Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

Forum for Linguistic Studies

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/fls

ARTICLE

Cross-Cultural Research in Cognitive Psycholinguistics: Analysis of

Linguistic Diversity and Cognitive Processes
Yuliya Boyko * , Oksana Sierhieieva , Olena Matsiuk , Denys Dmytroshkin , Nataliia Levytska
Department of Germanic Philology and Translation Studies, Faculty of International Relations and Law, Khmelnytskiy
National University, 29016 Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine

ABSTRACT
The study explores the integration of cognitive and psycholinguistic parameters in language education, focusing
on designing communicative tasks to enhance oral proficiency in English among university students. Consciousness
and meta-linguistic attention are highlighted as critical factors influencing communicative competence. A longitudinal
observational study was conducted with second-year students at Khmelnytsky National University, focusing on the
Department of Germanic Philology and Translation Studies. Both Bachelor’s and Master’s students participated in the study,
which spanned an academic semester. The methodology involved systematic observation of English class interactions,
where tasks integrating cognitive (fluency, accuracy, complexity) and psycholinguistic parameters simulated authentic
communicative situations.The findings reveal that traditional approaches treating communication as merely a teaching tool
are inadequate for developing language competence. Effective communication in English classes required tasks blending
simulation and authenticity, significantly enhancing oral competence. A comprehensive approach incorporating cognitive
and psycholinguistic considerations resulted in measurable improvements in students’ fluency, accuracy, and complexity
in oral discourse. This study highlights the need for dynamic, engaging tasks that reflect the complexities of real-world
communication, enriching students’ linguistic and cognitive abilities while fostering deeper engagement with the language.
The results advocate for curriculum reforms and instructional designs prioritizing authentic communicative tasks, equipping
students with skills to navigate diverse communicative situations. Such an approach can reshape university-level language

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Yuliya Boyko, Department of Germanic Philology and Translation Studies, Faculty of International Relations and Law, Khmelnytskiy National
University, 29016 Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine; Email: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO
Received: 14 June 2024 | Revised: 19 September 2024 | Accepted: 20 September 2024 | Published Online: 26 November 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i6.6758

CITATION
Boyko, Y., Sierhieieva, O., Matsiuk, O., et al., 2024. Cross-Cultural Research in Cognitive Psycholinguistics: Analysis of Linguistic Diversity and
Cognitive Processes. Forum for Linguistic Studies. 6(6): 28–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i6.6758

COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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teaching and better prepare students for global citizenship and intercultural communication, ultimately bridging the gap
between classroom learning and real-world applications.
Keywords: English Language; Form-Centredness; Meta-Language Dropout; Oral Discourse; Cognitive and Psycholinguistic
Parameters; Activity Tasks

1. Introduction improve the effectiveness of learning is to apply the concept

of form focus, which helps to balance the focus on meaning
1.1. Cognitive and Psycholinguistic Aspects of and form in the learning process. Research shows that the
Communication integration of cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects into
communication tasks can contribute to the development of
The phenomenon of linguistic diversity emphasises
oral language competence [5] .
the importance of communication and social interaction in
This issue is important because linguistic diversity is
language learning, pointing to the communicative task as a
a key component of cultural heritage and a challenge for
central component of language education. However, simply
preserving linguistic diversity in a globalised world. The
engaging in communicative activities is not sufficient to de-
study, which builds on previous work in this area, aims to fur-
velop language skills. Effective language learning should
ther clarify and develop scientific knowledge about language
take into account cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects such
learning and communication skills.
as fluency, accuracy, and semantic complexity when plan-
The present study differs from previous research in that
ning communicative tasks to promote authentic language use
it focuses on the combination of communicative tasks with
and oral language development [1] .
cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects of the development
The modern approach to foreign language teaching is
of language competence. The main purpose of the study is
no longer based on a specific method or communication
to analyse and evaluate the impact of communicative tasks
activity. It is seen as a set of tasks or projects that engage
on the development of oral communication and language
participants in the learning process (students and teachers)
competence.
and help to achieve certain outcomes in a particular social
Despite the widespread recognition of the importance
context. Language competence should be seen as a necessary
of communication in language learning, there remains a gap
skill to interact in a variety of language environments [2] . In
in the literature regarding how best to integrate cognitive
higher education institutions, this competence is acquired
and psycholinguistic parameters into communicative tasks.
through language teaching and linguistic, communicative,
Previous studies have largely focused on the effectiveness
and cultural education development. In the learning process,
of communicative activities in isolation, without adequately
it is necessary to consider different time perspectives and
considering the underlying cognitive processes and the need
develop tasks that contribute to the achievement of short-
for a balanced focus on form and meaning. This oversight
and long-term goals. Communication is considered the key
limits the effectiveness of language instruction, particularly
to successful language learning, but it requires students to
in higher education, where students must develop the skills
use a foreign language to communicate in a variety of situa-
to interact competently in diverse linguistic environments.
tions. In addition, communicating about projects and tasks
This study addresses this gap by examining how com-
and discussing the linguistic aspects that are important for
municative tasks can be enhanced through the integration
their completion is also important [3] . of cognitive and psycholinguistic parameters, specifically
Research in this area shows that it is important to put targeting the development of oral language competence. The
forward the authenticity of these discourses that engage stu- significance of this research lies in its potential to reshape
dents in their profession [4] . At the same time, it is important current approaches to language education, offering a more
to consider the different components of discourse that help in holistic method that not only improves fluency and accu-
building language competence. One of the possible ways to racy but also enhances the depth of students’ language use in

