Explosion Modeling

ENGI 9121
 References

1. American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), (2000). Guidelines for

chemical process quantitative risk analysis. Second Edition, New York: AIChE
2. Crowl D.A., Louvar J.F. (2002). Chemical Process Safety, Fundamentals with
Applications – 2nd edition, Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall PTR.
http://www.chem.mtu.edu/~crowl/cm4310/
3. Skelton, B. (1997). Process Safety Analysis: an introduction. Institution of
Chemical Engineers.
 Explosion and Types of Industrial Explosion
What is explosion?
✓ An explosion is a rapid expansion of gases resulting in a rapidly moving
pressure or shock wave.
✓ Expansion can be mechanical or can be resulting from a rapid chemical
reaction.
✓ Explosion damage is caused by the pressure or shock wave.
✓ Explosions release energy rapidly and it can result from fires.

Types of Industrial Explosions:

1. Confined vapor cloud explosion (CVCE): An explosion in vessel or building.
It may be caused due to release of high pressure or chemical energy.
2. Vapor cloud explosion (VCE): An explosion caused by the instantaneous
burning of vapor cloud formed in air due to release of flammable chemical.
3. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE): Explosion caused due to
instantaneous release of large amount of vapor through narrow opening under
pressurized conditions.
4. Vented explosion (VE): Explosion due to high speed venting of chemical.
5. Dust explosion: Explosion that resulted from the rapid combustion of fine
solid particles
 Important Terms

✓ Shock wave: An abrupt pressure wave (energy front) generated

due to a sudden release of energy which moves in the medium.
✓ Blast wave: A shock wave in an open air generally followed by a
strong wind, the combined shock and wind is called blast wave
✓ Overpressure: The pressure on an object as a result of an
impacting shock wave
✓ Deflagration: An explosion in which the reaction front (energy front)
moves at a speed less than the speed of the sound in the medium.
(Reaction wave speed < speed of sound).
✓ Detonation: An explosion in which the reaction front (energy front)
moves at a speed greater than the speed of the sound in the
medium. (Reaction wave speed > speed of sound).
 Details
❑ Explosion?
If a flammable cloud is formed during the leakage of flammable gases, its
direct ignition can sometimes lead to a flash fire. If, however, its ignition is
for some reason delayed (5-10 min), then a vapor cloud explosion (VCE) is
the probable outcome. For ignition to take place, the composition of the
flammable gases in some part of the vapor cloud must be between the
flammability limits, while at the same time a source able to supply the
required energy must be available.

❑ Effective Parameters
❑ The type and the quantity of the flammable substance
❑ The time span from the onset of the leakage until the ignition.
❑ The configuration of the space where the leakage took place.
❑ The position and the number of ignition sources in relation to the
place of leak.
 Models
The damaging effects of a vapor cloud explosion are mostly due to the
overpressure (shock wave) that is created from the fast expansion of the
combustion products. The shock wave is the most important cause of damage to
people, equipment and facilities. To simulate or predict the effects of vapor cloud
explosions, the following types of models are usually employed [Lea& Ledin
2002]:
a)Empirical analytic models that are usually based on a single curve (or family of
curves) of overpressure as a function of the distance with parameters like
➢ the part of the energy that is released as shock wave (the trinitrotoluene
TNT method),
– the strength of the explosion (Multi-Energy method), or
– the flame expansions peek ( Baker-Strehlow method).

b)Numerical 3D CFD computer models of finite volumes which are usually

based upon
– Turbulent analysis (CFX, EXSIM, NEWT, REACFLOW, etc.), or
– Empirical relations (FLACS, AutoReaGas, COBRA, etc.).
 Cloud Expansion Mechanism
Stage 1) When the cloud ignites, the flame starts to propagate away from the point of ignition, with a speed
proportional to the developed overpressure. The flammable mixture of gas-air is pushed in front of the flame. In
this stage the flow of combustion products can be considered as laminar.
Flame speed : 5-30 m/s.
Overpressure: very low.

Stage 2) Because of the unstable nature of the flame and large turbulent eddies, a wrinkled-frame front appears,
resulting in an increase of the flame surface, thus an increase in its burning rate and consequently its speed.
Deflagration.
Flame speed: 30-500 m/s.
Overpressure: up to 2-3 mbar.

