B-RED 400

Research in
Education

B-RED 400
 BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE
TEACHING
AND
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN INTERMEDIATE PHASE
TEACHING

RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

YEAR 4
B-RED 400

LEVEL 7
CREDITS 22

CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

Copyright  SANTS Private Higher Education Institution Pty. Ltd.

PO Box 72328, Lynnwood Ridge, 0040

2020

 All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for research, criticism or review as
permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and
recording, without permission in writing from SANTS.
RESEARCH IN EDUCATION CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

2020 Edition

Programme coordinator Prof Ina Joubert

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Discipline coordinator Mr Hendri Kruger

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Author(s) Prof Lesley Wood

North-West University

Dr Carin Stoltz-Urban
Vortex Education Solutions

Dr Giulietta Harrison
SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Reviewer Dr Ronel Blom

Regent Business School

Language editor Ms Nellie Schröder

Freelance Language Editor

Technical editor Mrs Judith Brown

SANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Graphic artist N/A

Printing BusinessPrint

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RESEARCH IN EDUCATION CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE

TEACHING AND BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN
INTERMEDIATE PHASE TEACHING

1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE

Dear SANTS student,

We welcome you to the Research in Education (B-RED 400) module that forms part
of the Bachelor of Education in Foundation Phase Teaching programme OR Bachelor
of Education in Intermediate Phase Teaching programme and wish you success in
your studies.

The purpose of the Bachelor of Education in Foundation Phase Teaching programme

and the Bachelor of Education in Intermediate Phase Teaching programme is to offer
a curriculum that develops teachers who can acquire and eventually articulate focused
knowledge, skills and general principles appropriate for Foundation Phase teaching
as well as Intermediate Phase teaching, as specified in the Revised Policy on the
Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (Department of Higher
Education and Training, 2015).

The Bachelor of Education (BEd) qualification requires that teachers develop a depth
of specialised knowledge, practical competencies (skills) and experience in a
Foundation or Intermediate Phase context. As part of the BEd qualification, you will
need to gain experience in applying what you are learning during a period of
Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL). This means you will spend some time teaching
Foundation or Intermediate Phase learners in an authentic (real) context.

The BEd qualification programme is aligned with the Revised Policy on the Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, in particular Appendix C of the
policy that outlines the Basic Competencies of a Beginner Teacher (Department of
Higher Education and Training, 2015, Government Gazette, No. 38487, p. 62).

2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMMES

At the end of the four-year Bachelor of Education Teaching programme, you must
demonstrate the following competencies related to your own academic growth and
potential to work with Foundation Phase or Intermediate Phase learners:

BEd (Foundation Phase Teaching)

• Demonstrate competence in speaking, and reading and writing the language/s
of instruction in ways that facilitate own academic learning in a higher education
context.
• Interpret and use numerical and elementary statistical knowledge to facilitate
own academic learning and to manage teaching, learning and assessment.
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• Use Computer Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in daily life

and in teaching.
• Use Digital Pedagogies for Teachers to enhance teaching and learning in a
digital information age.
• Use Critical Literacies for Teachers in daily life and in teaching and learning.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical and pedagogical fields of
study that influence education and teaching and learning decisions and
practices.
• Demonstrate the ability to function responsibly within an education system,
an institution, and the community in which an institution is located.
• Demonstrate a respect for and commitment to the education profession.
• Demonstrate an understanding of:
o The principles underpinning the disciplines for the various learning
areas;
o Pedagogical content knowledge of the learning areas/subjects to be
taught;
o Planning and designing learning opportunities;
o Resourcing teaching and learning;
o Reflecting on teaching.
• Demonstrate competence in selecting, using and adjusting teaching and
learning strategies in ways that meets the needs of both learners and the
context of learning and teaching.
• Demonstrate competence in managing and administering learning
environments and supporting learners in ways promote social justice ideals.
• Demonstrate competence in monitoring and assessing learner progress
and achievement.

BEd (Intermediate Phase Teaching)

• Demonstrate competence in speaking, and reading and writing the language/s
of instruction in ways that facilitate own academic learning in a higher education
context.
• Interpret and use numerical and elementary statistical knowledge to facilitate
own academic learning and to manage teaching, learning and assessment.
• Use Computer Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in daily life
and in teaching.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical and pedagogical fields of
study that influence education and teaching and learning decisions and
practices.
• Demonstrate the ability to function responsibly within an education system,
an institution, and the community in which an institution is located.
• Demonstrate a respect for and commitment to the education profession.
• Demonstrate an understanding of:

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RESEARCH IN EDUCATION CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

o The principles underpinning the disciplines for the various learning

areas;
o Pedagogical content knowledge of the learning areas/subjects to be
taught;
o Planning and designing learning opportunities;
o Resourcing teaching and learning;
o Reflecting on teaching.
• Demonstrate competence in selecting, using and adjusting teaching and
learning strategies in ways that meet the needs of both learners and the context
of learning and teaching.
• Demonstrate competence in managing and administering learning
environments and supporting learners in ways that promote social justice
ideals.
• Demonstrate competence in monitoring and assessing learner progress
and achievement.

3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE
The BEd degree is presented on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Exit
level 7 with minimum total credits of 498, earned over the four years. The table below
shows the curriculum implementation plan of the BEd degree you are studying. It also
tells you how many credits each module carries. You will also see at which NQF level
the study material has been prepared and which modules you need to pass each year.
This four-year programme has been planned to strengthen the competencies you will
need as a beginner teacher.

Outline of modules of the BEd (Foundation Phase Teaching) programme

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
YEAR 1
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
Academic Literacy B-ALI 110 5 10 Critical Literacies for Teachers B-CLT 120 5 10
Introduction to Mathematics
Fundamental Mathematics B-FMA 110 5 10 F-MAT 120 5 10
Teaching in the Foundation Phase
Professional Studies in the
Computer Literacy B-CLI 110 5 10 Foundation Phase 1: Classroom F-PFS 121 5 10
Practice
Education Studies 1:
Education Studies 2: Theories of
Theories of Child B-EDS 111 5 10 B-EDS 122 6 12
Learning and Teaching
Development
Introduction to the Language
Introduction to Life Skills Teaching
and Literacy Landscape in F-LLL 110 5 10 F-LSK 120 5 10
in the Foundation Phase
the Foundation Phase
C-LCX 120
Language of Conversational
C-LCZ 120
Competence: isiXhosa / isiZulu / 5 10
C-LCS 120
Sepedi / Setswana
C-LCT 120
50 52-62
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 1 F-WIL 101 5 18
Sub-total credits for Year 1: 120 - 130

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Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
YEAR 2
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
English Home and First
English Home and First Additional
Additional Language and
F-EHF 211 6 15 Language and Literacy Teaching in F-EHF 222 6 15
Literacy Teaching in the
the Foundation Phase 2
Foundation Phase 1
Home Language and F-HLA 211 F-HLA 222
Home Language and Literacy
Literacy Teaching in the F-HLX 211 F-HLX 222
Teaching in the Foundation Phase
Foundation Phase 1: F-HLZ 211 6 12 F-HLZ 222 6 12
2: Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu /
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu F-HLS 211 F-HLS 222
Sepedi / Setswana
/ Sepedi / Setswana F-HLT 211 F-HLT 222
Professional Studies in the Professional Studies in the
Foundation Phase 2: School F-PFS 212 6 12 Foundation Phase 3: Social Justice F-PFS 223 6 12
and Classroom Management and Current Issues in Education
Education Studies 3:
Education Studies 4: History of
Curriculum, Pedagogy and B-EDS 213 6 12 B-EDS 224 6 12
Education and Education Policies
Assessment
Life Skills Teaching in the
Foundation Phase 1: Mathematics Teaching in the
F-LSK 211 6 12 F-MAT 221 6 12
Personal and Social Well- Foundation Phase 1
being
English First Additional Language
and Literacy Teaching in the F-FLE 221 6 12
Foundation Phase 1
First Additional Language and F-FLA 221
Literacy Teaching in the F-FLX 221
Foundation Phase 1: F-FLZ 221 6 12
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / F-FLS 221
Sepedi / Setswana F-FLT 221
48-63 60-63
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 2 F-WIL 202 6 20

Sub-total credits for Year 2: 128 - 146

YEAR 3
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
First Additional Language and F-FLA 322
English Home and First
Literacy Teaching in the F-FLX 322
Additional Language and
F-EHF 313 6 15 Foundation Phase 2: F-FLZ 322 6 12
Literacy Teaching in the
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / F-FLS 322
Foundation Phase 3
Sepedi / Setswana F-FLT 322
Home Language and F-HLA 313
Literacy Teaching in the F-HLX 313 English First Additional Language
Foundation Phase 3: F-HLZ 313 6 12 and Literacy Teaching in the F-FLE 322 6 12
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu F-HLS 313 Foundation Phase 2
/ Sepedi / Setswana F-HLT 313
Mathematics Teaching in the Mathematics Teaching in the
F-MAT 312 6 12 F-MAT 323 6 12
Foundation Phase 2 Foundation Phase 3
Life Skills Teaching in the
Life Skills Teaching in the
Foundation Phase 2: F-LSK 312 6 12 F-LSK 323 6 12
Foundation Phase 3: Creative Arts
Physical Education
Professional Studies in the
Education Studies 5:
B-EDS 315 7 14 Foundation Phase 4: Teacher F-PFS 324 7 14
Sociology of Education
Identity and the Profession
50-65 38-50
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 3 F-WIL 303 6 22
Sub-total credits for Year 3: 122 - 125
YEAR 4
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
First Additional Language and F-FLA 423
English Home and First
Literacy Teaching in the F-FLX 423
Additional Language and
F-EHF 414 7 14 Foundation Phase 3: F-FLZ 423 7 14
Literacy Teaching in the
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / F-FLS 423
Foundation Phase 4
Sepedi / Setswana F-FLT 423

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Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
Home Language and F-HLA 414
Literacy Teaching in the F-HLX 414 English First Additional Language
Foundation Phase 4: F-HLZ 414 7 14 and Literacy Teaching in the F-FLE 423 7 14
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu F-HLS 414 Foundation Phase 3
/ Sepedi / Setswana F-HLT 414
Digital Pedagogies for Mathematics Teaching in the
B-DPT 410 5 10 F-MAT 424 7 14
Teachers Foundation Phase 4
Life Skills Teaching in the Life Skills Teaching in the
Foundation Phase 4: Natural F-LSK 414 7 14 Foundation Phase 5: Social F-LSK 425 7 14
Sciences and Technology Sciences
38-52 28-42
Research in Education B-RED 400 7 22
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 4 F-WIL 404 7 26
Sub-total credits for Year 4: 128 - 128
Total credits for programme: 498 - 529

Outline of modules of the BEd (Intermediate Phase Teaching) programme

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
YEAR 1
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
Academic Literacy B-ALI 110 5 10 Critical Literacies for Teachers B-CLT 120 5 10
Introduction to Mathematics
Fundamental Mathematics B-FMA 110 5 10 Teaching in the Intermediate I-MAT 120 5 10
Phase
Professional Studies in the
Computer Literacy B-CLI 110 5 10 Intermediate Phase 1: Classroom I-PFS 121 5 10
Practice
Education Studies 1:
Education Studies 2: Theories of
Theories of Child B-EDS 111 5 10 B-EDS 122 6 12
Learning and Teaching
Development
Introduction to the Language Introduction to Natural Sciences
and Literacy Landscape in I-LLL 110 5 10 and Technology Teaching in the I-NST 120 5 10
the Intermediate Phase Intermediate Phase
C-LCX 120
Language of Conversational
C-LCZ 120
Competence: isiXhosa / isiZulu / 5 10
C-LCS 120
Sepedi / Setswana
C-LCT 120
50 52-62
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 1 I-WIL 101 5 18
Sub-total credits for Year 1: 120-130
YEAR 2
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
English Home and First
English Home and First Additional
Additional Language and
I-EHF 211 6 15 Language and Literacy Teaching I-EHF 222 6 15
Literacy Teaching in the
in the Intermediate Phase 2
Intermediate Phase 1
Home Language and I-HLA 211 I-HLA 222
Home Language and Literacy
Literacy Teaching in the I-HLX 211 I-HLX 222
Teaching in the Intermediate
Intermediate Phase 1: I-HLZ 211 6 12 I-HLZ 222 6 12
Phase 2: Afrikaans / isiXhosa /
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu I-HLS 211 I-HLS 222
isiZulu / Sepedi / Setswana
/ Sepedi / Setswana I-HLT 211 I-HLT 222
Education Studies 3:
Education Studies 4: History of
Curriculum, Pedagogy and B-EDS 213 6 12 B-EDS 224 6 12
Education and Education Policies
Assessment
Professional Studies in the
Professional Studies in the
Intermediate Phase 2:
I-PFS 212 6 12 Intermediate Phase 3: Social Justice I-PFS 223 6 12
School and Classroom
and Current Issues in Education
Management
Natural Sciences and
Mathematics Teaching in the
Technology Teaching in the I-NST 211 6 12 I-MAT 221 6 12
Intermediate Phase 1
Intermediate Phase 1

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Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits
English First Additional Language
and Literacy Teaching in the I-FLE 221 6 12
Intermediate Phase 1
First Additional Language and I-FLA 221
Literacy Teaching in the I-FLX 221
Intermediate Phase 1: Afrikaans / I-FLZ 221 6 12
isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi / I-FLS 221
Setswana I-FLT 221
48-63 60-63
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 2 I-WIL 202 6 20
Sub-total credits for Year 2: 128-146
YEAR 3
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
First Additional Language and I-FLA 322
English Home and First
Literacy Teaching in the I-FLX 322
Additional Language and
I-EHF 313 6 15 Intermediate Phase 2: Afrikaans / I-FLZ 322 6 12
Literacy Teaching in the
isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi / I-FLS 322
Intermediate Phase 3
Setswana I-FLT 322
Home Language and I-HLA 313
Literacy Teaching in the I-HLX 313 English First Additional Language
Intermediate Phase 3: I-HLZ 313 6 12 and Literacy Teaching in the I-FLE 322 6 12
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu I-HLS 313 Intermediate Phase 2
/ Sepedi / Setswana I-HLT 313
Natural Sciences and Natural Sciences and Technology
Technology Teaching in the I-NST 312 6 12 Teaching in the Intermediate I-NST 323 6 12
Intermediate Phase 2 Phase 3
Professional Studies in the
Education Studies 5:
B-EDS 315 7 14 Intermediate Phase 4: Teacher I-PFS 324 7 14
Sociology of Education
Identity and the Profession
Mathematics Teaching in the Mathematics Teaching in the
I-MAT 312 6 12 I-MAT 323 6 12
Intermediate Phase 2 Intermediate Phase 3
50-65 38-50
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 3 I-WIL 303 6 22
Sub-total credits for Year 3: 122-125
YEAR 4
SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2
First Additional Language and I-FLA 423
English Home and First
Literacy Teaching in the I-FLX 423
Additional Language and
I-EHF 414 7 15 Intermediate Phase 3: Afrikaans / I-FLZ 423 7 15
Literacy Teaching in the
isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi / I-FLS 423
Intermediate Phase 4
Setswana I-FLT 423
Home Language and I-HLA 414
Literacy Teaching in the I-HLX 414 English First Additional Language
Intermediate Phase 4: I-HLZ 414 7 15 and Literacy Teaching in the I-FLE 423 7 15
Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu I-HLS 414 Intermediate Phase 3
/ Sepedi / Setswana I-HLT 414
Natural Sciences and
Mathematics Teaching in the
Technology Teaching in the I-NST 414 7 15 I-MAT 424 7 15
Intermediate Phase 4
Intermediate Phase 4
Digital Pedagogies for Economic and Management
B-DPT 410 5 10 I-EMS 420 5 10
Teachers Sciences
40-55 25-40
Research in Education B-RED 400 7 22
Workplace Integrated Learning Year 4 I-WIL 404 7 26
Sub-total credits for Year 4: 128-128
Total credits for programme: 498-529

Language competencies will be assessed during your programme.