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real-world contexts. By focusing on the cognitive processes helps students develop not only linguistic but also cognitive,
that underpin language learning, this study aims to provide affective, and volitional resources for successful communi-
insights that are directly applicable to curriculum design and cation [8] .
instructional practices. Thus, the issue of linguistic diversity and the need for
The primary objective of this study was to analyse action-oriented language learning is important for preparing
and evaluate the impact of communicative tasks, designed the younger generation to function successfully in the mod-
with cognitive and psycholinguistic considerations, on the ern world, where cultural and linguistic diversity is becoming
development of oral communication skills and language com- an integral part of life.
petence among university students. Specifically, the study
sought to: 1.3. Theoretical Framework
- Assess the effectiveness of communicative tasks that The concept of scripting in English language learning
incorporate fluency, accuracy, and semantic complexity refers to the process of practising language use in specific
in improving oral proficiency. situations. An action scenario is a way of concretising the
- Examine the role of meta-linguistic awareness and con- action-oriented approach, as it involves certain steps or ac-
sciousness in enhancing communicative competence. tions to be taken to achieve a certain goal or communicative
- Explore the implications of integrating cognitive and task in an English-speaking situation.
psycholinguistic parameters for language teaching prac- The scenarios include various stages such as introduc-
tices in higher education. ing a situation, expressing one’s own opinion or the opinion
This research not only contributes to the academic dis- of others, conducting a dialogue, resolving a conflict, us-
course on language education but also has practical implica- ing lexical or grammatical structures that have been learnt,
tions for educators and curriculum developers. By providing etc. This approach allows students to practice their language
a framework for the design of communicative tasks that align skills in real-life situations, which helps them to learn and
with the cognitive and psycholinguistic needs of learners, the use English better in practice. Working together on action
study offers a pathway to more effective language instruction. scenarios in English helps to improve students’ communi-
The outcomes of this research have the potential to influence cation skills, develop their confidence in their own abilities,
educational policies and practices, ensuring that students are and activate their language knowledge in real-life commu-
better prepared for the linguistic challenges of a globalized nication situations. Scientists consider the concept of an
world. action scenario as a way of specifying an action-oriented
approach. According to psycholinguists, simulation is con-
1.2. The Problem of Linguistic Diversity sidered an integral part of the language classroom activity,
and the scenario is characterised by a mission that serves as a
Thus, the problem of linguistic diversity and the im- framework for the learning process. The mission defines the
portance of addressing it lies in the fact that there are many tasks to be performed and the choice of language tools by the
languages in the world, each with its own unique cultural her- student-actor. This allows us to change the tendency to work
itage and identity [6] . Ensuring competent language learning with native speakers to self-expression tasks or mini projects,
and the development of language competence is an important which is an innovative approach [9] . This approach to com-
part of the learning process in the modern world. pleting tasks is relevant and contributes to the development
According to Mereniuk & Parshyn [7] , it is necessary to of students’ language skills.
take into account the socio-cultural context in which different The various possibilities of psychocognitive techniques
languages are revived and to promote the development of in language learning emphasise the importance of consider-
communication skills that will help students to interact effec- ing “secondary” aspects that lead to an increase in the number
tively in society. The activity-based perspective is important of sentences [10] . Action-oriented approaches confirm the fix-
in the context of language learning because it provides an ation of the relationship between the amount of learning and
opportunity to integrate learning with real-life situations and processing time, revealing the homology between the unit in

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memory and the semantic division of the vocabulary [11] . It lies in the development of effective language learning meth-
is also necessary not to ignore “minor” elements that may be ods that combine a communicative approach with cognitive
important regardless of the purpose of the study. In addition, and psycholinguistic aspects. The results of the study can be
the syntactic complexity of the material affects the speak- useful for teachers and students in planning and conducting
ing time, which is confirmed by Boyd & Schwartz (2021). foreign language classes.
As for the aspectual data, it is important to consider the im-
pact of the perfective/imperfective opposition on students’ 2. Materials and Methods
performance.
Research by Dey & Sawalmeh [12] emphasises the im- 2.1. Research Paradigm and Approach
portance of the situation of utterance on the comprehension
The study was conducted within the framework of a
of the spoken topic. The interaction of various new ele-
qualitative research paradigm, which emphasizes understand-
ments and secondary vocabulary is not as important then.
ing the complexities of human behavior and interaction in
Secondary elements that affect sentence division play an
natural settings. Specifically, the constructivist approach
important role in the construction of meaning in working
was employed, recognizing that students’ understanding of
memory.
foreign languages is influenced by their personal experiences,
Analysing the related literature, it can be seen that oral
cultural background, and cognitive processes. This approach
communication in higher education institutions is indeed
is well-suited for exploring the integration of cognitive and
often focused on the materials chosen by the teacher and
psycholinguistic parameters in language education, particu-
student presentations [13] . Emotions and points of view, al-
larly through in-depth observations and analysis of student
though present, are often framed within the normative dis-
interactions.
course forms of the institution [14] . However, it is important
to remember that the desire to naturalise communication in
2.2. Method of Data Collection: Systematic Ob-
the classroom, support interactive skills, use assignments
servation
and projects, and regulate communication to improve lan-
guage competence can lead to the emergence of ‘secondary’ The observation method, employed as the primary data
discourses and ‘heteroglossia’ [15] . Such exchanges can be collection tool, was used to obtain objective and nuanced
as authentic as formalised communication, as they promote information about how second-year students (learners for
‘semantic-cultural’ communication and help students to be- Bachelor’s Degrees) and 2nd-year students (learners for Mas-
come active participants in communication in a social context ter’s Degrees) of the Department of Germanic Philology and
that is often limited. This approach can help students develop Translation Studies, Faculty of International Relations and
their language skills as well as their ability to communicate Law, Khmelnytsky National University. Ukraine) develop
effectively in different situations. oral proficiency in English. This method was selected due to
its ability to capture real-time interaction and behavior, pro-
1.4. Paper Hypotheses viding insights into the role of consciousness, meta-linguistic
The primary hypothesis of the study is that perform- attention, and communicative competence in language learn-
ing communicative tasks contributes to the development of ing. The observations were conducted longitudinally, span-
oral communication and language competence. The sec- ning the autumn semester of 2023, allowing for a thorough
ondary hypothesis is that the integration of cognitive and examination of students’ progress over time.
psycholinguistic aspects into communicative tasks can im-
Observation Procedure
prove language learning outcomes. The study design focuses
on the participants’ performance of specially designed com- The observation was structured and systematic, follow-
municative tasks and further analysis of their impact on the ing a predefined protocol to ensure consistency and reliability
development of speaking skills. in data collection. Observations were made during commu-
The theoretical and practical significance of the study nication exercises that featured psycholinguistic elements