Stage 3) The presence of obstacles in the flow results in a further increase of the flame speed. The flow becomes
turbulent, and the burning front is changed into a zone where flammables and combustion products coexist. This
surface increase produces a further increase of the burning rate.
Deflagration.
Flame speed 500-1000 m/s.
Overpressure: up to 1 bar.

Stage 4) The flame speed continues to increase, and the reactive mixture in front of the zone of turbulent
combustion is subjected to compression and heat because of mixing with combustion products. Hence,
temperature higher than the self-ignition point are reached, resulting in the creation of a shock wave.
Detonation.
Flame speed: up to 2200 m/s.
Overpressure: up to 20 bar.

Stage 5) Chemical energy is transformed into mechanical energy via shock wave (40%) transformation). The
shock wave induces a drastic change in the properties of the surrounding space (pressure, density, molecular
velocity). These properties are instantaneously increased (positive phase), then decreased with slower rates to
values lower than the ambient ones (negative phase), to return slowly afterwards to their ambient values.
 Models: Equivalent TNT Mass Method
Overpressure Estimation
In this method, based on the empirical diagram of Brasie & Simpson (Braise &
Simpson 1968), the overpressure Ps (kPa) is estimated as a function of scaled
distance, Z (m/kg1/3).
(1)

Where x (m) is the distance from the center of the explosion and MTNT (kg)
denotes the equivalent TNT mass, obtained from the expression

(2)

Where MG (kg) denotes the mass of the flammable gas that takes part in the
explosion, while ∆Hc (kJ/kg) and ∆HTNT (kJ/kg) are the heat of the combustion
of the flammable gas and the heat of combustion of TNT (= 4,760) kJ/kg),
respectively. The coefficient, fE (-), denotes the fraction of the energy released
as shock wave (usually value between 0.01 and 0.1).
 Models: Equivalent TNT Mass Method Overpressure Estimation (Con’t)

The Peak side-on overpressure can be estimated using the diagram of scaled
overpressure as a function of the scaling distance (Brasie & Simpson 1968).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Overpressure as function of the scaling distance

To infer the damage, instead of Figure 1, one can use the following more
recent analytical expression for the overpressure, Ps (kPa), of the shock wave

(3)
 Models: Equivalent TNT Mass Method
Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantage of the TNT method is its great simplicity of use. For this
reason, it is widely employed in the calculation of the overpressure of an
explosion, but also in its characterization. The most disadvantages of the
method are the following:

a)The TNT method calculate the overpressure of an explosion without taking

into consideration the space configuration where the explosion takes place. As
an example, an explosion in the middle of an area full of equipment, or in a
closed space, will exhibit different power from an equivalent one in an open
space.

b) Parameter fE in most cases is unknown, and greatly influences the prediction.

c) The method does not calculate the time evolution of the explosion.
 TNT Equivalency Procedure
1. Determine total mass of fuel (m) involved
2. Estimate explosion efficiency. (in general it varies from 1% to 15%)
3. Determine energy of explosion (ΔHc) for the respective fuel
4. Calculate the equivalent mass of TNT (mTNT) using following equation
Where ETNT is energy of explosion of TNT (= 4686 kJ/kg) .

5. Determine scaled distance (Ze) using following equation

Where r is distance from the explosion site to the point of concern.

 TNT Equivalency Procedure – CON’D
6. Use Figure 1 or following equation to determine Peak side-on over pressure

Where Ps is read from Figure 1 and Pa is atmospheric pressure 101.325 kPa or

14.7 psi.

7. Estimate the scaled overpressure using Eq (3) and the damage therefrom.
Table 1: Damage estimation Based on Overpressure
Table 2: Damage estimation
Based on Overpressure
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
In contrast to the usual simulation methods, where the vapor cloud explosion is
regarded as an entity, the Multi-Energy method assumes that the vapor cloud
explosion is composed of a number of sub-explosions taking place inside
specific areas of the cloud (Figure 4) corresponding to the various sources of
blast that exist in the cloud [Berg 1985].