The modules in the programme can be divided into four broad types of learning
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, pp. 9-11). Each type of learning

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develops specific knowledge, values and attitudes, competencies and skills to

achieve the overall exit level outcomes of the programme.

The different types of learning are:

Fundamental learning, which includes student personal and academic
development

• This type of learning involves academic literacy, critical literacies for teachers,
fundamental mathematics, computer literacy, digital pedagogies for teachers
and the ability to converse competently in a second official language.

Disciplinary learning

• Disciplinary learning refers to disciplinary or subject matter knowledge and

includes the study of education and its foundations as well as the study of
specific specialised (phase specific) subject matter.

Situational learning

• Situational learning refers to knowledge of the varied learning situations of

learners and specifically learning about the context and environments of the
learner and related educational policies.

Pedagogical learning

• This learning incorporates general pedagogical knowledge referring to the study

of principles, practices and methods of teaching; as well as specialised
pedagogical content or subject knowledge which includes how to present
concepts, methods, strategies, approaches and rules of a specific discipline
when teaching.
• It also includes tools for implementing teaching and learning and assessment
in context.

Practical learning

• This learning involves learning from practice, which includes the study of
practice by analysing different practices across contexts e.g. drawing from case
studies, observation of lessons and videos; and learning in practice in authentic
and simulated classroom environments.
• Workplace Integrated Learning takes place in the workplace and can include
aspects of learning from practice and learning in practice.

Depending on the purpose of a qualification, particular mixes of the five types of

learning are made. These mixes are called the knowledge mix of a module
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, p. 11) and are related to the NQF
level and credit value of a module. The NQF level of knowledge for this module is set

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at level 7 and it carries 22 credits. For every credit, you should spend approximately
10 hours mastering the content. You will thus have to spend at least 220 hours studying
the B-RED 400 material and doing the assignments and other assessments.

The knowledge mix of this level 7 module with the related credits is as follows:

• Disciplinary learning (22 credits).

Most modules display an integration of the above-mentioned types of learning. Apart

from the knowledge mix, the programme structure is also based on three broad
organising principles. The modules in this programme have been grouped according
to these principles as illustrated in the following table.

Organising principles of the programme structure of the BEd (Foundation

Phase Teaching) and BEd (Intermediate Phase Teaching) programmes

Organising
Modules in programme
principles
Personal and Academic Literacy
academic Fundamental Mathematics
development Computer Literacy
(Fundamental Critical Literacies for Teachers
modules) Digital Pedagogies for Teachers
Language of Conversational Competence
Theoretical and Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development
Conceptual Education Studies 2: Theories of Learning and Teaching
Content Education Studies 3: Curriculum, Pedagogy and
Knowledge Assessment
(Core modules) Education Studies 4: History of Education and Education
Policies
Education Studies 5: Sociology of Education
Professional Studies in the FP / IP 1: Classroom Practice
Professional Studies in the FP / IP 2: School and Classroom
Management
Professional Studies in the FP / IP 3: Social Justice and
Current Issues in Education
Professional Studies in the FP / IP 4: Teacher Identity and
the Profession
Research in Education
Pedagogical FOUNDATION PHASE (FP)
Content Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in the
Knowledge (PCK) FP
(Phase specific Introduction to Mathematics Teaching in the FP
modules) Mathematics Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4
Introduction to Life Skills in the FP
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Organising
Modules in programme
principles
Life Skills Teaching in the FP 1: Personal and Social Well-
being
Life Skills Teaching in the FP 2: Physical Education
Life Skills Teaching in the FP 3: Creative Arts
Life Skills Teaching in the FP 4: Natural Sciences and
Technology
Life Skills Teaching in the FP 5: Social Sciences

Languages:
Six language options:

English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy

Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4
Choose another (additional) language at Home Language
level OR First Additional Language level: Afrikaans,
isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana
Only if Afrikaans is chosen as another language: choose
between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as Language
of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP

1, 2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the FP 1, 2 and 3
Choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as
Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP

1, 2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the FP 1, 2 and 3

isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1,

2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the FP 1, 2 and 3

Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1,

2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the FP 1, 2 and 3

Setswana Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the

FP 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Organising
Modules in programme
principles
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the FP 1, 2 and 3

INTERMEDIATE PHASE (IP)

Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in the
IP
Introduction to Mathematics Teaching in the IP
Mathematics Teaching in the IP 1, 2, 3 and 4
Introduction to Natural Sciences and Technology Teaching
in the IP
Natural Sciences and Technology Teaching in the IP 1, 2, 3
and 4
Economic and Management Sciences

Languages:
Six language options:

English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy

Teaching in the IP 1, 2, 3 and 4
Choose another (additional) language at Home Language
and Literacy Teaching in the IP level OR First Additional
Language and Literacy Teaching in the Intermediate Phase
level: Afrikaans, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana
Only if Afrikaans is chosen as another language: choose
between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as Language
of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the IP

1, 2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the IP 1, 2 and 3
Choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Setswana as
Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)

isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the IP

1, 2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the IP 1, 2 and 3

isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the IP 1,

2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the IP 1, 2 and 3

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Organising
Modules in programme
principles
Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the IP 1,
2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the IP 1, 2 and 3

Setswana Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the IP

1, 2, 3 and 4
English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in
the IP 1, 2 and 3

Students draw on what they have learnt in the respective (all) modules to learn in and
through practice during Workplace Integrated Learning.

4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

Purpose

The purpose of this module is to provide the student teacher with an understanding of
research appropriate for improving classroom practice. Students are introduced to
action research and how it can be used to improve teaching so that learners will be
better able to learn. Further to this, it provides the opportunity for the student teacher
to engage in their own action research project.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

• Understand the purpose and use of action research in education.

• Understand the principles and cycle of action research.
• Identify a problem in an authentic school/classroom context.
• Design and carry out an action research project.
• Reflect on practice.
• Use evidence to enhance teaching.

Content

The module introduces the student to the purpose and principles of action research.
The action research cycle and research methods used in action research are
explained. The student teacher is guided to design an action research enquiry and
compose a research proposal. The project included in the module provides the
opportunity for the student teacher to reflect on actual research problems they
experience in the classroom and apply the methodology they have learnt in practice.

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The content in this module comprises:

• Orientations towards research in education.

• The purpose of action research and the principles on which it is based.
• Understand the cycles of reflection and action.
• Research methods used in action research.
• Identify a problem in a school or classroom context.
• Develop a research topic and question that will guide your study.
• Design and implement an action research project.
• Research report writing, and presentation.

Competencies

• Perform basic research;

• Use evidence to improve practice;
• Reflect critically; and
• Transformative praxis.

5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND

LEARNING GUIDE
We developed the Curriculum and Learning Guide (CLG) to help you master the
content through a distance education mode. You will not have full time tutoring or
support but the Student Orientation Booklet, accessible at MySANTS, offers
guidelines for distance learning. Aspects such as plagiarism are also explained in this
booklet. Make use of MySANTS as a support system for any academic queries.

These guidelines will help you to:

• Work consistently throughout the semester,

• Manage your time efficiently,
• Complete assignments on time, and
• Prepare for tests and examinations.

As you read the CLG, draw on your own experiences and the knowledge you already
have. The core text and recommended reading texts included in the CLG will also
help you to deepen your understanding of the content and concepts you are working
through.

In the CLG, you will find a glossary (word list). The word list will help you understand
difficult concepts by providing the definitions (meaning) of such words.

You will also find icons (small pictures). The icons indicate the type of activity you
must do. If you do each activity as suggested, you ought to advance and consolidate
your understanding of the core concepts in the module. You will find a list of the icons
used in this CLG on the next page.
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Reading and writing activities have been designed to help you make connections
with what you already know, master the content and reflect on what you have learnt.
Scenarios (situations resembling an authentic (real-life) context) and dialogues
provide background to what you are learning. The review/self-assessment questions
are based on the learning outcomes.

Doing each activity will help you understand the content. Get a book or file in which
you complete all your activities. Write full sentences and always use your own words
to show your understanding. Working systematically through each activity, according
to the estimated time for each activity as provided, will also help prepare you for
assessments (assignments and the examination).
Try to find other students to work with. It is easier to share ideas and complete
activities when working in a study group. Doing so, may help you to master the
content more easily.
Commentaries appear at the bottom of some activities. Commentaries are not
answers but rather a reflection to guide your understanding of the activity and to assist
you in knowing whether your own answer is appropriate or not. These commentaries
alert you to aspects you need to consider when doing the activity.
WRITING ACTIVITY
An activity is designed to help you assess your progress
and manage your learning. Sometimes you will have to
define, explain, and/or interpret a concept. Scenarios and
dialogues are often used to contextualise an activity. They
will also help you bridge theory and practice by linking the
concept and real life situations. When responding to the
activities, use your own words to show your
understanding. Do not copy directly from the text of the
CLG. At the end of most activities, you will find
commentary that aims to guide your thinking and assess
how well you have understood the concepts. The activities
are numbered for easy reference.
READING ACTIVITY
Reading activities may require you to read additional
material not printed in the Curriculum and Learning Guide.
These readings will be either the full text or part of a core
or recommended journal article. Journal articles will give
you an expanded or alternative view on a concept. You
might be required to explain the concept from a different
perspective or compare what has been stated in the CLG
with what you read in the journal article.

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STUDY GROUP DISCUSSION

All study group discussions or peer activities require
preparation BEFORE the discussion. Preparation includes
reading and completing activities in writing. Study group
discussions are an opportunity for reflection and for you to
apply what you have learnt. Sharing your learning
experiences may help you to learn with and from each
other. Study group discussions can be done in your own
study group or with a peer.
REFLECTION
Reflection means to think deeply or carefully about
something. Reflection activities require you to review
critically what you have learnt and link this with your
personal experiences or what you have observed during
Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL).
REVIEW / SELF-ASSESSMENT
Often questions are provided at the end of each unit.
These questions are similar to the type of questions that
you may be asked in assignments or examinations.

6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

As a distance education student, it is your responsibility to engage with the content

and direct your learning by efficiently and effectively managing your time.

We designed the following self-directed learning programme template to plan your time
carefully and manage your independent learning. The template will also help you to
keep to due dates and thus complete the assignments on time. Careful time
management and breaking the work up into manageable chunks will help you work
through the content without feeling too stressed. Once you have worked through the
activities, you should contribute to discussions in your study group and during the non-
compulsory student academic support sessions with peers and academic tutors.

When completing the template, consider the following:

• This module is offered in your final year of study.

• Each semester is 15 - 20 weeks long.
• The module carries 22 credits and has been developed for NQF level 7. It
should take you about 220 hours to work through this module.
• The 220 hours will be spent reading, studying, and completing the activities
in this CLG and the assignments in the form of a research proposal and a
research project.
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• The estimated time to read for and complete each activity has been
suggested.
• You will need approximately 30 hours to complete your research proposal.
• You will need approximately 100 hours to complete your research project.

Plan your studies and keep the pace of your progress by completing the template
below. In the first semester of this module, you will have to submit your research
proposal. In the second semester of this module, you will have to submit your research
project. It is not divided into specific weeks but into the number of units in the CLG.
Depending on the nature of the content, it is possible to complete two or more units in
one week. Sometimes, you may only be able to complete one unit in a week. Use the
template as a guide to help you plan and pace yourself as you work through the content
and activities in each unit.

Add dates to the template indicating when you plan to start working through a particular
unit. In addition, using a SANTS academic calendar will also assist you to pace your
learning. There is also space to indicate the due dates (deadlines) of the assessments.

UNIT IN CLG CONTENT IN CLG DATE PLANNED

Situating teacher action

UNIT 1
research
ACTION RESEARCH:
PURPOSE AND
Developing your research
PRINCIPLES
question(s)

UNIT 2 The action research design

DESIGNING ACTION
RESEARCH The ethics of action
research

The proposal as a plan

UNIT 3 Role of theory and

THE RESEARCH literature
PROPOSAL
Constructing your action
research proposal

Submit research proposal

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UNIT IN CLG CONTENT IN CLG DATE PLANNED

Preparing to conduct
research

UNIT 4
Conduct the empirical
CONDUCTING ACTION
study
RESEARCH

Constructing your research

report

Execute research project and submit a final research report.

7. CORE READING

The core reading is an essential part of your studies. Therefore, it would be best if you
referred to this text when answering some of the questions in the activities.

1. Choeda, C., Drukpa, P., Yuden, Y., Dukpa, P. & Chuki, S. (2018). A Guide to
Action Research: Enhancing Professional Practice of Teachers in Bhutan.
Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Education Council. Available online at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326647992_A_Guide_to_Action_R
esearch_Enhancing_Professional_Practice_of_Teachers_in_Bhutan

2. Alber, S.M. (2011). A Toolkit for Action Research. Lanham, Md: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers. Available online at EBSCOhost permalink:
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=350455&s
ite=ehost-live

Core readings are available on EBSCOhost or online. To access the reading on

EBSCOhost, please click on the library tab.

8. RECOMMENDED READING
The following source is recommended for reading to obtain more information:

Rust, F. & Clark, C. (2007). How to do action research in your classroom.

Lessons from the Teachers Network Leadership Institute. New York: Teachers
Network. Available online at: http://docplayer.net/7779433-How-to-do-action-
research-in-your-classroom-lessons-from-the-teachers-network-leadership-
institute-by-frances-rust-and-christopher-clark.html

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Recommended reading should be accessed when you want to learn more than what
is included in your CLG and core readers.

9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE

Information regarding the SANTS Assessment policy is included in the Student

Orientation Booklet. This policy comprises progression rules, requests for the perusal
of marked scripts, remarking of assessments etc. This policy is also available on
MySANTS. The following table provides a summary of the assessment for this
module.

9.1 Summary of assessment

TYPES OF FORM OF ASSESSMENT WEIGHTING

ASSESSMENT
Formative assessment Research proposal (100 marks) 40%
Summative assessment Action research report (100 60%
marks)
TOTAL 100%

In this module, assessment is continuous. The Curriculum and Learning Guide (CLG)
activities are varied and aim to guide you in completing the research proposal and
research project.

9.2 Action research proposal and project

Detailed information includes the assessment tools (rubrics) for both the proposal
and the project provided with your CLG.

Please use the Harvard method of referencing as explained in the Academic Literacy
module (B-ALI 110) (Dison, & Evans, 2020) and extended in the referencing guide
for students consistently throughout the text and reference list of your proposal and
research report. The referencing guide for students is available on MySANTS.