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of intercultural dialogue. These exercises were integrated resolution strategies.

into the curriculum as part of students’ language learning Task Performance: Comparing the effectiveness of tasks
activities. The specific items observed included: based on student engagement and metacognitive discourse.
Student Interaction: The ways in which students com-
municated, exchanged information, and supported each other 2.5. Research Design
during group tasks.
The research design was longitudinal, observing the
Cognitive Engagement: The level of metacognitive dis-
same cohort of students over the course of a semester. This
course, indicating how students were consciously reflecting
design allowed for the analysis of changes in communicative
on their language use and intercultural understanding.
competence and intercultural awareness over time. The study
Role Distribution: How roles were assumed and man-
included both descriptive and comparative elements, with
aged within groups, including leadership, cooperation, and
observations focusing on the interaction between cognitive
conflict resolution strategies.
strategies and cultural contexts in language learning.
Cultural Awareness: The degree to which students
demonstrated understanding and tolerance towards differ-
2.6. Data Analysis
ent cultural perspectives during discussions.
Observations were made by the instructor, who The data from the observations were analyzed using
recorded detailed notes during each session. The data col- qualitative content analysis. The recorded observations were
lected included both verbal interactions and non-verbal cues, transcribed and coded for recurring themes, particularly those
such as gestures and facial expressions, which were critical
related to cognitive engagement, cultural awareness, and
for understanding the nuances of intercultural communica- communicative competence. The analysis aimed to identify
tion. patterns in how students adapted to intercultural dialogue and
the impact of these experiences on their language learning
2.3. Participants processes.

The study involved 33 second-year students, divided

2.7. Experimental Manipulations or Interven-
into four groups (1.1, 1.2, 2.1, and 2.2). The participants
tions
were categorized by age and gender, with 9 males and 24 fe-
males, aged between 18–22 years. The study design ensured While the study primarily relied on naturalistic obser-
a diverse sample, allowing for the exploration of different vation, specific interventions were introduced to assess their
perspectives within the context of language learning and impact on student performance. These included the introduc-
intercultural dialogue. tion of action-oriented language teaching methods, where
students were tasked with scenario-based simulations that
2.4. Sampling Procedures required them to apply their language skills in culturally rel-
evant contexts. The effectiveness of these interventions was
A purposive sampling technique was used to select
measured by observing changes in metacognitive discourse
participants who were actively engaged in communication
and overall communicative competence.
exercises with psycholinguistic elements. This approach en-
sured that the sample was representative of the population
being studied and that the data collected would be relevant 3. Results and Discussion
to the research objectives.
In the second year, students of the Department of Ger-
The sampling focused on:
manic Philology and Translation Studies, Faculty of Interna-
Level of Student Activity: Observing the frequency and qual- tional Relations and Law, Khmelnytsky National University,
ity of student participation in tasks. conducted a project that included group presentations on
Group Dynamics: Examining how students interacted within different English-speaking countries of interest to students,
groups, including the establishment of roles and conflict a comparative study of calendar holidays in the UK, USA,

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Canada, and India, an interdisciplinary project on cultural Example 2