Figure 4. Sub-explosion taking place inside the cloud

The most important assumption of the method is that the strength of the
explosion blast, and thus the overpressure developed, depends upon the layout
of the space where the cloud is spreading. More precisely, only obstructed or
partially obstructed regions (regions with high equipment density) will
contribute to a high explosion blast. The remaining parts of the cloud will
slowly burn, without a serious contribution to the strength of the blast [Berg
1985, Berg & Lannoy 1993, Mercx et al. 2000]
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation
Initially the dimension of the cloud based upon the amount of leaked
flammable gas must be estimated, and the probable explosion sources must be
identified. Following this, a series of empirical criteria are employed in order
to identify the obstructed regions, to calculate the volume they occupy and
thus to obtain the space left free for the vapor cloud to spread.
Consequently, the energy of the explosion is calculated, and thus from the
empirical expressions the resulting overpressure in specific distances from the
explosion center, as well as the duration of the positive phase, are obtained.
The calculation of the overpressure is directly dependent upon the type of
region where the explosion took place, i.e., if it is an obstructed region or not.
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Cloud Dimensions
The volume, V (m3) of the resulting vapor cloud (composed of flammable gas
and air) is calculated from the reaction’s stoichiometry, from which the
volume of the oxygen required is obtained and therefore the volume of the
required air.
In the case that the leaked fluid is in the liquid state (pool of flammable liquid),
then the liquid’s evaporation rate must be multiplied with the time until the
explosion, so as to obtain the total amount of the vapor that participate in the
development of the vapor cloud.
The radius of the resulting cloud, R(m), is derived from the volume, V(m3) of
the cloud, being considered as a hemisphere, as

(4)
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Obstructed Regions
A non-obstructed region is a region that does not include any kind of obstacles,
and therefore the cloud can be evenly distributed, i.e., the strength of the
explosion blast is very low. On the contrary, an obstructed region is a region of
high density of obstacles (equipment, walls, buildings, etc.) resulting in the
increase of the spreading velocity of the cloud, as flow changes from laminar
to turbulent and thus the spread of the explosion blast becomes very high.
Hence, the area surrounding the explosion’s center must be separated into
obstructed and non-obstructed regions.
The procedure of “building-up” an obstructed region is based on the effects
obstacles have on the generation of turbulence in the expansion flow ahead of
the flame. The space around the explosion’s center is separated into obstructed
and non-obstructed regions. The cloud can only spread in the free space of
every obstructed region (i.e., in between obstacles).
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Obstructed Regions (Con’t)
Two empirical rules have been proposed [Berg 1985] in order to include or not
a new object in an obstructed region. More specifically, the distance, X (m),
between each new object and its previous one satisfy the two following
condition
a)X < 25 m (5)
b)X < 10 D1 or X < 1.5 D2 (6)
Where, D1 (m), is the smallest dimension of the object on the plane
perpendicular to the direction of the flame’s propagation, and D2 (m), is the
dimension of the object parallel to the direction of the flame’s propagation.
In this way, starting from the point of the explosion, space is separated into
obstructed and non-obstructed regions. If the volume of the cloud is larger than
the free space in the obstructed region, then calculations are continued in two
parts:
❑Calculations with a cloud volume equal to the free space of the obstructed
region, and a high strength of explosion blast (corresponds to high
overpressure), and
❑Calculations based on the remaining volume of the cloud, with low strength
of explosion blast (corresponds to low overpressure)
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Strength of Explosion Blast and
Overpressure
The coefficient of the strength of the explosion blast characterizes, as already
mentioned, the strength of the explosion blast. In the diagram of Figure 5, the
scaled overpressure, P’s (-), is given, as a function of the scaled distance, r’ (-).

Figure 5. Scaled overpressure as a function of scaled distance, with parameter (values 1-10) the
coefficient of strength of the explosion blast [Berg 1985]
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Strength of Explosion Blast and
Overpressure (Con’t)
The scaled overpressure, P’s (-), and the scaled distance, r’ (-), are defined as

(5) (6)

The parameter of the curves in the Figure 5 is the coefficient of the strength of the
explosion blast, as mentioned above. A coefficient of 10 refers to a high strength
explosion with very high overpressure, etc.
In equations (5) and (6), Ps (MPa) denotes the overpressure caused by the
explosion, Pa (MPa) the ambient pressure (= 0.1 MPa), x (m), the distance from the
center of the explosion and E (MJ), the total energy released by the explosion. The
calculation of the overpressure is carried out according to the following algorithm:
1.For every region (obstructed or not) the strength of the blast is chosen (high
obstacle density will result in a high strength blast).
2.The total energy, E, released during the explosion in this region is calculated.
3.Following that, for a specific distance x, the scaled distance r’ is calculated.
4.From the diagram in Figure (5), the scaled overpressure that corresponds to this
scaled distance is obtained, and from that the overpressure, Ps (MPa), of that
explosion at that distance.
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Strength of Explosion Blast and
Overpressure (Con’t)
For computer applications, for the two cases of blast strength 10 and 3, the
following equation can be used
(7)

Where Ps (bar) is the overpressure and coefficients b and c are given in table 1.