10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS

Plagiarism is a form of academic misconduct that can lead to educational or

disciplinary action and has severe consequences such as, in some cases, civil or
criminal prosecution.

You are guilty of plagiarism if you copy from another person’s or another entity’s work
(e.g. a book, an article, a website, another student’s assignment or using artificial

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intelligence, such as ChatGPT) without acknowledging the source and thereby

pretending it is your own work. You would not steal someone’s purse so why steal
his/her work or ideas. Submitting any work that you have written but have already used
elsewhere (thus not “original”), is also a form of plagiarism (auto-plagiarism). An
example is when you submit the same assignment or a part of it for two different
modules.

Avoiding plagiarism by being academically honest is not difficult. Here is what you
should do:

• Submit only your own and original work.

• When using another person’s or another entity’s (such as artificial
intelligence tools) actual words, sentences or paragraphs, indicate exactly
which parts are not your own (even if presented in the CLG). You must do
this by referencing in accordance with the Harvard style — a recognised
system specified by SANTS, and you must use quotation marks (“...”).
• You must also reference precisely when using another person’s or another
entity’s (such as artificial intelligence tools) ideas, opinions or theory. You
must do so even if you have paraphrased using your own words.
• You must acknowledge any information or images that you have
downloaded from the Internet by providing the URL link (web address) and
the date on which the item was accessed (downloaded).
• Never allow any student to use or copy any work from you and then to
present it as their own.
• Never copy what other students have done to present as your own.
• Do not engage in the unauthorised use of AI tools such as ChatGPT.
• Prepare original assignments for each module and do not submit the same
work for another module.
• Always list any student who contributed to a group assignment. Never
submit the work as if only you worked on the assignment.

The Assessment Policy and Procedures document emphasises the importance of

academic honesty in SANTS students:

“Students may not act in a dishonest way with regard to any test or examination
assessment, as well as with regard to the completion and/or submission of any
other academic task or assignment. Dishonest conduct includes, among other
things, plagiarism, as well as the submission of work by a student for the
purpose of assessment, when the work in question is, with the exception of
group work as decided by the Academic Committee, the work of somebody else
either in full or in part, or where the work is the result of collusion between the
student and another person or persons.”

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All cases of suspected plagiarism will be investigated and if you are found guilty, there
are serious consequences. Disciplinary action that may result includes:

• You may lose marks for the assignment/activity. Your marks may be reduced
by as much as 50%. You may even be given zero.
• The module may be cancelled and you will have to enrol again. This is a
great waste of time and money.
• Your registration for that entire year may be cancelled. That means not all
the marks you achieved in all the modules you enrolled for will count
anything.
• In some cases, prosecutions in courts of law may be instituted.

Plagiarism is considered such a serious academic crime that you are required to
confirm on every assignment that you submit, that the work is your own and that you
are aware of the SANTS Plagiarism Policy and the consequences of transgressing it.

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CONTENT

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING AND

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN INTERMEDIATE PHASE TEACHING ................. ii
1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE ........................................................................... ii
2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMMES .............................................................. ii
3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE ............................................................................ iv
4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE ......................................................................... xii
5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE ........... xiii
6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING .......................................................................... xv
7. CORE READING ............................................................................................ xvii
8. RECOMMENDED READING .......................................................................... xvii
9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE ................................................................ xviii
9.1 Summary of assessment................................................................. xviii
9.2 Action research proposal and project .............................................. xviii
10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS .................................................. xviii
RESEARCH IN EDUCATION .................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE ....................................... 1
3. GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................... 2
UNIT 1: ACTION RESEARCH: PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES ................................ 4
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 4
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1 ................................. 5
SECTION 1: SITUATING TEACHER ACTION RESEARCH ..................................... 5
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5
2. BASICS FOR RESEARCH ................................................................................ 5
2.1 Using a journal or notebook ................................................................ 6
2.2 Establishing a timeline ........................................................................ 6
3. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH .................................................................... 9
3.1 Types of research ............................................................................. 10
3.2 Research design and methodology ................................................... 11
4. ACTION RESEARCH ...................................................................................... 13
4.1 Definition and purpose of action research ......................................... 13
4.2 Benefits of action research................................................................ 14
5. THE PRINCIPLES OF ACTION RESEARCH .................................................. 16
5.1 Ontological principles ........................................................................ 17
5.2 Epistemological principles ................................................................. 18
5.3 Methodological principles .................................................................. 19
5.4 Relationship between ontology, epistemology and methodology ...... 20
6. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 22
SECTION 2: DEVELOPING YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION(S) ............................ 23
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 23
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2. ACTION RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND TRADITIONAL RESEARCH

QUESTIONS.................................................................................................... 23
3. DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTION(S) .................................................... 24
3.1 Identifying a research problem .......................................................... 25
3.2 Formulating a meaningful action research question as the main
question ............................................................................................ 27
3.3 Setting sub-questions........................................................................ 27
4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 31
UNIT 2: DESIGNING ACTION RESEARCH ............................................................ 32
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 32
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 2 ............................. 32
SECTION 1: THE ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN................................................... 33
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 33
2. RESEARCH DESIGN ...................................................................................... 33
3. THE ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN CYCLE................................................... 33
3.1 Steps in the action research cycle .................................................... 34
3.2 The importance of critical reflection .................................................. 37
4. RESEARCH METHODS IN ACTION RESEARCH .......................................... 38
4.1 Observation....................................................................................... 40
4.2 Reflective diaries ............................................................................... 41
4.3 Piloting your research tools ............................................................... 43
4.4 Learner work and document analysis ............................................... 43
4.5 Visual methods ................................................................................. 45
4.6 A case study approach...................................................................... 46
4.7 Interviews .......................................................................................... 48
4.8 Questionnaires .................................................................................. 50
5. DECIDING WHICH METHODS TO USE ......................................................... 52
6. DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 54
7. ENSURING TRUSTWORTHINESS ................................................................. 61
8. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 62
SECTION 2: THE ETHICS OF ACTION RESEARCH ............................................. 63
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 63
2. DEFINING ETHICS ......................................................................................... 63
3. GETTING PERMISSION ................................................................................. 64
4. OTHER ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................... 67
5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 67
UNIT 3: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL .................................................................. 69
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 69
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 3 ............................... 69
SECTION 1: THE PROPOSAL AS A PLAN ............................................................ 70
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 70
2. PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL .................................................... 70
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3. CONTENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL..................................................... 71

4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 73
SECTION 2: ROLE OF THEORY AND LITERATURE ............................................ 73
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 73
2. THE LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 73
2.1 Purpose of a literature review ........................................................... 73
2.2 Types of literature ............................................................................. 76
2.3 Writing the literature review ............................................................... 77
2.4 Capturing the literature review process ............................................. 79
3. THE ROLE OF THEORY IN YOUR RESEARCH ............................................ 80
3.1 Choosing a theorist ........................................................................... 80
3.2 Applying a theory to your research ................................................... 82
4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 83
SECTION 3: CONSTRUCTING YOUR ACTION RESEARCH PROPOSAL ........... 83
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 83
2. CONSTRUCTING YOUR PROPOSAL ............................................................ 84
2.1 Background and rationale ................................................................. 84
2.2 Research questions and aims ........................................................... 87
2.3 Actions to improve the situation ........................................................ 88
2.4 Research design ............................................................................... 89
2.5 Ensuring trustworthiness ................................................................... 92
2.6 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 93
2.7 Expected impact and significance of the study ................................. 94
2.8 Limitations of the study ..................................................................... 95
2.9 References ........................................................................................ 95
3. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 96
UNIT 4: CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH ........................................................ 98
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 98
2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 4 ............................... 98
SECTION 1: PREPARING TO CONDUCT RESEARCH ......................................... 99
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 99
2. TURNING YOUR PROPOSAL INTO AN OUTLINE FOR THE RESEARCH
REPORT .......................................................................................................... 99
3. TIME MANAGEMENT.................................................................................... 101
SECTION 2: CONDUCT THE EMPIRICAL STUDY .............................................. 103
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 103
2. PLANNING FOR DATA COLLECTION.......................................................... 103
2.1 Consent forms ................................................................................. 103
2.2 Data collection strategies ................................................................ 104
3. DATA COLLECTION ..................................................................................... 105
4. DATA INTERPRETATION ............................................................................. 106
4.1 Writing up the data .......................................................................... 106
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4.2 Drawing conclusions ....................................................................... 107

4.3 Reflect on the results ...................................................................... 108
SECTION 3: CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH REPORT ............................. 109
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 109
2. YOUR ACTION RESEARCH REPORT ......................................................... 109
2.1 Research report title ........................................................................ 109
2.2 Background to the study ................................................................. 110
2.3 Rationale for the study .................................................................... 110
2.4 Literature that informed action ........................................................ 110
2.5 Theories that informed action .......................................................... 110
2.6 Research methodology ................................................................... 111
2.7 Measures to ensure trustworthiness ............................................... 111
2.8 Ethical considerations ..................................................................... 111
2.9 Discussion of findings ..................................................................... 111
2.10 Significance of research .................................................................. 111
2.11 Reference list .................................................................................. 112
2.12 Research report annexures............................................................. 112
3. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 112
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 114
ADDENDUM A: FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ............................. 120
ADDENDUM B: ASSESSMENT RUBRIC FOR PROPOSAL IN YOUR FIRST
SEMESTER ................................................................................ 128
ADDENDUM C: ASSESSMENT RUBRIC FOR RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT
FOR THE SECOND SEMESTER ............................................... 132

ACTIVITIES 1 TO 39

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Illustration of a possible research project timeline ............................... 7

Figure 2: Basic vs applied research ................................................................. 10
Figure 3: Research designs ............................................................................. 11
Figure 4: Relationship between research terms ............................................... 16
Figure 5: Changing attitudes amongst teachers ............................................... 29
Figure 6: A simple action research cycle .......................................................... 34
Figure 7: Family income ................................................................................... 56
Figure 8: Use of an Excel spreadsheet to convert data.................................... 57
Figure 9: Overview of the literature review process ......................................... 79
Figure 10: Key theorists and their theories ......................................................... 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Three main paradigms in research ................................................... 20

Table 2: Traditional versus action research questions .................................... 24
Table 3: Real-life dilemmas turned into action research questions ................. 25
Table 4: Documentary evidence ..................................................................... 44
Table 5: Summarising a case study approach ................................................ 47
Table 6: Organise different data sets .............................................................. 55
Table 7: Content of research proposal ............................................................ 71
Table 8: Literature review table ....................................................................... 75
Table 9: Turning your proposal into a research report .................................. 100
Table 10: Research work plan template .......................................................... 102

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RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

1. INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Research in Education (B-RED 400). This module is presented in your

final year of study as a year module. This module will teach what research is, the
purpose of research, and why teachers have to research. We will first outline the
various types of and approaches to research.

You will then learn about a specific type of research called ‘action research’. Finally,
you will learn how to use action research in your school and classroom as a way to
identify challenges and propose solutions that will improve learning and teaching.

This module will also help you compose a research proposal for the research project
you have to complete as part of the module requirements and guide you through the
research process.

2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

This module consists of four units and the following outcomes:

RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Action research: Purpose and Designing action research
principles
Outcomes: After you have
Outcomes: After you have completed this unit, you should be
completed this unit, you should be able to:
able to: • Describe the action research
• Situating teacher action research design.
by providing a description. • Explain the ethics of action
• Develop your research research.
question(s).

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UNIT 3 UNIT 4
The research proposal Conducting action research
Outcomes: After you have Outcomes: After you have
completed this unit, you should be completed this unit, you should be
able to: able to:
• Design the proposal as a plan. • Explain the preparation to
• Describe the role of theory and conduct research.
literature. • Describe the conducting of the
• Construct an action research empirical study.
proposal. • Construct (write and finalise) and
reflect on the research report.

3. GLOSSARY
Understanding the following terms will help you in your study of this module:

Action research - Action research should result in a transformative

change. This happens through the simultaneous
process of taking action and doing research.

Bias - If you are biased towards something, you prefer it, e.g.
you may interpret data in a particular way because a
specific theory or idea biases you.

Blended learning - Using a mix of face-to-face and online learning and

teaching.

Caption - A title or heading that describes something.

Embody a value - It means to live according to the value you say you
hold, e.g. if you embody the value of care, you will act
compassionately to all people.

Epistemology - Epistemology refers to how we believe knowledge is

created.

Interpret data - Interpreting or analysing data means trying to find

meaning from it, using your theories as a way of
understanding it.

Key words - These are words that are important to your topic and
that will help you find literature on it.

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Methodology - Many researchers understand this as the same as a

research design. Some research is understood by
research design as the ‘big plan’ for the study and
methodology as the different ways or methods to collect
data; it explains how we choose participants, gather
data, and analyse it to ensure findings are valid.

Narrative - In qualitative research, this means presenting your

findings in written form, like a story.

Ontology - Ontology means the nature of being – how we relate to

other people and the world.

Pilot - If you pilot a data generation tool, you test it on a small

number of participants to see if it works.

Propositional - This a theory that states something as truth, based on

theory empirical research, e.g. Piaget’s theory of how children
learn.

Qualitative - Qualitative research includes conversational and open-

research ended communication. Data are generally non-
numerical and obtained by first-hand observation,
interviews, questionnaires, and focus groups.

Quantitative - Quantitative research involves collecting and analysing

research numerical data. It is generally formed from a deductive
approach where the emphasis is placed on the testing
of theory.

Research design - A research design is the ‘big plan’ for your research to
help you carry out each step and activity.

Research - The research process follows each step in the research

process design – for example, a literature review or data
collection.

Research project - A scientific endeavor to answer a research question.

Research - A question that a research project sets out to answer.

question This can include the main research question and the
sub-questions.

Research report - A structured formal document prepared by the

researcher to explain in detail what was researched
(research topic and question(s)), how the research was
conducted, including the findings and an analysis of the
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results. Research reports generally also highlight

possible limitations of the research and include
actionable recommendations/ideas that others can act
upon.

Self-reflection - Thinking about your attitudes, knowledge, skills and

behaviour to identify things you might need to change.

Significant - Your findings are significant when they have value for
your practice and the practice of other teachers, or
policy.

Template - A template is a guide or model for something – in this

case, the structure of your proposal.

Transcription - A transcription of data is when you listen to the tape

you made of an interview or a lesson, and you write
down word for word what was said. Then, you
transcribe the data from audio to written form.

Trustworthiness - This means how much we can trust the findings of the
study to be true.

Validity - This is similar to trustworthiness – do your findings

hold? For example, if you say you improved your
teaching, do you give enough research-based evidence
of this so others can see it is true?

Values - Principles or standards of behaviour; one's judgment of

what is essential in life, e.g. respect, democracy etc.

UNIT 1: ACTION RESEARCH: PURPOSE AND

PRINCIPLES

1. INTRODUCTION

In this Unit, you will learn the basic concepts regarding research and specific action
research. You will learn why it is essential for teachers to do action research to improve
their practice. You will also learn what principles and values action research is based
on. You will also learn how to develop a good action research question.