identity combining historical and poetic perspectives, and a The students are first asked to read and discuss an email
study of Native American communities in the United States. from the American assistant describing her plans for the com-
In trying to achieve the educational goal, the instructor plays ing year. Then each student formulates two or three personal
an important role in defining the assignment, regulating the resolutions, which are collected and distributed to the other
discourse, and helping students complete the task. In general, students for reading aloud and discussion. This activity re-
students had a fairly autonomous role in this project, they flects a pattern of simulation and authenticity in language
could manage the organisation of content and the order, but communication. While the letter from the assistant is part of a
sometimes they needed to control the language or speech project to reinforce the future tense, it also conveys authentic
of other participants during presentations. The observation information, allowing students to deepen their communica-
showed that the emphasis on form, the role of conscious- tion skills.
ness, and meta-linguistic attention appear to be important In 2022, my goal is to reduce my food intake and in-
elements in language learning. This confirms the importance crease my physical activity... In 2023, my wish is to witness
of combining cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects in cre- a democratic president in the White House.
ating communicative tasks to support authentic language use The students’ resolutions may be authentic, but here a
and promote language proficiency. simulation was conducted, and their thoughts were written
English is often used in exchanges that are governed by down on paper and read out to the audience. The other au-
an argumentative code of good behaviour. However, when a thentic goal of language training, the transfer of language
trusting relationship is established between the teacher and structures to “purposeful” communication, remained intact.
students, situations may arise where tasks are set aside and Thirty-three students formed plausible sentences, the joint
natural communication takes place. action took the form of a game, and the participants often
laughed. However, following the script is not always obvi-
Example 1 (students: A, C, and D; teacher: P)
ous, as shown in this extract, where S gives a very logical
The teacher has asked students to respond to an Ad-
reason for his refusal.
busters brochure on the internet that encourages consumers
S: I want to share my thoughts on setting goals instead
around the world to join Buy Nothing Day, but the socio-
of resolutions. Can I express my opinion? Not about my
cultural “place” of reference is the UK and the event is for-
personal goals, but...
eign to the students. Some students take the position of
P: Of course, go ahead.
playing the game of argumentative discourse and putting
S: I don’t really support the idea of resolutions. I be-
forward arguments for or against the event, while others are
lieve they are okay, but only for individuals who are able to
the “disruptors” of these arguments.
actually achieve them.
D: It’s pointless to resist just for one day, especially on
P: Yes, achieve.
a Saturday. It means we can challenge ourselves to be inde-
S: For those who achieve them, but unfortunately, not
pendent for a day. It’s symbolic, like a car-free day. There
many people do.
are many days like this where we can do without shopping.
P: I recently heard a psychologist suggest focusing on
C: I agree with D and strongly disagree with A. It’s
just one goal, as it can be easier to accomplish. They also
a positive gesture, showing that we can manage without advised sharing it with others to maintain accountability.
consumption for a day. Even if you don’t believe in resolutions, it’s still valuable to
P: Consumption. consider what you want to accomplish.
A: I’ve already made a purchase today, I bought bread S: I’ve made the choice to abstain from making resolu-
this morning (laughs). tions altogether.
As you can see, the opponent rejects the importance of P: Oh, may I ask why?
the festive event and at the end humorously breaks out of the The spontaneity and naturalness of the interventions
code of academic debate. were valued during the observation, as they were in line with

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the natural approach to social exchanges. However, in the projects, they were characterised by an interweaving of differ-
long run, distractions or abandonment of the task can be ent types of discourses. In particular, 61% of the exchanges
detrimental to interlanguage progress. The question arose focused on project modalities, 31% on semantic and cultural
whether explicitly displaying language goals could help re- communication, and 8% on the meta-language aspect. Thus,
turn communication to a more authentic level and increase other discourses were added to the main discourse intention.
acceptance of the proposed tasks. M’s question about the explanation of vocabulary (aborigines
vs. Indians) generates an episode of communication with A’s
3.1. Metacognitive Discourse cultural contribution.

At the same time, in addition to communicating se- Example 4 (students: M and A; teacher: P)
mantic content, the activity-based approach entails a large M: Can you explain the distinction between Aborigines
number of exchanges around the presentation of projects, the and Indians?
definition of tasks, and the means of completing them, which P: Oh, do you mean A?
goes beyond the traditional classroom English of punctual A: I believe Aborigines were indigenous to Australia,
instructions. Over the four sessions, the amount of metacog- while Indians were native to America.
nitive discourse related to the presentation, reformulation, P: [...] I believe there was a misconception by Christo-
and explanation of tasks and projects ranged from 15% to pher Columbus, thinking he had reached India when he actu-
17% of the total interventions. Instructions during the task ally landed in America. That’s why he referred to the Native
(focusing attention, searching, sorting, helping to find textual Americans as Indians.
elements, asking to make hypotheses, reformulating state- The teacher redirected the exchange by providing alter-
ments, etc.) were not taken into account (Table 1). native information. At the meta-linguistic level, their inter-
It is obvious that a significant part of communication vention was limited to lexical clarification and grammatical
is related to students’ perception mechanisms. In addition, corrections (e.g., *instead of, 14), as well as phonological ad-
the teacher was required to do many different things, even if justments (e.g., anthropology). The teacher resumed control
he asked students to reformulate and explain the material. (21) to restart the presentation and summarize the instruc-
tions (26). Meanwhile, students participated by reading the
Example 3 (students: J and C; teacher: P)
steps (25) and identifying the specific areas they had focused
P: Do you need me to clarify the instructions, or would
on during their research (27, 28, 29).
you like someone else to go over them again, J?
This mixture of different discourses in learning is the
J: What was that?
result of the teacher’s objectives, the choice of discourse
P: Are you clear on what needs to be done?
strategy that meets their goals, and students’ fulfilment of
J: Yes. P: Great, can you explain it for us?
these goals, regardless of their formulation [16] . According
J: We start by reading the text from the bottom.
to Aguilar-Valera [11] , this contributes to the formation of a
P: And then, when it comes to Rebecca’s mum’s story,
scientific and academic community through the diversity of
what is our task, C?
conventional, semantic-cultural, metacognitive, and meta-
C: Our task is to extract the key information from that
language discourses. Implementing targeted integration in
part of the text.
the classroom can be an effective means of developing lan-
P: Specifically, what are we focusing on now? And J,
guage competence.
can you please continue with reading the...
J: The top section. P: What should we do after that? 3.2. Analysis of the Recorded Speeches
J: We should analyse the top part for details about food
and customary Thanksgiving practices. Analysing the speeches recorded in the second year
P: And also, how people celebrate and why Thanksgiv- helped researchers think more deeply about the expectations
ing holds significance for certain Americans. associated with the tasks and suggested proven interven-
As for the presentation of intercultural communication tions. For example, a student decided to present Diwali, a

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Table 1. The share of metacognitive discourse in L2 communication.