Table 1. Coefficients b and c of Eq. (7)

 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Overpressure Estimation: Positive Phase Duration
One of the advantages of the Multi-Energy method is that it also predicts,
empirically, the duration, tp (s), of the positive phase of the explosion. In
Figure 6, the scaled positive phase duration, t’p, as a function of the scaled
distance r’, Eq. (6), is shown. The duration, t’p (s), of the positive phase of the
explosion can be obtained from the expression
(8)

In the above expression, Pa (MPa),

denotes the ambient pressure (=0.1
MPa), E (MJ), the total energy
released, and Cs (m/s), the velocity of
sound (=340 m/s). Hence, in every
distance from the center of the
explosion, a value of the
overpressure, Figure (5), and a value
of the duration of the positive phase, Figure 6. duration of the positive phase, with
Figure (6), can be obtained. parameter (values 1-10) the coefficient of strength of
the explosion blast [Berg 1985]
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Advantages
The basic advantage of the Multi-Energy method is that it takes into
consideration the surrounding area of the explosion, and it calculates the
overpressure according to the obstacle density. It also predicts the duration of
the positive phase of the explosion.
 Models: Multi-Energy Method
Example
Example 2. In example 1, use the Multi-Energy method to calculate the
resulting overpressure at distances of 25, 75, 125, and 200 m, and plot the
overpressure as a function of distance curve. Compare the results with those
obtained by Equivalent TNT Mass method. In Figure 7 a detail of the area of
the explosion is shown. The following data are available:
• Heat of combustion for propane, ∆Hc : 46,010 kJ/kg
• Density of propane, ρ (150C) : 1.86 kg/m3

Figure 7. Detail of PEMIX facility (dimensions in m)

 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
The Baker-Strehlow method was first published in 1996 and based upon the
same idea of obstructed regions that were initially put forward by the Multi-
Energy method. In both these methods, the presence of obstacles in the
expansion of the flame causes vapor cloud explosions of higher intensity.
❑In the Multi-Energy method, obstructed energy are determined. In these
regions the explosive blast is of a higher intensity, and is characterized by the
explosion’s blast coefficient.
❑In the Baker-Strehlow method, the important parameter in the selection of
the intensity of the explosion blast is the flame propagation speed. This is
determined by
❑ The way the flame front propagates,
❑ The reactivity of the fuel, and
❑ The density of the obstacles.
First the dimensions of the cloud will be determined and then the energy of the
explosion exactly as it was carried out in the case of the Multi-Energy method.
Following that the overpressure will be calculated as a function of the scaled
distance, with the flame speed as a parameter.
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Cloud Dimensions
The volume, V (m3), of the resulting vapor cloud (composed of flammable gas
and air) is calculated from the reaction’s stoichiometry, from which the
volume of the required oxygen is obtained and therefore the volume of the
required air.
In the case that the leaked fluid is in a liquid state (pool of flammable liquid),
then the liquid’s evaporation rate must be multiplied with the time until the
explosion, so as to obtain the total amount of vapor which participated in the
development of the vapor cloud.
The radius of the resulting cloud, R (m), is derived from the volume, V (m3),
of the cloud, considered as a hemisphere, as

(8)
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Flame Speed
The presence of obstacles to the expansion of the flame produces large
turbulent eddies and thus a wrinkled-frame front appears resulting in an
increase of the overall flame surface. The increased surface requires higher
fuel consumption per unit time, and hence the rate of emitted heat is increased
and consequently the flame speed.
The parameters which influence the flame speed according to the Baker-
Strehlow method, are the way the flame expands, the density of the fuel and
the obstacle density as shown in table 2.
Table 2. Flame speed in Mach numbers (Mj)
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Flame Speed: The way the flame expands
3-D: when a flame is free to expand in three dimensions (spherically or
hemispherically), the total surface area of the flame is increased analogous to
the square of the distance from the center of the explosion. The flame flow
field can weaken freely in the three dimensions. For this reason field velocities
are low, and thus the disturbances to the field because of obstacles are small.
Furthermore, the effects of these disturbances to the flame speed is small, as
they effect only a small part of the initial surface of the flame.

