
 Aspirin reduce mucosa blood flow.
 Several anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the production of prostaglandins which
are very important substances for the alkalinization of the mucous layer.
Cardia:

It is a narrow circular band at the transition between the esophagus and the stomach,
its mucosa contain simple or branched tubular glands, the terminal parts are coiled.
Most of secretary cells produce mucous and lysozymes, but few Parietal cells are
present.

Fundus and body:

The LP of fundus and body is filled with branched, tubular gastric (fundic) gland, three to
seven of which open into each gastric pit. Each gastric gland has three distinct regions:
the isthmus, neck and base. The isthmus is close to the gastric pit, contain differentiated
mucous cells that will migrate and replace superficial mucous cells, undifferentiated
stem cells, and Oxyntic (parietal) cells, the neck consists of stem cells, mucous neck cells
(differ from the mucous cells in the isthmus) and parietal cells, the base contains
parietal and chief (Zymogenic cells). Enteroendocrine cells are dispersed in the neck and
the base of the gland.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

The regions of the stomach and their histological structures.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Stem cells:

Found in the isthmus and neck regions, these cells have a high rate of mitosis, some of
them move upward to replace the pits and surface mucous cells, other migrate deeply
into the gland and differentiate into mucous neck cells and parietal, chief, and
enteroendocrine cells.

Mucous neck cells:

Are present in the neck of the gland their mucous is quite different from that of the
surface mucous cells.

Oxyntic (Parietal) cells:

These cells are present in the upper half of gastric gland mainly, they are rounded or
pyramidal with one centrally located nucleus and intensely eosinophilic cytoplasm due
to the presence of high number of mitochondria, they are deep invagination of plasma
membrane forming the intracellular canaliculus. In the resting state, the tubulovesicular
structures are found just below the plasma membrane and the cell has few microvilli.
When stimulate to produce H+ and Cl- tubulovesicular structures fuse with the cell
membrane to form the canaliculus and more micrivilli. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric
acid (H+ and Cl-), Kcl and gastric intrinsic factor. The ion H+ originates from the
dissociation of H2CO3 by the action of carbonic anhydrase. The active cell secrete K+ and
Cl-, the K+ is exchanged for H+ by the action of H+/K+ pump, then Cl- will combined with
H+ to form Hcl. The pumping of H+/K+ are highly energy consuming.

The secretary activity of parietal cells is initiated by the cholinergic nerve endings,
histamine and gastrin which are secreted by the mucosa.

 In human, parietal cells are the site of production of intrinsic factor, a

glycoprotein that binds to vitamin B12. The complex of vitamin B12 with intrinsic
factor is absorbed by pinocytosis into the cells of ileum; this explain why a lack of
intrinsic factor can lead to vitamin B12 deficiency which affect the process of
erythrocyte production in a disease called Pernicious anemia.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Parietal cell

Chief (Zymogenic) cells:

These cells are predominant in lower parts of tubular gland, have the criteria of protein
secreting cells, their basophilia is due to the abundant RER, the granules inside their
cytoplasm contain pepsinogen which convert rapidly into high active proteolytic
enzyme pepsin. There are seven different types of pepsin in gastric fluid. It is active at
pH<5. In human chief cells also produce lipase.

Chief cell

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)

2024-2025 GIT Histology ‫ عبد الجبار فالح حسين‬.‫د‬.‫م‬.‫أ‬

Enteroendocrine cells, Argentaffin, Enterochromaffin (EC) OR APUD cells:

They belong to Diffuse Neuroendocrine System (DNES). It is believed that each cell is
capable of secretion of only one hormone. The target of these hormones are in the
vicinity of their release, therefore, these hormones are called as (paracrine hormones).
Cells of the DNES fall into two classes:

1: “closed” type, in which the cellular apex is covered by neighboring epithelial cells.

2: “open” type, in which the constricted apical end of the cell contacts the lumen and
bears chemoreceptors that sample the lumen’s contents.

Effects of the hormones include regulation of peristalsis and tract motility; secretion of
digestive enzymes, water, and electrolytes; and the sense of being satiated after eating.

In the stomach, these cells are found in the neck and bases of gastric gland. In the
fundus, serotonin is one of the important secretary products.

 Tumor called carcinoid syndrome which arise from these cells, are responsible
for the clinical symptoms caused by over production of serotonine (flushing,
abdominal cramps, dyspnea, increases gut motility)
Pylorus:

The pylorus has gastric pits into which the branched, tubular pyloric glands open,
compared with the gland in the cardia, pyloric gland have longer pits and short coiled
secretary portions. These gland secrete mucous and lysozyme. Gastrin (G) cells are
enteroendocrine cells located among mucous cells, G cell secrete Gastrin hormone
which in turn activate parietal cells to secrete Hcl, other enteroendocrine cells are D
cells which secrete somatostatin which inhibit the release of other hormones including
Gastrin.

Other layers of the stomach: The submucosa is composed from dense CT, lymph and
blood vessels, lymphatic nodules, macrophages and mast cells. The muscularis
composed from three layers of smooth mm outer longitudinal, middle is circular and the
inner is oblique. At the pylorus the middle layer is thickened to form the pyloric
sphincter, the stomach is covered by a thin serosa.

Dr. Abdal-jabbar F. Hussain M.B.Ch.B, M.Sc., Ph.D (UK)