Session Total Number of Words Words Related to Tasks and Projects

Group 1.1: 3 tasks 4193 647 (16%)
Group 1.2: 3 tasks 3656 628 (17%)
Group 2.1: 1 task, 1 project 3533 544 (15.3%)
Group 2.2: 1 task, 1 project 4244 718 (17%)
Source: authors’ own development.

Hindu holiday, as part of a calendar festival project. This content. This task should include pedagogical tools to in-
process requires continuous speech based on notes and in- crease the accuracy and complexity of discourse. These tools
volves preparation over several days, which contributes to are crucial components that help to achieve fluency in the
both fluency and accuracy of the speech. process of interaction and expression.

Example 5: Diwali
3.3. The Nature and Psycho-Cognitive Pro-
Alright, I will discuss Diwali, a five-day festival cele-
cesses Involved in Learning a Foreign Lan-
brated by Hindus. In Sanskrit, Diwali translates to “row of
guage
lights,” symbolising knowledge for Hindus. During these
days, various gods and goddesses are worshipped, homes are Currently, researchers still question the nature and
cleaned, and decorated with candles, lamps, and exchanged psycho-cognitive processes involved in learning a foreign
gifts. Fireworks are also a common part of the celebration. language, as well as the links between tacit and explicit learn-
According to one legend, a long time ago, a king and his ing. The ability to communicate in a university environment
wife returned from a battle against demons on the day of partly depends on the support of the teacher, who selects
the new moon, where there was no light. Villagers placed and organizes materials, provides students with tools, and
candles in front of their homes to illuminate the path for stimulates their activity, as well as on supporting students’
the gods. The significance of Diwali is akin to Christmas communication with more experienced partners or teachers.
for Christians, and it is celebrated by Hindu communities It is important to combine communicative tasks that focus on
worldwide, including in the UK, Trinidad and Tobago, and linguistic phenomena in context with free-form tasks such as
many other countries. stories, debates, and essays. Reflecting on learning, in par-
The flow is fast, smooth, and clear, without hesitation. ticular, allowed us to address the issue of form and meaning.
The utterances are typical of oral discourse: simple sentences The development of practices involves accessing meanings
with conjunctions and a single ending, probably taken from through cognitive processing in comprehension and produc-
a written text (“One of the many *versions is that...”). In tion, tuning tasks to linguistic phenomena, and adjustments
terms of accuracy, there is 1 lexical error, 6 phonological arising from linguistic needs. In a communicative situation,
errors, and 11 grammatical errors with repetition of erro- learners need to pay close attention to form, meaning, and
neous passive and infinitive constructions (possibly related use in their learning. This will facilitate the establishment of
to the homophony between the past participle and infinitive the connections necessary for interlanguage interaction.
in Ukrainian?) There were also problems in choosing be-
tween a nominal definition and a qualification. The training 3.4. The Bifocus as a Didactic Tool
had a positive impact on the communication of semantic
content (the message was well conveyed). However, despite This approach from cognitive linguistics has similari-
two cases of self-correction, examples of grammatical fos- ties to research in the psycholinguistic framework of linguis-
silisation persisted and required reporting, repetition, and tic diversity, where reflection tasks strengthen the system of
correction. linguistic representations in uncertain areas such as nominal
The results show that raising awareness is possible by determination, modality, tense, and aspect. In oral communi-
developing an oral production task that assesses semantic cation, the teacher uses the student’s linguistic and cognitive

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knowledge to help him or her correct his or her utterances related to phonology, 15 to word structure and order, and 10
by reformulating them, stimulates him or her to make lin- to the relationship between form and meaning.
guistic and predicative choices, and encourages discourse The research adhered to the Common European Frame-
complexity. Thus, bifocus acts as a didactic tool that helps to work of Reference for Languages (CEFR), particularly fo-
activate communicative knowledge and skills in the context cusing on:
of dialogue, where joint communication creates the basis Interaction – emphasizing the importance of spoken
for further improvement through correction, reflection, and interaction in language learning, consistent with CEFR’s
practical tasks. emphasis on communicative competence.
Linguistic Proficiency – observing students’ progress
3.5. Discussion of the Joint Learning Dialogue in relation to CEFR’s descriptors for language proficiency,
particularly in handling complex linguistic structures.
The research conducted in the course of discussions
Metacognitive Strategies – aligning with CEFR’s en-
with 33 students and a lecturer showed the important role
couragement of learner autonomy and reflection on language
of a joint learning dialogue. For example, the analysis of
use.
radical and epistemic modalities proved to be difficult both
Below is a proposed chart that outlines the methodol-
in terms of the chosen meanings and the surface forms that
ogy, including objectives, materials, and CEFR principles.
may differ in L1 and L2. During the discussions, 37 cases of
During the classroom discussions, 37 cases of linguis-
linguistic analysis at the modal levels were identified, 31 of
which were initiated by students and 6 by the teacher. Each tic analysis at the modal levels were identified, illustrating
case involved different combinations of cognitive and lin- the complexity students faced. These cases involved differ-
guistic actions, such as asking, form fluctuations, refusing, ent cognitive and linguistic actions, categorized as follows
reformulation, and rule-making. In this case, 12 cases were (Table 2):

Table 2. Students’ cognitive and linguistic actions.

Category Cases
12 cases, focusing on the pronunciation and phonetic aspects of L2, highlighting the challenges
Phonology
in distinguishing sounds and patterns between L1 and L2.
15 cases, where students struggled with word formation and syntactic structures, requiring
Word Structure and Order
reformulation and rule-making actions.
10 cases, where the connection between linguistic forms and their meanings was explored, often
Form-Meaning Relationship
leading to questions, refusals to confirm, and rule adjustments.
Source: authors’ own development.