2-D: in a two dimension expansion (e.g., expansion of cylindrical flame under

a concrete floor or deck) the total surface of the flame is analogous to the
distance from the center of the explosion. Hence disturbances of the flame
surface will have a greater effect than in a three-dimensional expansion, and
disturbances in the flow field will also be stronger.

1-D: during a one-dimensional expansion (e.g., expansion of a flame inside a

cylinder), the flame surface is stable, there is almost no weakening of the field,
and there is no deviation from the existing flow field. Thus, a very powerful
feedback mechanism is created for the increase of the flame acceleration.
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Flame Speed: Fuel reactivity & the Obstacles density
❑Fuel Reactivity: is also seperated in three categories. Low reactivity is
shown by gases like methane and carbon monoxide. High reactivity is
exhibited only by hydrogen, acetylene, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide and
ethylene (the flame speed in laminar flow of these fuels exceeds the value of
0.8 m/s). All remaining fuels are considered a fuels of middle reactivity.

❑The obstacle density: is the most difficult parameter to be quantified (there

have been many attempts to quantify this parameter, which are well outside the
scope of this course). Hence the correct use of this parameter relies on the
logic and judgment of the reader.

Thus, based on the way the flame expands, the reactivity of the fuel and the
obstacle density, the flame speed can be approximately selected from the Table
2.
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Strength of Explosion Blast and Overpressure
In order to calculate the strength of the explosion blast, it was proposed in 1996
to employ the diagram of scaled overpressure vs. scaled distance shown in
Figure 8. In 1999, this curve was substituted by a family of curves and the
method was consequently renamed as the Baker-Strehlow-Tang method.
Similar to the Multi-Energy method, in the Baker-Strehlow method a scaled
pressure and a scaled distance is defined as

(9) (10)
Where Ps (MPa) denotes the overpressure caused by the explosion, Pa (MPa) the
ambient pressure (= 0.1 MPa), x (m), the distance from the center of the
explosion and E (MJ), the total energy released by the explosion.
The calculation procedure is carried out in the following steps:
1) For every region the flame sped is selected (from Table 2)
2) The energy, E, released by the explosion in this region is then calculated.
3) Following that, for a specific distance, x, the scaled distance r’, is calculated.
4)From the Figure 8, the scaled overpressure corresponding to this scaled
distance is obtained, and from this the overpressure, Ps (MPa), of the explosion.
 Models: Baker-Strehlow Method
Strength of Explosion Blast and Overpressure (Con’t)

Figure 8. Scaled overpressure as a function of the

scaled distance (Baker-Strehlow method)
 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)

The Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion, known as BLEVE, is a

consequence of the failure, because of an external cause (i.e., fire), of a
pressurized vessel containing a gas or liquid stored in a higher-than-ambient
pressure. The absorbed heat causes boiling and increase of the internal
pressure, which in connection with the metal surface fatigue because of the
increased temperature results in failure of the vessel and explosion. The
released energy produces an intense shock wave, heat radiation and the
rocketing of fragments and even whole vessels.
A BLEVE takes place in a vessel when the fluid stored is a gas at atmospheric
pressure, but liquid at higher pressure (e.g., liquefied propane). The fluid is
stored as a liquefied gas under pressure with its vapor filling the vessel’s
remaining space.
 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE) (Con’t)

What happens?
In the case of vessel failure with appearance of a crack ( because of inside wall
oxidation or other cause, like fire or wall weakening), the vapor that exist in
the upper part of the vessel leak immediately result in a shock wave and a
simultaneous drop of pressure inside the vessel. This sudden drop of pressure
causes intense boiling of the liquid inside the vessel resulting in the release of
large quantities of vapors. The pressure of the released vapors can be quite
large, resulting in turn, in a secondary large shock wave that is able to cause
the explosion of the vessel and the rocketing of fragments in the surrounding
area.
A BLEVE does not require the presence of a flammable fluid, and thus it is not
considered a “chemical” explosion. In the case where a fluid is flammable,
however, it is most probable that the intense release of gases will result, in
addition to the explosion, in a fireball with corresponding disastrous
consequences.
 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)
Causes & Types
❑ Causes:
The most common cause of a BLEVE is the submission of liquefied-gas
storage vessels to fires that occurred in the plant. That is, BLEVEs usually
takes place in plants as a consequence of another incident where fire has
started.