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2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1

Unit 1 consists of the following two sections and learning outcomes:

UNIT 1
ACTION RESEARCH: PURPOSE
AND PRINCIPLES

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Situating teacher action research Developing your research
question(s)
Learning outcomes: At the end of
this section, you should be able to: Learning outcomes: At the end of
• Explain basic research concepts this section, you should be able to:
and terms. • Outline and explain the attributes
• Differentiate between basic of a good action research
research and applied research. question.
• Explain the importance of action • Develop an action research
research in teaching practice. question and sub-questions.
• Identify and explain the
philosophical and methodological
principles that underpin action
research.

SECTION 1: SITUATING TEACHER ACTION

RESEARCH

1. INTRODUCTION

This section elaborates on research as a field and the various types of and research
approaches. We will then focus on action research, as that is the type of research
required of you in this programme. Finally, you will learn why teachers should do action
research as a regular part of their teaching.

2. BASICS FOR RESEARCH

Before we can start investigating the basic principles of research, it is essential to

consider a few fundamental principles for conducting research. This section will
discuss what these starting blocks are.
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2.1 Using a journal or notebook

As you work through this module which includes designing a proposal and conducting
action research, you will find many ideas or thoughts that you will want to note or jot
down. Some of these ideas will ultimately be fed into either your proposal and or your
actual research. Others will be rejected along the way, and that is normal. You will
want to note valuable contacts, readings and suggestions. See also the section on
reflective diaries (Section 1, Unit 2).

Keeping a notebook or journal will allow you to store all of this information in one place.
It will also serve as a helpful place for you to do the activities housed in this module,
many of which are designed to assist you in building your research muscle. By that,
we mean your skill set of developing an understanding of research, designing your
research, and ultimately implementing it. Furthermore, it will allow you to look back
once you have handed in your research and see the journey you have travelled.

2.2 Establishing a timeline

Perhaps one of the most critical aspects of conducting research is understanding the
relationship between the programme time frame and handing in your research project.
This is the chronological order in which you will actively engage in specific research-
related tasks. The research timeline will serve two purposes: to prevent you from
wasting time and ensure that you stick to it. One way to adhere to due dates is to plan
backwards from the due dates and note on a calendar which activities you need to
submit the research proposal and research project on time.

To succeed in this worthwhile project, you need to be organised, show a positive

attitude and allow yourself enough time for each task or step you need to take to reach
your end goal. In this case, you have the space of two semesters to do the following:

1. Understand what research is;

2. Design and submit a research proposal that is feasible with the time frame given
and accepted for implementation.
3. Obtain ethical clearance;
4. Conduct your research;
5. Analyse your data;
6. Write up your research; and
7. And submit a well-constructed research report for your research project.

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To achieve all of the above, you must clearly understand how A research supervisor is the
person that is assigned to a
much time to allocate to each stage and ensure that you do
researcher who works with
so. This will also apply to how you work through this module them to achieve their
research goals. This can
which is the equivalent of your research supervisor. As
include regular meetings and
SANTS has a self-directed distance mode of education, the reading of early drafts of
proposals and submissions of
CLG of this module (B-RED 400) performs the role of your
the research project.
lecturer or, in this case, ‘research supervisor’.

A helpful guideline when planning your timeline is as follows:

• 10% of your time is dedicated to planning your project (for example, your
timeline and exploring ideas for your research);
• 40% of your time is allocated to conducting your research and reading on your
topic (for example, your literature review and your field work); and
• 50% of your time is spent writing up your research and then revising it, so you
hand in a well-constructed research project (for example, your time spent on
the proposal and the actual write up of your research, including allowing for
professional editing of your work). (Adapted from Texas Gateway, n.d.)

Below is an example of a research timeline. Study this in detail before you start with
this module.

Part 2 Part 3
Part 1

• Read on topic of • Plan field work • Write up

Second three months

Last three months

First three months

interest to including ethical research report

prepare for clearance • Check each
literature review • Pilot research stage of the
• Draft possible tools report and use
research feedback to
• Conduct improve
questions research
• Submit proposal • Professionally
• Analyse data edit report
• Submit research
report

Figure 1: Illustration of a possible research project timeline

(Harrison, 2021)

The above is a broad strokes timeline. It allows you to see how you need to refine and
divide your time up to cover different aspects of the research project. Other
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approaches to a timeline include using a conventional calendar and simply plotting on

the calendar when you need to have achieved specific goals, breaking down the
timeline into more detail, including one month or specific weeks and days.

You may choose to use an online calendar such as google calendar to alert you to
different activities as they come up. How detailed your timeline is will be determined
by the level of organisation you feel you need. Ultimately, the goal is to ensure you
pace yourself and have a clear picture of your research landscape.

120 minutes
1
Using what you have just learnt about the basics, begin to set yourself up for
success by doing the following:

1. Choose a journal/notebook that you can use to plot your thinking and to support
your research journey. Cover that notebook with some paper that inspires you
and put a title on the book. For example, you may want to add an inspirational
quote/s and a motivational label like: ‘Born for success!’; ‘My first research
project’ etc.). As you will be using this journal/notebook for the year's duration,
make sure it is big enough and appeals to you.
2. Write an opening paragraph in the journal/notebook stating how you feel about
this project addressing the following:
2.1 Your fears.
2.2 Your expectations.
2.3 Your goals.
Next to each point mentioned at 2.1 to 2.3, state how you intend to solve any
problems or concerns you might have.
3. Jot down some areas of interest you might have that could be used for your
research. These must be relevant to your teaching and classroom context. Keep
in mind what you might want to know more about and consider how you could
get the information you need. For example, you may want to look at how your
learners respond to your use of technology in the classroom. How would you
then go about getting this type of information, and what would your research
question look like. Jot down your early thoughts.
4. Now look at your SANTS academic calendar and use that as a guide to creating
your own timeline. Your timeline must illustrate the following:
4.1 Time allocated to the chronology of the research journey, e.g. when you
need to start your reading and literature review.
4.2 How long you think you will need for each task, e.g. time to work through
this module or time to read for your lit review.
4.3 What key dates you might want to include e.g. date for submission of your
proposal.
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4.4 Check that you have created a timeline that will get you from the start of
this worthwhile project to the finish line, considering your study habits,
limitations and personal contexts, e.g. if you are working full-time, how
much time do you have to read and study.

Commentary:
Consider looking online at different timelines before you tackle this task. Also, reflect
on how you feel about this research project and your attitude before starting. If you
feel overwhelmed or concerned, you must talk to your peers or lecturers at SANTS
willing to guide you and help you isolate or identify where you might have
challenges. Finally, remember that by planning carefully, you increase the potential
to succeed!

Now that we have set you up for success, we will look at what research is and
introduce you to the world of academic research.

3. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Research is not something that scientists only do – we all do research every day of
our lives. For example, when deciding what to wear each day, we need to know certain
information – for example, what is the weather forecast? Where am I going today, and
what will I be doing? What clean clothes do I have in my closet? This is a
straightforward example of research that we do without even thinking about it.

So, suppose we have to define research based on the above. In that case, we could
use the following definition by Walliman (2017, p. 7): Research can also be defined as
“an activity that involves finding out, in a more or less systematic way, things you did
not know”.

However, we do not follow any set rules in our everyday, informal form of research
because different people will ask different questions. For example, when we buy a car
or a washing machine, we will also research to determine the best value model or the
one that suits our needs. In this case, we may make notes and then analyse them to
come to a decision. But this is still not, what we call scientific research because we
do not follow any set of “rules” about how we gather our data, analyse it, or explain
why we think some information is more critical than others.

Sekaran and Bougie’s (2016, p. 33) definition is a bit more specific:

Research is a “systematic and organised effort to investigate a specific problem”

(own emphasis).

What do we learn from this definition? Our research effort must be ‘systematic and
organised’ to have a scientific value.

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Empirical means
Research only becomes scientific when we use data that has information based on
been empirically generated. That means that it is scientifically experience,
observation, or
tested or proven, using a systematic and organised approach. experiment.

There are different approaches to doing scientific research, and the one you choose
depends on the question that is asked and the purpose of the study (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2013).

Let us have a look at the two main types of research.

3.1 Types of research

Based on the above understanding that the approach to research that you take has to
serve the purpose of the study, we differentiate between two main types of
research, namely:

• ‘Pure’ research is often also referred to as basic (see diagram below),

fundamental, theoretical or scientific research, and its purpose is mainly to
create new knowledge. It is also sometimes called ‘research for the sake of
research’; and
• Applied research is used to solve specific problems in real situations, i.e.
finding solutions for real-world problems. Action research is one approach to
applied research.

So, if we had to draw a graphic representation of the difference between the two and
determine where action research fits in, it could look like this:

Figure 2: Basic vs applied research

(Stolz-Urban, 2020)

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3.2 Research design and methodology

Many of our decisions in everyday life are based on emotional reactions (e.g. we may
feel good about ourselves if we drive an expensive car, even although a smaller and
cheaper car may be a better option financially and ecologically). However, in scientific
research, we have to take the emotion out of it and our conclusions must be based
on systemic logic or reasoning that follows a specific order or plan (Patton, 2005).

This means we have to explain why we decide on a specific research design, what
data generation methods we will use, how we will analyse the information and what
theories will guide our conclusions. In other words, we do not just decide as we go but
have to plan what we intend to do to answer specific research questions. This “plan”
is called the research design, and the way you implement the plan is called research
methodology (Creswell, 2014). Research methodology or research methods are
also used to refer to the techniques a researcher uses to collect or gather data
(Joubert, Hartell & Lombard, 2016).

There are three main research designs. They are as follows:

• Qualitative research designs (tries to understand the reason/motivations

behind phenomena or people’s feelings about something);
• Quantitative research designs (works with more significant amounts of data
and is based on statistical calculations); and
• Mixed method research designs (combines both qualitative and quantitative
methodology in one study).

Figure 3: Research designs

(Adapted from Creswell, 2007)

The choice of design is dependent on the following factors:

1. The nature and purpose of the study;

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2. The researcher’s worldview, knowledge and experience, interests and

motivation;
3. Research ethics and principles;
4. Subjects or participants; and
5. Resources and time.

For example, if you want to find out how many Grade 1 (or Grade 4) learners are likely
to enrol in schools in South Africa in the next five years, you would use a quantitative
research approach. This approach will enable you to use statistics to make
projections about how many children will be of school-going age in that time (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2013). The purpose of such a study would be to provide information for the
government to plan for the provisions of schools, teachers, and other support to
education.

However, if you wanted to find out how the parents at a particular school felt (feelings)
about the facilities provided, you would use a qualitative approach that would enable
you to find out their thoughts, feelings and needs (Silverman, 2014). The purpose of
that study would be to help school management to find ways to improve school
facilities so that parents would be more likely to choose that school for their children.

For each type of design, there are various methodologies and methods for data
collection, data analysis, and so forth.

120 minutes
2
In this first section, you have been exposed to some basic research concepts and
terms. Answer these questions in your journal/notebook by quickly reflecting on
what you have learned so far. Try to use your own words as much as possible:

1. Define the concept ‘research’ in your own words. Refer to both the definitions
included earlier in this section.
2. Name and explain the three main research designs.
3. Why is a research design needed for scientific research?
4. Define the concept ‘action research’ in your own words.
5. From what you learnt in previous modules (like F-PFS 324 or I-PFS 324),
(Maringe & Stolz-Urban, 2020) about teachers as agents of change, do you
think action research is an appropriate research approach for teachers? Explain
your answer.

Commentary:
There are many different research designs. You may type ‘research designs’ in your
search engine to learn more about other research designs for your knowledge. For
example, in your Professional Studies in the Foundation/Intermediate Phase 4 (F-
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PFS 324 or I-PFS 324) (Maringe & Stolz-Urban, 2020) module, you learnt about the
teacher as an agent of change. This module builds on this idea and focuses on
action research where (in simple terms) the teacher is seen as the actor in the
teaching-learning situation. Through improving the actor’s (teacher’s) actions,
teaching and learning can improve in the classroom. More formal definitions of
action research will be discussed in paragraph 3 below.

This was meant to introduce the key terms and concepts regarding research design
and methodology. This module aims not to learn about every possible design and
methods but rather to guide you in one specific process – action research.

4. ACTION RESEARCH

As illustrated in Figure 2 above, action research is a specific type of applied research

(aimed at solving particular, real-life problems). Applied research is often used in
education, as it is ideal as a tool to help teachers reflect on their pedagogical
approaches and improve their practice.

The term ‘action research’ was first used by Lewin in his paper “Action Research and
Minority Problems” (Lewin, 1946), and he is therefore regarded as the ‘father’ of action
research.

4.1 Definition and purpose of action research

Let us look at proper definitions of the term action research and understand why
teachers have to do action research. For example:

1. Action research is “a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in

social situations to improve the rationality and justice of their practices, their
understanding of these practices, and the situations in which the practices are
carried out” (Carr & Kemmis, 2003, p. 162) (own emphasis).

2. Action research is defined as “a reflective procedure which aims at solving a

particular teaching-learning problem identified by teachers in a classroom setting”
(Kasula, 2015, p. 230).

3. Action research is “a type of applied research in which the researcher is actively

involved in the cause for which the research is conducted” (Rust & Clark, 2007,
p. 4).

Can you see that one of the definitions indicate that the researcher is involved in the
research cause? Can you also see that two of the definitions emphasise self-
reflection, or what we call ‘reflective practice’?

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This is why action research is a useful way of helping you become a professional
teacher (McNiff, 2013). A good teacher will constantly ask questions about their
practice and will ask how it can be improved.

In other words, action research is not something you will only do for this module but
for the rest of your professional life. Suppose you adopt an action research approach
to professional learning and development. In that case, it means that you are willing
to be a lifelong learner (one of the requirements of a good teacher), are open to critical
reflection on your practice and want to learn how to be the best teacher you can be.

Action research is a valuable process for studying your teaching to improve it. It
provides you with a set of steps to:

• identify something that you would like to improve;

• gather evidence to show that it is something that needs to be improved;
• plan how you can improve it and implement your plan;
• gather evidence to show the effect of what you did;
• reflect on what you have learnt and how you will change your teaching in future;
and
• make sure the problem or concern is improved (Koshy, 2010).

We will come back to the steps to follow when doing action research a bit later in this
guide but let us first look at the benefits of action research for you as a teacher and for
your learners.

4.2 Benefits of action research

Action research has been shown to benefit the teacher, the learners, the classroom,
and the school environment. In this module, you will focus on doing individual action
research (working on your own), but when you are teaching at a school, it is best to
work with your colleagues in your department to learn from and support each other to
improve your practice.

Some of the benefits of action research for teachers are:

1. Teachers investigate their practice and can better understand how learning takes
place.
2. As teachers begin to study their teaching, they become motivated and interested
in their work.
3. As individual teachers develop confidence in their ability to improve, they can
influence their colleagues to improve. Ultimately, the school, in general, will
improve.
4. Action research helps close the gap between theory and practice – too often, you
learn theory but do not implement it in the classroom setting.
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5. Action research helps you have a better relationship with your learners and
colleagues since it is based on care, respect, inclusion, and equality.
6. Action research helps you develop confidence in your ability to solve your
problems – it enables the teacher to become an expert, rather than rely on other
people or the government to make changes to improve your life and work (Koshy,
2010; McNiff, 2013).