This comprehensive detailing, combined with the chart, T: You have the option to do so, or you could also use
provides a clear and structured overview of the methodol- the word ‘would’.
ogy, supporting the study’s robustness and its adherence to A11 You would have the ability to do so.
educational frameworks like the CEFR. T: You would have the ability to watch football or soc-
cer all day.
Example 6 (student: A; teacher: P)
During the formative dialogue, the student had the op-
The communication episode included 8 steps: hesita-
portunity to try different language forms, and the teacher
tion between different options and their choice, confirma-
took into account the student’s level of knowledge. The dis-
tion, and referral to another alternative, failure, revision,
tribution of roles in collective communication could change,
re-discussion, and confirmation. but the teacher always acted as a mentor and a discussion
A11: A student could watch football or soccer all day supporter. Meta-language moments were less frequent and
if they wanted to. could have a different number of lines, from 3 to 10.

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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

3.6. Meta-Language Sifting Data M: Oh, so it’s ‘know’, right?

P: Can you give it a try?
What was studied in the second-year meta-language M: It’s when you have a deep understanding of different
sifting aimed at meaning construction? Some indications are
subjects.
given in Table 3 (sessions). The situations are elicited either
A request for clarification triggers a meta-language se-
by the student (E) or the teacher (P), but they are all related
quence: 1) question, 2) lexical information, 3) manifestation
to a problem revealed in oral production. The predominance
of misunderstanding, 4) gloss, extension and question to M,
of lexical or phonological elements confirms the results of
5) new manifestation of misunderstanding, 6) demonstration
previous studies [17] . However, the teacher did introduce
with linguistic deconstruction, 7) integration and translation,
students to certain aspects of morphosyntactic complexity
8) verification and request for definition, 9) definition.
(e.g., in relation to subordinate clauses learnt earlier). Ses-
The teacher only intervened to ask for a definition in 8)
sions S3 and S4 have been found to promote meta-language which would show that the meaning was understood. Thus,
dropout (24), which is directly related to the nature of the we are witnessing a real authentic exchange between the
task and the support. Short texts that were discussed around social actors in the audience in the context of spoken support
the abolitionist movement or the concept of African Ameri- discourses.
can physical appearance had significant semantic, cultural,
and morphosyntactic complexity in comprehension. They Example 8
required the creation of complex phonological forms (3- or The next exchange took place after the language
4-syllable words) and, consequently, more phonological and test. This is a single grammar task (students: M and M1;
lexical interventions. teacher: P)
The teacher actively encouraged students to do most P: What’s bothering you right now?
of the phonological and grammatical practices and to ask for M: I have some concerns about the first question on
clarifications. Students asked questions about the problems quantifiers.
of transitioning from their native language to English, as well P: Ah, quantifiers again. We’ve covered this topic sev-
as clarifications about vocabulary and culture. In this lim- eral times through exercises, activities, and open discussions.
ited context, there was only one question about grammatical Are you still finding it challenging?
nuances. M: Not exactly, but I lack confidence in my answers.
In the classroom, the teacher used limited heterocor- P: Could you give me an example of a quantifier that’s
rection: he pointed out mistakes and asked for clarification giving you trouble? M: I tend to use ‘too much’ instead of...
or correction. Students corrected themselves either after the P: I see, so you’re unsure about the difference between
signal or during the mutual correction stage. The teacher ‘too much’ and ‘too many’.
acted as a mediator, but the students acted as experts and P: Who can help clarify this for M again? M1, can you
communicated to build their own linguistic representations. explain the distinction between ‘too much’ and ‘too many’
clearly?
Example 7 (Students: M and A; teachers: P) M1: ‘Too many’is used for countable things, while ‘too
After the presentation on Diwali, the floor was opened much’ is for uncountable things.
for questions and comments. M. did not understand the M: I understand the concept, but I’m still hesitant about
symbol of the lights: my answers.
M: I was unsure about the meaning of the lights for P: It’s normal to feel uncertain, but if you grasp the
Hindus. concept, most of your choices should be correct.
A: They represent knowledge. M: I understand now. M: Yes.
A: The lights symbolise knowledge and culture. Were We can see how students can face problems related to
you not familiar with the term? passing the test and getting a low grade. In addition, the
M: No. I wrote the word ‘knowledge’ on the board, results indicate difficulties in establishing the link between
pointed to the ‘know’ part, and said it aloud: ‘to know’. form and meaning of language, which was explored in the

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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

Table 3. Meta-language interventions during the four sessions.

Sessions S 1.14 S 2.17 S 3.24 S 4.24
E P E P E P E P
Lexical 2 4 3 8 3 8 2 9
Phonological 0 5 0 5 0 10 0 7
Gram/Syntactical 0 3 0 1 0 3 1 5
Source: Authors’ own research.