❑ Types:
❑1-stage BLEVE: usually encountered when the pressure increase of the
enclosed gas (because of the external fire) is sufficient to create the initial
crack and destroy the vessel. In such cases, the vessel’s wall thickness is
of the order of 4 mm and the outflow gas velocity from the crack is about
15 m/s.
❑2-stage BLEVE: in this case, gas is released from an initial small crack
in the vessel’s wall. The resulting pressure drop causes direct and intense
boiling, release of large quantities of vapors, and a consequent pressure
increase and the explosion of vessel. It is encountered in vessels with
thicker walls and the outflow gas velocity from the crack is about 1 m/s.
 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)
Estimation
Today, many investigators [Berg van den et al. 2004 ; Birk et al. 2006;
Papazoglou & Aneziris 1999] work on the prediction and simulation of
BLEVE in vessels. The most important consequences appear when the fluid is
flammable, as in this case a fire ball is formed. The estimation of the fire ball
has already been discussed in “Fire Modeling” section.
 Problems
An informal industry rule is to design occupied control rooms to
withstand a 1-ton blast of TNT at 100 ft.
i. What do the peak side-on overpressure and scaled overpressure
correspond to?
ii. What damage extent can you infer from this?
Given parameters are:
1-ton blast of TNT at a distance of 100 ft Recall:
1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 = 0.454𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝑚 = 3.28𝑓𝑡, 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 =
907𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 100𝑓𝑡 = 30.5𝑚
1 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 1 000 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠, 1 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑈𝑆
= 907.18474 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑
1 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑛 [𝑈𝐾] = 1 016.04691 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
 Solution
i) Using the scaling law, we use the following equation to determine the
scaled distance:
𝑟
𝑧𝑒 = 1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 1
𝑚3𝑇𝑁𝑇
To determine the peak side-on overpressure, we use the following equation.
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑎 … … … … … … … … (2)
From the correlation, we have:
2
𝑍
1616 × 1 + 𝑒
4.5
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎 × . (3)
2 2 2
𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒
1+ × 1+ × 1+
0.048 0.32 1.35

30.5 1
𝑧𝑒 = 1 = 3.15 𝑚Τ𝑘𝑔3
9073
 Solution – CONT’D
i)
Peak side-on overpressure

2
3.15
1616 × 1 +
4.5
𝑃𝑜 = 101.325 ×
2 2 2
3.15 3.15 3.15
1+ × 1+ × 1+
0.048 0.32 1.35

2412.88 2412.88
= 101.325 × = 101.325 ×
4335.03 × 98.52 × 6.48 1663.47
= 101.325 × 1.45 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟗𝟐𝟏𝒌𝑷𝒂
The alternative method to obtain 𝑷𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 from the chat gives:
𝑃𝑠 = 1.45 (𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑭𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝟏)
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 − 𝒐𝒏 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞, 𝑷𝒐 = 𝑷𝒔 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 × 101.325
= 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟗𝟐𝟏𝒌𝑷𝒂
 Solution – CONT’D
Overpressure
To determine the overpressure, we use the following equation, Eq (3).

2
𝑍
80,8000 1 + 𝑒
4.5
𝑃𝑠 =
2 2 2
𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒
1+ × 1+ × 1+
0.048 0.32 1.35

2
3.15
80,800 × 1 +
4.5
𝑃𝑠 =
2 2 2
3.15 3.15 3.15
1 + 0.048 × 1 + 0.32 × 1+
1.35

120392 120392 120392

= = = = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟑𝟕𝒌𝑷𝒂
4335.03 × 98.52 × 6.48 65.84 × 9.93 × 2.54 1663.47
 Solution – CONT’D
ii)

• Total destruction of the systems or environment of concerns

Thank you!
 Backup Slides

Crater Lip: It is typically bowl-shaped