180 minutes
3
First, answer the questions on your own and then discuss your responses in your
study group or with a peer:

1. Do you agree that the teacher is the centre of action research? Explain your
answer.
2. Explain why action research is seen as applied research (as illustrated in Figure
2).
3. Several benefits for teachers were discussed above. If the teacher applies action
research in the classroom, what do you think are the benefits for:
3.1 Learners?
3.2 The classroom and school environment?
3.3 The school and the community?
List the benefits so that you can – use these during Workplace Integrated
Learning (WIL) to motivate your classroom-based research project.
4. Using google search and EBSCOhost, see if you can find three valuable
readings that will help you to understand action research further. Then, using
your journal/notebook, jot down any key ideas you learn from each of your
readings. Remember, before you jot down ideas from each reading, reference
each article/chapter correctly at the top of your page and jot down your notes.
This will allow you to revisit these readings if you want to include them in your
write up of your research. It is advisable always to use the suggested referencing
technique as you continue to source helpful readings for your project.

Commentary:
Because action research for teachers aims to improve the teaching and learning
situation, learners, the classroom, and the school environment will also benefit.
Make notes of what you learn from your peers in the group discussion.

Now that you know some of the benefits of action research for teachers, learners, the
classroom and the school environment, we will look at the principles of action
research.

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5. THE PRINCIPLES OF ACTION RESEARCH

Before we learn more about action research, we must understand several key terms
researchers use when discussing their work. Therefore, it is in your interest to ensure
a good understanding of these terms.

The research process essentially consists of three major dimensions: ontology,

epistemology, and methodology (Terre Blanche & Durrheim, 1999). In simple terms,
ontology refers to the nature of being, epistemology refers to how knowledge is
created, and methodology refers to the plan for the research. As a teacher-researcher,
you should be able to understand and clearly distinguish between these terms. Refer
to the glossary (word list) for more complete explanations of these terms.

Some people also talk about ontology and epistemology as research philosophies
or your research paradigm. Your worldview determines how you view and use these
concepts. I can see you shaking your head. Why is it important to know how I see the
world? You may ask. That is because the way you see the world and your place will
influence your research somehow. Therefore, we should declare our position upfront.

Your chosen research methodology is therefore based on ontological and

epistemological principles. The ontological principles inform your worldview, and the
epistemological principles explain how you think knowledge was created.

Below is an illustration of how these terms interrelate.

Ontology Epistomology Methodology

How can we go about
What is out there to What and how can we
acquiring this new
know? know about it?
knowledge?

Example: Conduct a
Example: Testing for survey with the learners
Example:What is my view reading on a regular basis asking them about what
on reading as a means to by our learners in order they read, when they
improve literacy? to understand their read it and where they
literacy levels. get their reading matter
from.

Subjectivism Positivism/intrepretivism Deductive

Figure 4: Relationship between research terms

(Harrison, 2021)

We will now unpack these new terms in more detail.

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5.1 Ontological principles

Ontology is concerned with studying how we act and relate to others and the
environment in our daily lives. McNiff (2013, p. 27) explains it as “the way we view
ourselves,” and we learn about it by asking, “Who do I think I am?” Therefore, it is
essential to know how you see yourself because it will determine how you see others
and position yourself as an action researcher. Furthermore, our ontological beliefs
influence how we interpret knowledge and see the ‘truth’ (Lichtman, 2013).

This is because not all people understand “reality” in the same way. There are multiple
perspectives on what people believe to be true. Such beliefs will also influence the
research approach they will use.

There are primarily two ontological viewpoints: objectivism (also called positivism)
and subjectivism.

Let us look at examples of these two viewpoints:

• Natural scientists tend to believe that everything can be explained by scientific

laws (in other words, there is just one ‘truth’), and therefore they can prove
something through experimenting. That is called objectivism or positivism.
• However, action researchers recognise the complexity of human life, social
interaction, and interaction with the environment – there is more than one way
of understanding the world (or ‘truth’) (McNiff, 2014). That is a subjectivist
ontology.

If you look back at the definitions of action research in Paragraph 3.1 above, you will
see that we said the action researcher is involved in the research problem. Hence,
the researcher can never be ‘objective’ like a scientist in a laboratory would be. In
other words, action researchers always adopt a subjectivist ontology.

Now you have to understand that the basic ontological principles underpinning action
research are:

• Critical (you question how things are and think that things could be
different/better),
• Transformative (you want to contribute towards education becoming more
democratic, inclusive and socially just), and
• Emancipatory (you are open to changing your thinking and thinking for
yourself, rather than just doing what you are told) (Zuber-Skerritt, 2001).

So let us make a general assumption that action researchers are fully engaged and
involved in improving their teaching practice. They are constantly thinking about

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improving things, making them more democratic, inclusive and socially just, and you
are open to thinking and changing. Are you beginning to see that action research is
not just a technique for solving problems but also a way of improving the quality of life
of people?

In an education context, that means that you do action research to improve your
teaching because you want the best for your learners, for your colleagues, and your
school. You also want to make your classroom a more inclusive, democratic space
where learners are involved in the learning as active partners and not just passively
sitting and listening to you. Action research thus requires you, as the teacher, to be
learner-centred.

Another important aspect is that action researchers need to think about their behaviour
and attitudes before changing others. It means that you need to self-reflect because
you cannot change others if you are not living out the principles you want to see others
live out.

Action researchers should adopt social justice, compassion, respect for diversity,
democracy and other such life-enhancing values. As an action researcher, you should
be committed to changing yourself as you find ways to help your learners to learn
better or improve in other ways.

Importantly, you are at the centre of the research – you are not doing research “on” or
“about” your learners but looking at how you can improve how you interact with
your learners through your teaching.

5.2 Epistemological principles

Epistemology is the study of how we create knowledge (Creswell, 2014). You can
imagine that this is a complex idea and many different views on the matter. There
seem to be two main groups of views:

• those that believe that there is a single (objective) truth, and

• those who think that the truth is perhaps a bit more complex and reliant on the
individual's perspective – in other words, truth is subjective, and there may be
more than one perspective or version of the truth.

Gray (2014) describes positivism and interpretivism as the two most influential
epistemological paradigms. He defines these two paradigms as follows:

• Positivism believes that “the social world exists external to the researcher, and
its properties can be measured directly through observation” (Gray, 2014, p. 21).
• Interpretivism, on the other hand, believes that the world is “interpreted through
the classification schemas of the mind” (Gray, 2014, p. 23).
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You don’t have to have in-depth knowledge of the various epistemological paradigms
for this module. You only have to understand the epistemological stance of the action
researcher.

Dudovskiy (2020) indicates that action research typically falls into one of the following
three categories: positivist, interpretive and critical:

• Positivist approach to action research, also known as ‘classical action

research’, sees research as a social experiment. The researcher would develop
a hypothesis (assumption) and test it in a real-world environment
(school/classroom).
• Interpretive action research, also known as ‘contemporary action research’,
sees the reality of the school or classroom as socially constructed and focuses
on specifications of local and organisational factors when conducting the action
research.
• Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts a
critical approach towards the practices of the school/classroom and aims for
improvements.

Most action researchers see knowledge as socially created during the interaction
between people. Therefore, they believe that practitioners such as teachers can
generate their knowledge (they do not need “researchers” or “experts” to create
understanding for them).

We also believe that the teacher creates knowledge. Learners could also bring
knowledge into the classroom, which can help teachers decide how and what to teach
(McNiff, 2013, 2014; Koshy, 2010). Therefore, the most common approach to action
research is interpretivism rather than positivism (Koshy, Koshy & Waterman, 2010).

Now that we understand the philosophy behind action research a bit better, we will
look at the methodological principles that action researchers follow.

5.3 Methodological principles

Action research is unique in its research methodology.

Winter (1989) lists the following six fundamental principles that impact the research
methodology of action research projects:

1) Reflexive critique – requires reflection on issues and making explicit the

interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are
based.

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2) Dialectical critique – noting the differences in understanding of, or

relationships to, the phenomenon being studied.
3) Collaborative resource – participants in an action research project are
considered co-researchers, and each person’s ideas are equally significant.
4) Risk – the fear of change is mitigated through open discussion of the study’s
interpretations, ideas and judgments.
5) Plural structure – the nature of the research invites participation,
commentaries and critiques, and even the final report serves as a discussion
document rather than a conclusion of fact.
6) Theory, practice, transformation – for action researchers, theory informs
practice, and practice refines theory in a continuous transformation process.

5.4 Relationship between ontology, epistemology and

methodology

You have now learnt about ontology, epistemology and methodology. But how do they
all fit together? Ntaote (2011) illustrates the relationship between these three
concepts, as follows:

Table 1: Three main paradigms in research

Theoretical
Ontology Epistemology Methodology
paradigm

Positivist An actual reality Knowledge can be Empirical, structured

exists, governed by created and designs that can be
cause/effect laws that described by replicated.
can be discovered using verified Quantitative
and generalised. hypotheses that instruments used to
People react in can then be taken measure. Research
predictable ways. to be laws to is taken to be value-
predict behaviour. free; the researcher
controls research.

Interpretivist Reality is subjective, Knowledge is Qualitative

determined by those socially methodologies try to
involved in various constructed. understand the
social systems in Therefore, it is ‘insider’ view; values
interaction with each dynamic and are acknowledged;
other. Consequently, changes the subjectivity of
people’s reactions according to how interpretation allowed
depend on how they people make for, the researcher is
meaning of their

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Theoretical
Ontology Epistemology Methodology
paradigm

make meaning of their situations; it is co-creator of

worlds. fluid and accurate. meaning.

Critical Governed by Knowledge is Participatory

structures that can be constructed by methodologies;
questioned, questioning values are explicit;
reconstructed through existing power the researcher is a
intentional critical relationships facilitator to
reflection. People are within social, encourage dialogue
agents of their economic, and and raise critical
change. political structures consciousness.
to distribute that
power more
equitably.

(Ntaote, 2011)

You are now ready to complete the next activity.

180 minutes
4
We have covered quite a bit of theory about action research and the principles
informing action research in this section, most of which would be brand new to you.
Use this opportunity to consider what you have learnt so far and to make sure that
you understand what you have read:

1. Consider the three definitions of action research given in paragraph 3.1. Now try
to combine/integrate the three definitions into one comprehensive description
that covers all the aspects mentioned in the three definitions. Write this down in
your journal/notebook.
2. One of your fellow students complains on Facebook about SANTS’ choice of
action research as the research approach students have to follow in this
programme. Write a response about why you think action research is valuable
and beneficial to professional teachers and their learners. Use the list of
advantages given in the text, put them in your own words, and use plain
language appropriate for a social media platform.
3. Explain the terms in your own words:
3.1 Ontology.

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3.2 Epistemology.
3.3 Methodology.
4 Draw a picture/diagram to illustrate the relationship between your ontology,
epistemology and research methodology. (There are no right or wrong answers
here, show how you see the connection between the three).

Commentary:
Compare your answers to question 3 and 4 to the explanations given above. If you
still struggle to explain some concepts, go back and study the specific section again.
For your knowledge, do some more research on the concepts mentioned in this
section. It may also help if you share your understanding with a peer and then
compare your final responses to a reliable source.

6. CONCLUSION

By now, you should be able to explain why teachers should become teacher-
researchers. However, it would be best to understand that action research is a
research methodology or design and is a way of life. When you live out the principles
of action research, you can become a teacher who, through reflecting on practice, is
constantly learning and developing.

Teachers who adopt action research as a core aspect of their practice can better relate
to colleagues and learners. These teachers can understand why others act as they
do, learn from others, and design lessons relevant to learners' life experiences and
learning needs. Their classrooms are more democratic (meaning that learners can
voice their opinions and needs) and inclusive (meaning that all learners can engage
in learning, even if they have specific barriers).

We will now focus on the practical aspects of developing your research proposal and
conducting your action research. In the next section, you will learn how to compose a
research question to guide your action research.

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SECTION 2: DEVELOPING YOUR RESEARCH

QUESTION(S)

1. INTRODUCTION

Do you still remember the definitions of research that we learnt about in the first section
of this module? Sekaran and Bougie’s (2016, p. 33) definition is a bit more specific:

Research is a “systematic and organised effort to investigate a specific problem”

(Sekaran & Bougie, 2016, p. 33) (own emphasis).

If research is aimed at investigating a specific problem, it stands to reason that you

have to know what the problem is that you want to study before you start. This means
that to do research, you need to have a research question that will guide your enquiry
(Creswell, 2014). This is true for all types of research, but in action research, your
questions should always focus on your teaching and what you can do to improve your
teaching (Koshy, 2010).

The end goal is to improve learners’ learning, but you do not attain this by trying to
change them – instead, you try to improve how you teach them and enable
meaningful learning. In other words, it is all about improving your teaching to
enhance learning.

In this section, you will learn how to develop sound, feasible action research questions.
But first, let us look at the difference is between action research questions and
traditional research questions.

2. ACTION RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND TRADITIONAL

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There is a difference between action research questions and traditional research

questions. In other types of research, the focus is not so much on your teaching as on
trying to find answers to questions that give us knowledge. However, this approach
does not necessarily tell us how to use the knowledge to improve our teaching (McNiff,
2014).

Action research, on the other hand, is very solution-driven. We want to know how to
improve things. Consider the examples of traditional (pure) research questions versus
action research questions provided in Table 2.

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Table 2: Traditional versus action research questions

Traditional research Action research

What is the relationship between gender How can I help all my learners to
and performance in mathematics? perform better in mathematics?

What effect does blended learning have How can I integrate blended learning
on learner pass rate? into my teaching to improve learner
performance?

What are the problems that visually How can I ensure that visually impaired
impaired children have in learning? children in my class have an equal
chance to learn?

Why do some learners not like physical How can I improve learner participation
education? in physical education?

You can see that the action research questions all begin with “How can I …?” This is
because the focus is on your teaching. You, therefore, take responsibility for
learning how to improve the situation.

You will also notice that action research questions require you to take action, do
something rather than gather knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Often, the first,
traditional question will be answered as part of your enquiry, but it is not enough just
to get the answer – it has to be used to help you find out how you can improve the
situation.

3. DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTION(S)

Teachers are confronted with questions every day. They are puzzled by what happens
in their classrooms and therefore ask ‘why’, ‘how’, and ‘what’ questions.

As a teacher-researcher, research questions are posed about what you observe in

your classroom, and hopefully, the answers will help you make sense of the problems
you experience or the things you notice that puzzle you. However, they must all be
answered by taking action – you do not just think about things, but take action to
improve the issue you are concerned about (McNiff, 2013).

Therefore, your research questions should come from real-life observations and
dilemmas, which you then turn into action research questions. For example, look at
how we used real-life observations/dilemmas and turned them into action research
questions in Table 3.

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Table 3: Real-life dilemmas turned into action research questions

Real-life observations/dilemmas Action research question

My learners are not able to work How can I encourage learners to

independently. become more self-directed?

My learners do not seem to like reading. How can I make reading more attractive
to my learners?

My learners do not interact enough in How can I encourage the participation

group work. of all in group work?

Some of my learners are reluctant to How can I help learners become

answer mathematical questions. engaged in mathematical problem-
solving?