context of exercises and explicit questions. Students formu- tasks (unfocused tasks), narrative, debate, and essays. The
lated the rule in English even if they were not fully confident, socio-constructivist focus of reflection on learning has helped
thus clearly raising the problem of constituting procedural to clarify the issue of form and meaning [20] . The focus on
knowledge. The teacher’s responses indicate the need to con- form is different from the focus on surface forms (focus-on-
stantly refer to the dual psycholinguistic functioning, from forms), endings, phonemes, and morphemes. In the original
data to concepts and vice versa. definition of tangential conceptualisation, Pae [21] limited
3.6.1. The Importance of Communicative Tasks it to interventions aimed at drawing attention to linguistic
elements during meaning-centred activities. Currently, the
All of these examples show the importance of commu-
concept has been expanded to include a set of discourse
nicative tasks that contribute to the development of students’
phenomena [10] that include meaning (lexical, semantic, and
language competence. The combination of cognitive and psy-
pragmatic), function (or use), and forms. Hence the devel-
cholinguistic aspects in foreign language learning can help
opment of practices that, by establishing access to meanings
to create an effective curriculum. Studies have shown that a
through cognitive ‘macro-processing’ in comprehension and
collaborative learning dialogue, teacher support, and active
production, encompass the preliminary identification of the
participation of students in communication contribute to the
linguistic phenomena on which the task should focus and the
improvement of language proficiency and the development
correction that follows from expressed or perceived linguistic
of language competence.
needs. In a communicative situation, the learner will have to
3.6.2. The Combination of Cognitive and Com- pay simultaneous attention to form, meaning, and use within
municative Aspects in Learning Lan- the same cognitive event [22] . This joint treatment will facili-
guages tate the establishment of connections, which is fundamental
These findings confirm the importance of taking into to learning and a prerequisite for restructuring interlanguage.
account learning objectives, using a variety of language struc- There are similarities between the approach presented
tures, and stimulating students’ communicative activity. For- in this paper and work in psycho-cognitive linguistics, which
eign language learning should be based on a combination of shows that reflection tasks consolidate the system of linguis-
cognitive and communicative aspects to achieve a high level tic representations in fragile areas such as nominal deter-
of language skills. mination, modality, tense, and aspect [11, 23, 24] . In the con-
Researchers are currently questioning the nature and de- versational framework, the teacher builds on the student’s
gree of awareness required for foreign language acquisition, linguistic and cognitive knowledge, rejects false statements,
as well as the links between implicit and explicit learning [18] . encourages them to rework their productions through refor-
The acquisition of a communicative skill within linguistic mulation, invites them to make pronunciation and predica-
diversity depends in part on teachers selecting and organis- tive choices, and pushes them to make the discourse more
[25]
ing the learning materials they deem appropriate, providing complex. In this way, “bifocus” becomes a transitional
students with tools and making them work in context, and didactic tool through which communicative knowledge and
on the support of the student’s discourse by their more expe- know-how are actualised in a dialogue situation, with the
rienced peers and/or the teacher. Beibei [19] emphasises the first stages “prepared in collective communication and rein-
complementarity between communicative tasks that implic- forced by more explicit correction, reflection on language
itly focus on language phenomena in context and more fluent and exercises” [26] .

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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

In addition to simulation practices, role-playing games, guistic means) in the present study differs from the criterion
and (cyber)quests that place projects in a social perspective, of accuracy included in the linguistic competence described
the project of constructing and structuring students’ interlan- by Sofilkanych et al. [6] . In the present study, the criterion
guage requires a relationship between the cognitive charac- of volume is reductive in comparison with the criterion of
teristics of the tasks and the psycholinguistic components of morphosyntactic or semantic complexity, which allows us to
the generated discourses [17] . assess the enrichment of linguistic competence.
In a similar analysis to the one presented here, Dey & In this aspect, research works that link foreign language
[12]
Sawalmeh highlights the risk of an action-oriented ap- psycholinguistics with field methodologies and practices pro-
proach that does not sufficiently take into account the reality vide more answers. First of all, they allow us to clarify the
of the educational and social environment. In this respect, criteria for assessing fluency in L2. According to Herison et
[32]
Fulmer et al. [27] agree that the roles put forward are essen- al. , natural rhythm, appropriate prosody and the absence
tially determined by social referential practices rather than of untimely fluctuations, differentiation of “natural” pauses,
cognitive roles, which are more important for constructing and those that violate syntactic or intonational units are signs
learning. of cognitive processes and not an interference in language
Indeed, one wonders about the effectiveness of an in- production. Indeed, in this study, in addition to pauses justi-
strumental goal that does not aim at mastering psycholinguis- fied by planning and precision of thinking, and final pauses
tic components, fluency (ease), accuracy, and complexity. necessary for information integration, there were numerous
According to Henriksen et al. [28]
, the processes and cases of students’ mistaken segmentation of breath units [33] .
operations required for ownership are discussed but not anal- Another criterion is the number of repeated memorised
ysed, and a variety of methodological options and practices blocks (lexical expressions and pre-assembled syntactic se-
[34]
are proposed without distinction. For their part, scholars em- quences) that can be (reproduced immediately) . Com-
phasise the presence of bias and neutrality [29] . Aliyeva [30] plexity is determined quantitatively by the number of state-
adds that currently there is no consensus based on research ments containing subordinate clauses, and qualitatively by
strong enough on this issue for the framework itself to be the presence of structures whose arrangement resists mass
based on any learning theory. production and which require a high degree of abstraction
To assess the complexity of the task of combining psy- and proceduralisation of computation (modality, aspect, de-
cholinguistic elements in language learning, cross-cutting termination). Recent English-language research exploring
cognitive factors are cited, such as familiarity with the task the balancing of these components in the design of similar
[35]
and the student’s ability to organise it, master the language, tasks suggests that students need to better understand the
[31]
implement intercultural skills, etc. . As for the psycholin- characteristics of oral tasks to promote language competence.
guistic parameters, in this paper, they are presented in groups, In conclusion, the integration of cognitive and psy-
for example, in Table 1, where pragmatic, discourse, and psy- cholinguistic parameters in language education is necessary
cholinguistic criteria are mixed. It is true that the assessment to develop effective communication tasks that promote au-
of pragmatic competence included some characteristics of thentic language use and facilitate the development of lan-
fluency: reformulations, pauses, hesitations, and false starts. guage proficiency in a linguistically diverse environment.
For example, for level B1 (focused on the second year of More research is needed to investigate the role of conscious-
oral production). ness and meta-linguistic attention in communicative situa-
Despite some problems with phrasing, which led to tions and their impact on language acquisition. By integrat-
pauses and dead ends, (students) were able to continue speak- ing cognitive and psycholinguistic perspectives into language
ing effectively without aids. education, teachers can develop more effective language pro-
On the other hand, the criterion of accuracy (sorting grammes that meet the diverse needs of students in today’s
the basic information of the device and evaluating it with lin- multicultural society.

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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

4. Conclusions long term, the study of such strategies could make a valuable
contribution to the development of language teaching meth-
The results of the study showed that meta-language ods in the context of higher education. Research in this area
episodes and classroom communication demonstrate that will help to unlock the potential of bifocus and contribute
communicative teaching can be an effective means of improv- to the development of students’ communicative competence.
ing students’ language skills. The use of various discourse In the future, empirical research could be conducted in this
strategies aimed at constructing meaning and developing lan- area to identify the most effective scaffolding strategies for
guage competence is important for optimal foreign language university students. Such research could include analysis
learning. It is important to provide students with opportuni- of language proficiency test results and observation of the
ties to communicate, correct themselves, and develop their language learning process in the classroom.
language skills in authentic communicative situations. Re- In conclusion, this study contributes to the ongoing dis-
search has shown that engaging in collaborative learning course on language education by demonstrating that commu-
dialogues and active communication encourages students nicative teaching methods, when thoughtfully implemented,
to improve their language skills. It is important to avoidcan significantly improve students’ language proficiency.
one-way communication models in the classroom and to The research underscores the importance of incorporating
encourage interaction between students and the teacher to cognitive and psycholinguistic components into language
achieve the best language learning results. The use of com- tasks, providing a more holistic approach to language teach-
municative teaching methods aimed at developing students’ ing that goes beyond mere communication as a teaching
language skills requires the teacher to meet the requirements tool.
for the quality of tasks and to actively participate in collab- However, the findings also reveal areas that warrant
orative learning. Following clear instructions and careful further investigation. The role of scaffolding strategies in en-
monitoring of language processes help to achieve success in hancing communicative competence, particularly through the
learning a foreign language. hybridization of linguistic and cognitive discourses, remains
An activity-oriented foreign language course today a relatively underexplored field. Future research should fo-
would tend to instrumentalise language, which then becomes cus on empirically testing these strategies to identify the
a communication tool useful for social tasks. It is clear, how- most effective approaches for different student populations,
ever, that foreign language learning is itself a specific social particularly in higher education settings. Such studies could
phenomenon: students’ motivation is not really integrative or involve longitudinal analyses of language proficiency out-
utilitarian. Every act of communication is marked by a mix- comes, as well as observational research on classroom dy-
ture of authenticity and simulation of tasks, speeches, and namics and the impact of specific instructional techniques.
pronunciation situations. Communication about semantic Moreover, the potential for focus scaffolding strate-
and cultural content filtered through selected media remains gies to compensate for early immersion deficits and lim-
dominant, but the hybridisation of linguistic, meta-linguistic, ited natural language exposure is an exciting avenue for
and cognitive discourses offers the potential to be used to de- further research. Empirical studies in this area could signif-
velop oral language competence and restore the authenticity icantly advance our understanding of how best to support
of a different order. The paper notes the interest in scaffolding students in developing robust communicative competence,
strategies that exploit the bifocus inherent in communicative ultimately contributing to the evolution of modern linguistic
situations in higher education, as they allow compensating didactics and improving language teaching methodologies
for, among other things, the lack of early immersion and the
across higher education institutions.
atomisation of exposure time to natural language. The pro-
By focusing on these areas, future research can build
cess of acquisition should also be supported by the guidance
on the milestones laid out in this study, further unlocking
and design of tasks aimed at strengthening the psycholinguis-
the potential of innovative language teaching strategies and
tic components of discourse competence. This is an area that
is still relatively unexplored and open to action research, and helping to shape the next generation of language education
the reflections above lay down the first milestones. In the practices.

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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 06 | Issue 06 | December 2024

Author Contributions Language Class at Higher Education Institutions of

Ukraine. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching. 11(1),
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[4] Dando, C.J., Taylor, P.J., Sandham, A.L., 2023. Cross
software, D.D.; validation, Y.B., O.S., and N.L.; formal
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writing—original draft preparation, Y.B.; writing—review texts. Frontiers in Psychology. 14, 1–11. DOI: https:
and editing, N.L.; visualization, D.D.; supervision, Y.B.; //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.00001
[5] Krymets, L., 2022. What Must the Education of the
project administration, O.S.; funding acquisition, N.L. All
Future Be Like to Be Really Future? (Attempts of Philo-
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the sophical Reflection). Futurity Philosophy. 1(4), 28–41.
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[6] Sofilkanych, N., Vesova, O., Kaminskyy, V., et
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Funding Ukrainian Medicine: Benefits and Challenges for the
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The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during Language Acquisition and Psycholinguistics. In: God-
froid, A., Hopp, H. (Eds.). The Routledge Handbook of
the current study are available from the corresponding author
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The authors declare no conflict of interest. cesses in Language Learning and Teaching: Methods
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