Thus, teachers improve their teaching and their focus. Their focus is on enhancing the
learning experience of the learner(s) in their care.

3.1 Identifying a research problem

As shown above, action research always begins with a concern about your teaching
(McNIff, 2014). The problem can be that you cannot embody the values you want
(Whitehead, 1989). For example, you want your teaching, to be inclusive, but you
know that some learners cannot learn as much – perhaps because the language of
teaching and learning is not their first language, and they are struggling to follow.

Classroom concerns translate into research topics and questions. A research topic is
a broad theme you are interested in, whereas research questions are more specific
(Koshy, 2010).

For example, ‘Discipline in the classroom’ would be a topic. A question relating to the
topic could be ‘How can I improve discipline in my classroom?’

Your area of specialisation (subject or phase) will influence your research topic.
Therefore, a mathematics teacher will be interested in a mathematical research
question, not a Language or History question. This will ensure that your research is
meaningful and relevant.

There may be many questions and concerns emerging from your interaction with your
learners and colleagues. The first step is to identify and narrow down your areas of
interest into a researchable area. Be careful – new researchers often try to address
too many aspects at once.
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180 minutes
5
Read the case study below and then answer the questions that follow.

Case study:
Ms Ngema is a teacher in a Foundation phase classroom and has noticed that
whilst she is now in the last term of her learner’s grade 3 year, they are not
reading properly. She is concerned, as she knows that when they go into grade
4, they must be able to read fluently, will have texts that they must analyse and
write about. She thought at first that her learners were just struggling with their
set work but now wants to know why so many of them are not performing at an
optimal level. She decided to note in an observation book which of her learners
are struggling the most and to send out a short questionnaire to the parents to
determine if their children are doing all their reading homework and if they do any
additional reading.

Ms Ngema is passionate about reading herself and remembers well how she was
in grade 3, and her grandma would take her to the local library to choose books.
It was her favourite time of the week as it meant she could spend quality time
with her grandma and have books to read in the evening. Ms Ngema decides
she will find out where the nearest library is and if the librarian would come and
talk to her class about the importance of reading and share some age-
appropriate books with the learners. She then draws up a list of actions she can
take to look at the learner’s responses to the survey, what she might need to do
to support their reading and who in the school can assist her. She decides that
she should also speak to the grade 4 teacher about how they can work together
to ensure that the grade 3 learners enter grade 4 with a reasonable literacy level

1. What is Ms Ngema’s ontological perspective about reading? Substantiate your

answer.
2. Would you consider this to be action research? Justify your answer.
3. What do you think Ms Ngema’s research question might be? Write it in your
journal/notebook.
4. List what methods Ms Ngema uses to gather her data.
5. What steps does Ms Ngema take to follow up on her research?
6. In what ways is Ms Ngema trying to improve her learner’s reading abilities?
7. Is there anything you would do differently for Ms Ngema? State why.

Commentary:
When tackling this task, go back and revisit what you have learnt so far. Consider
the relationship between the different research paradigms, look at what you

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understand by the different types of research and reflect on Ms Ngema’s attitude

towards her learners.

3.2 Formulating a meaningful action research question as the main

question

The research question (also referred to as the primary or main research question) is
the foundation for your study. If this research question is poorly formulated, your study
will be unfocused, and the findings may not be valid.

Your question should be meaningful and allow for continual discovery, even for
discovery that is not necessarily expected. Your question should therefore lead to
answers in the form of descriptions or observations.

A good or meaningful action research question must:

• Clearly state what it is that you are trying to find out (or investigate).
• Begin with “how” (or: How can I …).
• Focus on teaching and learning.
• Be something that you can influence and do something about.

(McNiff, 2014)
It is a weak research question when:

• The answer to the question does not allow a practical experiment. Instead, the
question must offer the opportunity to ‘try’ an intervention, reflect, and improve
on it.
• The answer to the question could be a simple Yes or No. For example, will
spending more time on reading improve my learners’ reading skills? (If you want
to use this as a question, a better way of phrasing it would be, ‘How will
spending more time reading … ’.
• Using words that are open for interpretation – for example: meaningful. What
may be significant to you may not necessarily be meaningful to me.

3.3 Setting sub-questions

Once you have a clear main question, you can consider some sub-questions. The
purpose of sub-questions is to refine further (narrow-down) the focus of your proposed
research, as these questions are more detailed (Punch, 2005).

However, action research does not always require you to have specific sub-questions.
Instead, it is often better to follow a process, which is composed of questions similar
to the ones McNiff and Whitehead (2011) suggest:
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What is my concern? (What is the problem that I have

observed?)

Why am I concerned? (What evidence can I gather to show that

it is a problem for me and my learners?)

What can I do about it? (What have others done about similar
issues? What strategies can I try?)

What data generation strategies (data (What type of data generation and
collection) can I use to show the analysis tools can I use?)
changes?

What effect did my action have? (What evidence can I gather to show the
positive (or negative) effects of my
action?)

What have I learnt from my research? (What are the implications of my

learning? What do I need to change in
my teaching? What other questions have
come out of this research?)

As you may see, each question leads on from the previous one to guide you
systematically through the action research cycle (explained in Unit 2). Therefore, you
need not answer these questions because you will be guided through them in the next
unit.

As you work through these guiding questions, sub-questions will arise naturally. Have
a look at the following example:

Main question Sub-questions

How do I encourage my learners to What kind of problems are the learners

read? having with reading?

What kind of books do the learners like?

What reading material is available to

them?

If a research question is feasible, it can be researched without too much difficulty

(Silverman, 2014). However, some questions you will not explore because they are
about things out of your control. In action research, you need to choose something
to influence (McNiff, 2013).

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For example, you may be working in a school where the buildings are not very
attractive or are run-down. However, you will not influence how much money your
school receives from the Government or even how your management spends the
money they receive.

However, you could start with your classroom and research how you could make it a
more attractive space to learners (For example: Painting it? Putting up lots of
pictures/collages or colourful posters? Making it colourful and print-rich? Displaying
learners’ work and involving learners in deciding what they would like to do to improve
the classroom environment?).

You could also incorporate a playground clean-up into one of your lessons. You could
ask how I can involve learners in making my classroom and the playground a more
attractive learning space? Keeping your classroom neat and tidy does not have to cost
a fortune. Do you still remember the following illustration from Unit 1, Section 3 in
Introduction to Mathematics Teaching in the Foundation or Intermediate Phase (F-
MAT 120 or I-MAT 120), which you have studied in your first year?

Figure 5: Changing attitudes amongst teachers

(SANTS archive, 2018)

It does not matter what your classroom looks like or whether you work in a privileged
or underprivileged school. Improvement is always possible. Your attitude and
approach play a significant role in the learning environment you want to create and
your success as a teacher.

It would be best if you kept your research study small, focused and manageable. You
might get some ideas for your study by looking at the following website:
Available online: http://teachersnetwork or g/tnli/research/. Although this is an
American website, it has good resources and ideas.

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Remember, the key idea is to improve learning by focusing on how you interact with
your learners through your teaching.

240 minutes
6
Complete the following questions on your own and then discuss your responses
with your study group or with a peer:
1. Think carefully about your own teaching experience and concerns of challenges
in your experience when engaging with the learners in your WIL class. You may
also discuss this with teachers at your WIL school. Make notes of these
challenges and your discussions.
2. From your observations or discussions with other teachers, make three
statements about your learners (see Table 2 for examples). Now turn these
statements into action research questions. Finally, redraw and complete the
table in your learning journal.

STATEMENT ACTION RESEARCH QUESTION

Example:
My learners struggle with How can I help all my learners to
mathematics perform better in mathematics?

3. Now consider each of the questions that you wrote in the table above. Think
about it a bit more practically. Do you think that the question requires some
research? Who would know the answer to the question? Would you be able to
get the information you need from your learners? From parents? Or from other
teachers?
4. Choose the question that you feel most interested in and think offers the best
opportunity for meaningful research. Write it in your learning journal. Now revise
the theory in paragraph 3.2 about developing a good research question again.
Evaluate your research question against the given criteria, and improve it if
necessary.
5. Finally, develop three sub-questions that will support the answering of your main
research question. Write them down, with the improved research question, in
your learning journal, as you will need them again later.

Commentary:
The questions you choose should arise from the classroom concerns or challenges
you have identified because they are essential for your teaching and learning. Try
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not to choose questions outside of learning and teaching, but focus on learning,
teaching, and classroom practice.

4. CONCLUSION
We have now come to the end of Unit 1. You should now be able to use the basic
research concepts and terms, explain the purpose of action research and develop a
feasible action research question with sub-questions.

It is time to reflect on what you have learnt so far and complete the self-assessment
activity.

120 minutes
7
Self-assessment activity: Unit 1

If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.

Now that I have worked through this unit, I YES UNSURE NO

can:
Explain basic research concepts and terms.

Differentiate between basic research and

applied research.
Explain the importance of action research in
teaching practice.
Identify and explain the philosophical and
methodological principles that underpin action
research.
Outline and explain the attributes of a good
action research question.
Develop an action research question and sub-
questions.

We will now move on to the more practical aspects of your action research project,
such as designing your action research project.

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UNIT 2: DESIGNING ACTION RESEARCH

1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about the design of an action research enquiry. This is also
called the research design (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013). Your research question will guide
the design and help you choose tools to gather and analyse data and ensure the
conclusions you reach are valid. In addition, you will learn the importance of making
sure you research ethically.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 2

Unit 2 consists of the following two sections and learning outcomes:

UNIT 2
DESIGNING ACTION RESEARCH

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
The action research design The ethics of action research

Learning outcomes: At the end of Learning outcomes: At the end of

this section, you should be able to: this section, you should be able to:
• Design an action research project. • Define ethics and explain its
• Discuss how to select appropriate importance in research.
data collection tools for the study. • Explain how to obtain informed
• Identify and implement ways to consent from parents and learners
increase the trustworthiness of who will participate in your study.
your research.

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SECTION 1: THE ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN

1. INTRODUCTION

In this section, you will learn the basic process to follow when doing an action research
study. The process or design will be presented both in the form of questions and in a
diagram. Each contains the basic steps of action research, and the questions just give
you a more detailed process to follow when planning your proposal.

2. RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is “a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a

researcher to combine various research components in a reasonably logical manner
so that the research problem is efficiently handled. In addition, it provides insights
about ‘how’ to conduct research using a particular methodology” (QuestionPro, 2020).

From the above definition, we can see that it is a plan of the methods and techniques
you intend to use or an outline of ‘how’ you will do your research. We will explore this
further in this section.

As mentioned in Unit 1, when we addressed the basic research concepts and terms,
the design of an action research project is different from basic/traditional research.
Action research includes various cycles of reflection and action.

3. THE ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN CYCLE

Action research is done in cycles of reflection and action (Koshy, 2010).

If we have to simplify it, it will mean that you:

• First, observe (identify something that concerns you);

• Reflect (think about what the problem is you want to research and why it is a
problem), and then you
• Plan the action that you need to take;
• Take action to improve the situation; and finally, you
• Reflect again, about what has happened now that you have taken action to
inform what you need to do next.

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This process can be represented as follows in a diagram:

Figure 6: A simple action research cycle

(Stoltz-Urban, 2020)

Naturally, if you have to do a more formal action research project, such as what you
have to do for this module, it is more complex, even though the basic cycle is still
followed. So let us look at the steps to follow next.

3.1 Steps in the action research cycle

The above figure (Figure 6) explains the process followed to answer the question:
“How can I motivate the learners in my class who are not excited about learning in
Language lessons?” but it could apply to any class.

The diagram represents one cycle. When one cycle is completed, more questions will
emerge, which you will answer in subsequent cycles. This means that action research
allows you to learn and improve your teaching continuously.

However, for the research project, you will only need to conduct one cycle. This will
be evidence enough that you understand and can apply action research to improve
your teaching.

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We hope it is becoming clear that you are learning about action research to use it in
your everyday teaching, not just to pass this module (B-RED 400). You will thus
become a teacher-researcher who follows the steps outlined next.

These steps can be repeated again and again:

• Observe (take note of a problem you are experiencing in your classroom or an

area you can improve);
• Plan (plan how you are going to implement the necessary change and
determine the success);
• Act (implement your plan and gather data to show effect); and
• Reflect (on what effect your actions had and what you need to do next).

Every dedicated teacher asks questions about their practice, learners' behaviour, and
problems experienced in the classroom. When teachers start to observe to understand
and improve a situation, they become teacher-researchers. This approach is
becoming a worldwide trend and is considered to constitute a valid community of
practice.

Therefore, communities of teachers use their classrooms as laboratories and see their
learners as collaborators in their research (Hubbard & Power, 2003). Thus, these
teachers are both researchers and participants. They are fully engaged in the research
process and with the learners in their classes.

One teacher-researcher describes her own research experience as follows:

“The difference between my recent classroom research and my usual classroom

practices is that for my research, I kept notes about what I did, I looked more
closely at what happened, I asked myself harder questions, and I wrote about it
all. These differences took a lot of time, but I think I’m a better teacher for it”
(Hubbard & Power, 2003, p. xv).

This is the main rationale (reason) for doing classroom research – to become a
better teacher. Research does not need to be daunting. Instead, new teacher-
researchers should start small, with manageable approaches and tools, and gradually
progress from there.

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120 minutes
8
Read the scenario and answer the questions that follow.
Scenario:
A national initiative for improving mathematics teaching was introduced. Each
lesson was supposed to have a three-part structure every day:
(1) mental mathematics; followed by
(2) the main lesson; and lastly
(3) a conclusion session to check understanding.

The teacher found the first two steps easy to implement, but the third step was
unproductive because the learners did not participate actively. Instead, they
kept quiet or only gave one-word answers.

Pretend that you are the teacher in the above case. We will now practice the action
research steps. Follow the steps below and make notes in your learning journal as
you go along:

1. Think about the problem. What could the possible causes be? Make notes about
the issue and why you think it is happening.
2. Plan a possible intervention that will get your learners involved and encourage
them to participate more actively. Make notes about the interventions that you
would undertake in this case.
3. Reflect on how that worked (this step is impossible without practical
implementation, but pretend that your intervention only worked with half the class,
so you have to think of another intervention).
4. Plan another intervention. Make notes about something else that you could try to
get the learners engaged.
5. Pretend that the second intervention has better results. Make notes of this.
6. Keep the action research cycle in mind (see Figure 6). Report on the steps you
followed in this action research practice.

Commentary:
Remember, you will only need to conduct one research cycle. This will be evidence
enough that you understand and can apply action research to improve your
teaching.

As mentioned before, your action research design for the sake of completing the
research expected of you in this module will be a bit more complex. In an academic
setting, we will always require you to consult the literature to make an informed
decision.

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Your design may then include, as an example, the following steps:

1. Plan: Select an area of focus based on observations in your classroom

2. Collect data
3. Organise data Gather information so that
4. Analyse and interpret data you can take informed action
5. Study the professional literature
6. Act: Take action
7. Observe
8. Reflect (and repeat the cycle)

When you look at the list of steps, can you see that the cycle remains the same?
Therefore, you will write your research design or plan based on this cycle.

3.2 The importance of critical reflection

Critical reflection is at the heart of the action research process (McNiff, 2014).
Reynolds (1998) defines critical reflection as follows:

1. It is concerned with questioning assumptions and, if necessary, changing such

assumptions.
2. Its focus is social rather than individual and acknowledges that we are all part
of specific social systems that influence us.
3. It asks questions about how their position influences a person’s perspective in
hierarchies of power and privilege.
4. It is concerned with change that moves us towards a more socially just society.

If you ask questions about your thinking and practice, it is called self-reflection
(McNiff, 2013). You question your assumptions to find out what is important to you as
a teacher and evaluate how well you live up to your values and teaching theory. You
will ask questions such as:

• What am I doing well?

• What can I do better?
• Am I practising what I preach?
• How do my colleagues, my principal influence me?
• How has my experience shaped the way I think today?
• Is there a need for me to change my thinking?
• Is my teaching preparing learners for life in this complex and changing world?

You will also reflect on the conditions or circumstances in your classroom by asking
questions such as: What possible barriers to learning do my learners experience? How
is their social reality impacting their learning? Is the curriculum helping all learners to
learn what they need to? Reflections on questions such as these will help you to
identify the concern.
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You should also reflect on the process of action research by asking questions such
as: How well did I carry out the research process? Did I act ethically at all times? Are
my data gathering tools providing the information I need? Are my actions aligned with
the purpose of the research? Reflection on the process will help you to ensure you are
using methodology correctly.

You will also need to reflect on the findings and conclusions you reach by asking
questions such as: What do these findings mean for my practice? What do I have to
do differently? What other issues came out of the research? What can I do about
these? Reflection on these questions will help you improve your teaching.

If you share your reflections with your colleagues and give each other input, you will
learn even more and begin to influence your fellow teachers’ learning. You will start to
work collaboratively, and action research will become a natural part of the work of all
teachers. You will create a more supportive climate for teaching and learning within
the school.

4. RESEARCH METHODS IN ACTION RESEARCH

The methods you use to select your participants to gather and analyse your data are
called research methods (Creswell, 2014) or procedures, which involve the steps you
will take to do the research. This also includes the methods to recruit participants. You
will focus on your teaching and generate data from the learners in your class in your
study. Therefore, you will not have to go and find participants elsewhere.

Using the correct research methods is crucial for any study – large or small.
Conversely, incorrect or inappropriate research methods may result in misleading or
inaccurate conclusions, which can negatively impact the study’s findings.

Imagine, for example, that your research findings indicate that a particular group of
students understand an important concept while they don’t. This will impact your
teaching approach and lead to significant gaps in your learners’ understanding.

Appropriate research methods add value to your research and make it more believable
– your methods are central to your research plan. You will remember that we
discussed qualitative and quantitative research in Unit 1. Look at the definitions of
these two approaches again – if you are not sure what we mean by these terms. In
action research, you primarily use qualitative methods (Lichtman, 2013). The
emphasis of the qualitative approach is to improve the understanding of an issue (also
called a phenomenon), not to quantify or express the findings in a numerical format as
with quantitative methods (Creswell, 2014).

The most commonly used data collection methods for qualitative action research are
observation, reflective diaries, analysis of learners’ work and other documents,
visual methods, interviews and open-ended questionnaires (Silverman, 2013).
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Remember that a qualitative teacher-researcher takes into account the context of the
study. Thus, for example, it is crucial to consider the impact of poor socio-economic
conditions on children’s participation in the classroom – for example, they might not
be able to concentrate because they are hungry.

You can also use quantitative methods, but since the research is small-scale and we
do not aim to prove anything definitively, these are not so common. Quantitative
research generates numbers (e.g. how many learners can recognise words in the
reading test?) (Creswell, 2014). These numbers are analysed statistically, and the
teacher-researcher looks for relationships between these numbers (e.g. how many
weak readers are also second-language speakers?). As far as possible, the teacher-
researcher tries to minimise the influence of the context within which the study is done.
However, they try to remain as objective as is possible.

You can see that this is not what action research is about – you, as teacher-researcher,
are an integral and essential part of the research since your interests determine what
is researched and your knowledge of the context is very important.

However, you can use some quantitative methods to evaluate the impact of your
actions. For example, if you want to find out how you can improve your class
participation, you could count how many times specific learners answer questions.
Even if you do include some numbers, your study will still be largely qualitative.

If you have a reasonable balance between qualitative and quantitative data, you will
use a mixed-methods approach (Ayiro, 2012). By this, we mean using two different
types of data (qualitative and quantitative) to reach your conclusions. This approach
has the advantage of being able to cross-check your two different types of data against
each other to see if they relate.

For example, if you wanted to know why learner’s literacy levels were low, and you
suspected it had something to do with how little they were reading – you may have
done some action research which, included the following:

1. A survey asking learners how often they read a book;

2. Observed how often learners read in class;
3. Taken notes of your observation;
4. Counted the number of students you observed reading in class; and
5. Counted the number of students on your survey who responded that they did
or didn’t read at home.

This information would give you a comprehensive picture of the number of students
who read to the number who did not read. When this was cross-checked against those
same learner’s literacy results, you would see if there was a relationship between
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improved literacy and reading. The additional qualitative data, namely your
observation notes and narrative responses on the survey, could be cross-checked
against your quantitative data and help to build a more complex picture.

We will now look at several research methods that will assist you in your research
project.

4.1 Observation

Observation is a critical element of the action research methodology. It is not a difficult

thing to do – we naturally observe people and events. In action research, we just need
to do so deliberately and with a particular purpose in mind.

Think back to the diagram explaining the action research cycle. You begin with
observing something in your teaching/class/school that is of concern to you. Problems
arise because we think we are not living out the values that underpin our teaching
theory or because we see something that we believe is unfair or a barrier to learning.
You think you need to improve your teaching somehow. In the action research
process, you identify your question out of what you observe. You also observe the
responses of learners to the actions you take to try and improve the situation.

There are two types of observers: (i) a participant observer and (ii) a non-participant
observer. In action research, we are participant observers because ‘the researcher is
living in the context’ of the study (Koshy, 2010, p. 92). For example, if your research
involves the learners in your classroom, you and your learners are participants. If the
observer is not part of the research study, we talk about a non-participant observer.

180 minutes
9
Draw a table showing the differences between a participant observer and a non-
participant observer using the template below. List the advantages and
disadvantages of each approach. Find a reference for each type of observer and
add it to your table. You can use the example below to assist you.

Participant observer Non-participant observer

Description: Description:

Advantages: Advantages:

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:

Reference article: Reference article:

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Commentary:
It is essential to understand how your worldview impacts how you gather and
interpret data when doing research. For example, if you know how each type of
observer might assist in a research study, you will better understand why you are a
participant observer.

When searching for articles, the articles should preferably be published in the last
five years. This is because you want to show that you are using current knowledge
or research (not old or out of date). This does not apply to references related to key
theorists such as Vygotsky or Piaget, as their work dates back to when they first
entered our discipline and informed our thinking.

The danger that we need to be aware of as participant observers are our subjectivity.
This is where the ethics of conducting your research and your data collection is
especially relevant. You, therefore, need to be aware of your possible preconceived
ideas and try, through your research methods, to counter bias (in action research, we
are not aiming for objectivity, but it is essential to acknowledge your values and beliefs
upfront).

Non-participant observers, on the other hand, do not get involved in observed

activities. The researcher will try to be as unobtrusive as possible by quietly sitting in
the corner or observing from a distance.

A predetermined checklist may help you focus your observation (just a simple list
that allows you to look for a specific behaviour related to your study). However, as
always, remain open to surprising and unexpected observations, as these surprises
are often the most significant findings of your research.

To aid your observation, you can videotape yourself teaching. The advantage of this
method is that you, as participant-observer, do not need to interrupt yourself to make
notes – you can make notes as you watch the video afterwards.

However, be aware that video recording can be disruptive, and shy learners may not
want to participate at all. To overcome this, your learners need to be familiar with the
camera. Introduce the idea of the camera long before your intended observation. This
is termed habituation (adjustment). Note that before you film any learners in your class,
you must have parental permission. This will be addressed further under ethical
clearance.

4.2 Reflective diaries

A reflective diary is a record of your thoughts – almost like a journal, which you keep
with you all the time to jot down any ideas or observations as your research project

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unfolds (Silverman, 2013). A journal or notebook can also be used for this purpose.
Here you can write your commentary on what you see and start interpreting the
findings of the research. We introduced you to this concept in Unit 1 of this module,
and you have now been using this journal/notebook to address your activities.

In action research, you can make use of a field diary. It is a handy tool to develop
reflective abilities. You can also teach your learners to use reflective diaries. As well
as generating data, this will also help them with literacy skills. The difference between
the reflective diary and your journal/notebook is that you might choose to have a
separate notebook to jot down your field observations. However, you can use the
same journal/notebook that we suggested at the beginning of the module, but perhaps
make it easier to locate your observations and use the back of this diary to make your
observation notes. That way, everything is in one place.

Reflective diaries should:

• Allow you to write down any comment or observation freely.

• Allow for observations that you did not expect concerning your research topic.
• Help you to be analytical in respect of your observations. As you get better with
your writing, develop the same abilities in your learners.
• Provide a record of your growth and development – use these notes as part of
your research report (Koshy, 2010, p. 91).

You may find it helpful to design an observation sheet that you can simply photocopy
and paste into your reflective diary. Below is an example. We have continued our
theme of looking at the idea of the teacher researching learner literacy levels by
observing their reading habits in class and using a survey for gathering home
information:

Table 1: Observation tool

Learner name Reads in Has Additional comments

class completed
the survey
Yes/No Yes/No

Yes Yes She reads every reading period and

often renews her books before the
Thande Dudu week is over.

No Yes He finds other things to do during the

reading period and has to be told to
Colin Marks settle down and read.

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Learner name Reads in Has Additional comments

class completed
the survey
Yes/No Yes/No

Yes Yes She reads to her friends during reading

Lulu Sithole time and gets very excited when she
takes out new books from the library.

No No She has learning difficulties and,

therefore, often avoids reading in this
Shelly Kramer period, preferring to draw in her sketch
book.

In the above example, the teacher-researcher has allowed a place to list the learner’s
names (number of lines would be determined by the number of learners being
observed) and note what she is observing beyond the learners reading in class. The
teacher-researcher could now use this observation tool to count how many learners
are observed reading, their attitude towards the task and how many learners indicate
they are not participating. This data can be cross-checked against learner results to
show if learners who read in class and at home achieve better results than those who
don’t.

4.3 Piloting your research tools

One of the most valuable approaches to successful research is piloting your research
instruments and methods (Williams, 2003). By this, we mean that you test them out
ahead of your official period of data gathering or field work. This approach allows you
to note if a research instrument is working and if you need to make changes to get the
results you would like. For example, your observation tool can be tested during a
reading period.

As a teacher-researcher, you would observe the learners and jot down your notes.
However, you may find that you don’t have enough time to write all your comments
and would prefer to adapt the instrument to a checklist that you just tick.

If you take the route of piloting any aspect of your research, be sure to have a section
in your research report describing what piloting is, why it is essential and what you did
during piloting.

4.4 Learner work and document analysis

Most documents are not written for research purposes (De Vos, Strydom, Fouché &
Delport, 2005, p. 315). Think, for example, of letters to family or friends, diaries,
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autobiographies, agendas of meetings, newspapers, or newsletters. However, all

these documents can be studied and analysed for scientific research.

Documentary evidence can be any formal documents such as policies, minutes of staff
meetings, planning records, or learners’ work:

“These sources can often provide a useful background and context for the
project and can also be very illuminating (enlightening), especially when you
are comparing what is claimed and what has happened in practice” (Koshy,
2010).

For younger grades, photographs can also be used. For older grades, learners’ written
work, portfolios and journals may be used – these often show evidence of the level of
understanding, participation, and progress.

Only the most relevant documentary evidence should be used. If not, the teacher-
researcher could become overwhelmed with too much information. You want the
documents to support other evidence found.

A useful way to decide what to use is putting it in a table. An example of this is as

follows:

Table 4: Documentary evidence

Type of document Information obtained

Policy document Subject curriculum
Syllabus Expected outcomes
Tests Level of understanding
Essays Creative expression
Portfolios of evidence Progress over time
Learners’ work Examples of progress

When choosing what documents to examine, you also need to consider how much
you will use. For example, if you are looking at your curriculum documents as part of
your evidence, you may only look at literacy sections. Equally, if you were looking at
how the learners use a language, you may decide to take a sample of learner’s essays
choosing from the top three learners, middle three and bottom three.

How much you use or choose from document evidence is affected by:

1. How much time you have available to examine the evidence. For example, you
have a relatively short time to do your research and therefore need to collect
data that can be analysed over a few weeks or months at most.

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2. If the sample size is big enough to tell you what you need. For example, three
essays may not be enough to show that learners struggle to write, especially if
the three you choose are all the weakest learners.
3. If you need to be, selective because your research question requires it. For
example, if you were looking at literacy-related issues, you would only examine
the literacy sections of the curriculum and not mathematics.

Now complete activity 10.

120 minutes
10
Using what you have just learnt about types of documents, you can examine your
data. Do the following:

1. List the documents that you think you might use to support your research.
2. Against each type of document you listed, explain why you think this type of
document would be helpful to your research question.
3. Lastly, decide how many or how much of a document you might need to
examine. For example, if you are going to look at learner’s book reviews to
determine if they are reading in class and at home, consider if you would read
all 40 of your learners’ reviews. If not, why not? If yes, why?

Commentary:
This activity will assist you in deciding where to gather your information and how
much to gather to get a reasonable sample that can support your findings. Always
keep in mind the scope of your research, namely how much time you have to
conduct the study and not do too much, making it challenging to finish. Equally, it
would be best if you did not do too little, meaning that your research will be below
standard.

4.5 Visual methods

When working with children, visual methods may be beneficial, as they may not yet
have the vocabulary to express their feelings or views. There are many ways to use
visual methods, but two of the easiest to use in the classroom are drawings (Theron,
Mitchell, Smith & Stuart, 2011) and photographs.

You can ask learners to draw about the topic that you are researching or take a
photograph with their cell phone – or you could give them photos and ask them to
interpret them. The most important thing is the “prompt” or the instruction you give
them about it.

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After drawing or taking the photo, they need to write a paragraph to explain what it
represents. This is a fun way to get a lot of information about how learners think and
feel.

However, it is essential to emphasise that the drawing itself is not important – they can
draw stick figures or symbols. The steps for drawing and using photographs are
similar, except the photographs will have to be printed out. This will have cost
implications, so be sure you can afford to take this approach.

Steps to follow:

1. Identify a topic related to your research question. For example, if your question is
“How can I encourage my learners to read more?” a prompt could be, “Draw a
picture that shows how you feel about reading.” It would be best if you chose a
clear prompt to give you the information you need. In this case, you are trying to
find out why/why not learners read.
2. Remind learners that the quality of the drawing is not important. If they take photos,
remind them not to take pictures of other people without permission (see ethics
section). They should take pictures/do drawings that are symbolic or serve as
metaphors, e.g. a picture of an ice cream cone could symbolise that they love
reading.
3. Ask them to write a short paragraph about their drawing/photo. If they find writing
difficult, they could talk to you about it.

Discussion of drawings/photos

Possible questions you could ask to start a discussion about the drawings/photos:

• Why did you draw/take this?

• What is the meaning of this drawing/photo?
• How does it relate to your life?
• What does this drawing/photo say to you about (the topic)?
• What kind of challenges does the drawing/photo represent?
• What could you do about the challenges?

In the next paragraph, we will look at a case study approach.

4.6 A case study approach

As a teacher-researchers, you will most likely be conducting your research in your

classroom or perhaps using other classes in your grade. Your classroom and that of
your peers each represent a case study. What you find within your classroom or those
of your peers is a story in itself.
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Within your classroom, you may choose to study a few learners. In this case, each
learner is considered a case study. Therefore, you can have single case studies (an
individual learner or your class as one large case study) or multiple case studies
(focusing on various learners or numerous classes. Note that adopting a case study
approach is not specific to either qualitative or quantitative research. Instead, case
studies are used across methods.

Yin (2018) considers the choice of a case study approach to research to be necessary
when doing the following:
1. When the focus of the study is to answer ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions and not just
‘what’. For example, how often are the learners reading at home or in class and
why are they not reading at home or in class.
2. You want to examine contextual conditions because you believe they are
relevant to the question under study. For example, you may suspect that
learners might not be reading in class because they have learning difficulties or
not reading at home because they do not have access to suitable books.
3. You want to examine multiple cases, each containing various variables. For
example, you are looking at individual learners, their attitude towards reading,
and their challenges. You are also looking at the class as a whole and
determining what you might do to improve literacy. You are looking across the
grade and examining if the issues related to your class and reading are
comparable to those of the other classes.

Therefore, the case study approach has the advantage of allowing the teacher-
researcher to pull together a rich collection of data that describes events and contexts
that speak for themselves. Below is a table summarising the case study approach to
research. Consider this summary when deciding how you wish to approach your
research.

Table 5: Summarising a case study approach

Defining a case study approach to research

• It is concerned with detailed descriptions of events that are relevant to the
case study.
• The narrative or story is in chronological order.
• The descriptions are linked to the analysis.
• It focuses on individual characters or groups of characters and seeks to
understand what they do, how and why.
• It highlights events that are relevant to the case study and research
questions.
• The teacher-researcher is deeply involved in the case study/story

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• The teacher-researcher attempts to tell the story in writing as part of their

research report.

Now that you know more about a case study approach let’s look at how you will
incorporate interviews into your research.

4.7 Interviews

Interviews give rich and informative data (Creswell, 2014). In most cases, interviews
are done one-on-one. Because you do not want to stop the flow of the conversation,
interviews are usually recorded with a tape recorder. Then you can listen to the
conversation again if you have missed something during the interview and transcribe
it in the form of text (transcribe means you listen to the recorded interview and write
down everything that was said, word-for-word). Text is more straightforward to analyse
than a recording.

Characteristics of interviews

Some of the characteristics of interviews are:

• Regard knowledge as generated between humans, through conversations;

• Enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world in which they
live;
• Enable participants to express their point of view freely;
• Use multi-sensory channels: verbal, non-verbal, spoken and heard;
• Are time-consuming;
• Have a specific purpose;
• Are question-based; and
• It should be as detailed as possible.

(Adapted from Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p. 349)

Three different types of interviews can be distinguished: structured and semi-

structured, and open-ended (De Vos, et al., 2005, p. 293).

In structured interviews, you will have a set of pre-designed questions, and you will
ask only these questions in the order in which you have designed them. For semi-
structured interviews, you also prepare a set of questions, but you can use sub-
questions to delve deeper into what your respondent is saying. This is a much more
flexible approach.

Look at the following example of semi- structured interview questions:

Introductory question – ‘Can you tell me how you feel about reading?’

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Follow-up question – ‘Can you give me some reasons about why you feel
that way?’
Probing question – ‘Can you give specific examples of times you did not
enjoy reading?’

Some teacher-researchers use open-ended interviews where only a general

question is used, and the learner (interviewee) is encouraged to answer as fully (in as
much detail) as possible, for example:

How do you feel about reading?

Do the following activity to learn more about interviews.

120 minutes
11
Deciding on interviews

When deciding what type of interview to conduct in your research, you need to
determine the advantages and disadvantages of each type. Use the following
activity to help you with this decision:

1. Conduct your research using EBSCOhost or Google Scholar to determine the

advantages and disadvantages of each interview type.
2. Draw a line down the middle of one of your pages in your journal/notebook. On
one side write advantages and on the other side disadvantages. Then list each
type of interview with its pros and cons.
3. Once you have done that, write a paragraph in which you state which approach
might work best for your research and why.
4. If you determine that you do not need to use interviews to gather your data, then
write a paragraph explaining why interviews are not required in your research.

Commentary:
Choosing what methods to use in your research is an essential aspect of successful
research. It is only possible to make choices, however, if they are informed choices.
When looking for answers about types of interviews, look in research methods
literature as these books and articles are specifically focused on research methods.

Guidelines for conducting interviews

Here are some valuable guidelines to conduct interviews:

• Your participant needs to feel protected – choose a comfortable, non-

threatening place for the interview.
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• The participant must do 90% of the talking – limit your remarks.

• Ask clear and brief questions.
• Ask one question at a time.
• Make sure the interview is not too long, especially with young learners. Even
older learners and adults cannot maintain concentration for more than 30 to 40
minutes.
• Explain the purpose of the interview, for example: ‘I am working on a project to
ensure that learners enjoy science, and what you will tell me will certainly help’.
• Remember to assure the participant that their identity will be protected.
• Start with questions that are not controversial.
• Do not give your opinion – stick to the questions.
• Avoid leading questions (e.g. don’t you think that …?).
• Ask open-ended questions, as they will provide rich detail, especially if you
encourage the respondent to elaborate by saying: ‘Tell me more’; or ‘How would
you explain that to someone who knows nothing of this matter?’ (De Vos et al.,
2005; Koshy, 2010).

4.8 Questionnaires

Questionnaires are usually associated with quantitative research, but they are often
used in conjunction with qualitative approaches. Koshy (2010, p. 83) notes that they
can be used as an exploratory tool, as follows:

“If you are carrying out a study on how an intervention programme may help to
change student attitudes towards learning a particular subject, use of a
questionnaire will provide you with a simple means to collect information on
student attitudes, before any intervention takes place (giving the basis for
comparison)”.

You can use both closed and open-ended questions in the questionnaire, but always
keep in mind that you must consider how you will analyse your responses.

Closed (or short) questions usually require quick answers, for example:

Is Mathematics your favourite subject?

Does four plus four equal eight?

The participant can only respond ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to these types of questions, and they will
not help you find out what the problem is. A common form of closed/short questions is
multiple choice questions, for example:

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Does three plus five equal:

1. Nine?
2. Eight?
3. Ten?

This can be used as a way of testing the knowledge of learners. However, open-ended
questions require a much more detailed response. The answers could come in the
form of a list, a few sentences or something longer such as a speech, paragraph or
essay, for example:

How do you do your homework?

Tell me why you enjoy reading so much.
Give reasons why you like/dislike school.
What is your favourite school subject and why is it your favourite subject.

These questions cannot be answered by a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ – they need an explanation.

They are instrumental in questionnaires but can be challenging to analyse, so keep
them simple.

Guidelines for designing questionnaires

The following are guidelines for designing questionnaires – keep these in mind when
planning your questionnaires:

• Keep the questionnaire simple. By designing appropriate questions, you can

often gather a decent amount of data using a small number of questions.
• Consider how you are going to analyse the responses to the questions at the
time of the design.
• Start with questions about the factual information required.
• Remember that closed questions are easier to analyse than open-ended
questions.
• Avoid leading questions, e.g., “What do you think about bullying?” instead of
“Do you think bullying is wrong?” The second example puts a specific idea into
the mind of the participant.
• Consider the reading ability of the learners who will complete the questionnaire
and use age-appropriate language.
• Always assure your learners that their anonymity will be kept when reporting on
the research.
• Always pilot your questionnaire before using it so that you can make
adjustments if necessary. (Give it to a few participants first to check that your
questions get the type of response you need) (Koshy, 2010).

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You can use pictures instead of words – especially for young children, for example:

Tell me how you feel about adding numbers:

The child can then choose the picture that depicts their feelings the best.

In the next activity, you will get the opportunity to design your questionnaire.

120 minutes
12
The above section has helped you to understand how to design a questionnaire.
Using this knowledge, draw up a 10-question questionnaire that you might use for
your research. Keep the two golden rules in mind:
1. Closed-ended questions only give short answers, such as one-word answers or
yes or no.
2. Open-ended questions give more information but are not as easy to analyse.

Now try out your questionnaire with a selection of your learners:

• Did the questions work well? Motivate your answer.
• Did you need to change any of the questions? If yes, why and how? If no,
why not?

Commentary:
Both types of questions are likely to be needed in your questionnaire. A tip for
analysing open-ended questions is to look for common themes across the
responses and determine how many of your learners expressed the same viewpoint.
This will allow you to see if the attitude or view is common or rare. This then assists
you in taking the narrative responses and beginning to understand what is being
said.

You may think of other ways to gather or generate data to answer your research
question. The method you will use is determined by your research question and what
you want to find out.

5. DECIDING WHICH METHODS TO USE

You gather data to prove that what you claim is reasonably valid for your context
(McNiff, 2014). See the following example.
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Why do I need evidence? What evidence might I gather?

(Example: To answer the

question “How can I improve my
learners’ reading?”)

To show that reading is a problem • Tests that indicate reading level is poor.
for some of my learners. • Finding out what/when, learners read.
• Knowledge from the literature that shows
(This will include finding out not
that poor reading skills are a barrier to
only skill levels of learners but
learning.
whether they like reading; whether
• Literature that indicates what kinds of
they have material to read; what
problems learners have.
kind of material they like).
• Observing learners as they read and noting
Only when you know this can you where/how they struggle.
decide which actions to take to • Asking learners to draw how they feel about
improve reading. reading.
• Interviewing some learners to find out why
they struggle with reading.
To support my claim that my • Doing a pre- and post-test on learner
actions have made a difference. reading to see if there is a change.
• Use a questionnaire to determine if learners
have changed their reading habits.
• Doing a post-intervention drawing exercise
to determine if reading has improved or
attitudes towards it have improved.

Do activity 13 to learn more about data collection methods in a practical manner.

180 minutes
13
You have now been exposed to several data collection methods that are used in
action research. Let’s try to apply that practically to the problem/challenge you have
identified.

Consider the following aspects and make notes in your journal/notebook, as these
notes will be needed in the next Unit, where we will guide you through the process
of writing your research proposal.

1. Think about the nature of the problem you are investigating, the participants
(learners/teachers/parents) you wish to involve, and the kind of data you will
need to understand the problem and develop possible solutions.
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2. At this point, you may also want to consult literature on the topic. For example,
if my challenge has to improve my learners’ reading skills, I will read articles
discussing reading interventions.
3. Now that you have some idea of the kind of data you need and the type of
intervention you may consider, you must decide the best way to collect data in
your specific case.
4. Indicate your preferred data collection method and motivate why you think that
is the best method for your study. Remember that you may use more than one
method (for example, a questionnaire to parents about how often they read for
or with their children and testing your learners’ reading skills in class).

Commentary:
In answering this activity, pull together activities you did from number 7 to 10. This
will have shown you what kinds of research methods are likely to work for you and
your research question. Make sure that your choices match the type of research you
want to do. Remember, with action research, you need to reflect on what is working
and not continuously. This may mean that by now, having done activities 7 to 10,
you are aware that you might have to change some of your original thinking.
Nevertheless, piloting your methods and research tools is an excellent way of
determining if it works or not, so don’t be afraid to give this a go!

The next topic we will look at is data analysis.

6. DATA ANALYSIS

Data means all the information you gather (Creswell, 2014). Your data is at the heart
of your study. Without data, you do not have a study – only a research problem. After
you have done the hard work to collect your data, you now have to analyse what your
data is saying about your research problem. You have to create a “story from all the
data collected” (Koshy, 2010, p. 101).

As you go through reflection and action, you will generate data that now has to be
organised. Different kinds of data (e.g. drawings, questionnaires) are referred to as
data sets, and now you have to determine what all the different sets are saying that
can help you answer your research question.

You want to create some meaning from all the data to help you understand how you
can improve your teaching so that learners will learn better. Do you remember
that this should be the focus of your action research? Koshy (2010, p. 103) suggests
using a simple table to help you to organise your different data sets. Here is an
example:

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Table 6: Organise different data sets

Type of data How collected? How many? Dates

Questionnaires Learners filled them in. 25 15 September

Observations Observed learners at work and 32 16 September

filled in a checklist.

Interviews Interviewed learners and 5 12-18

transcribed tapes. September

(Adapted from Koshy, 2010, p. 103)

You now ask – what does all this data tell me about the focus of my study (e.g. why
/how /where /when learners read). You come to some conclusions, which are your
findings.

You can use simple charts and tables to present your data if you use quantitative
tools. As this is a small-scale action research project, you are not likely to use
advanced statistical analysis. In most cases, simple counting will be adequate.

However, you may, want to visit http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/numerical-

data/numerical-data to get an overview of the different ways to present quantitative
data.

Here is an example of using a table to express data:

Family background, N=75

Family income Low Middle High
Responses 51 16 8

Divorced Single mom Single dad Not divorced

Responses 48 5 22

Or, you can express the data in graphs, for example:

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Income
60 51

40
16
20 8
0
Low Middle High

Figure 7: Family income

(Harrison, 2020)

However, it is when you start interpreting what the data is saying that the real meaning
is revealed, for example:

From the graph above, I can conclude the following:

51 out of 75 of my learners’ families are considered to be from the low-income

group. Forty-eight out of 75 of these learners live with a single mom, suggesting
that more than half of the single mothers fall within the low-income group. This
might explain why some of the learners do not do their homework and reading
tasks – perhaps they have to help with household tasks or watch younger
children? I will need to find out how many learners have time to do their
homework and have a place to do it.

Graphs and tables are used to present quantitative data.

Using EXCEL to capture data and create basic graphs

One of the most valuable ways of sorting, analysing, and

representing your data is to make use of EXCEL. EXCEL is part
of the Microsoft Office package. You already learnt how to use
EXCEL in the Computer Literacy (B-CLI 110) module. (Kruger &
Dlamini, 2020). Refer to this module again to refresh your mind.

The example of an observation tool that we shared with you in the previous section
(Table 6) can be transferred onto an EXCEL spreadsheet and then manipulated to suit
your needs. This could include:

1. Adding up the total number of learners who said No;

2. Adding up the total number of learners who said Yes;
3. Adding up the total number of learners you observed reading in class;
4. Adding up the total number of learners you observed not reading in class;
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5. Adding up the total number of learners who expressed a positive attitude

towards reading in your observation; and
6. Adding up the total number of learners who participated in the survey.

This data can be developed in various graphs, such as the chart in Figure 7 or a pie
chart or a line graph. Note that you must not try to present all your data in one graph,
as this will be visually confusing. Instead, create a series of charts unpacking aspects
of the data. For example, you may have a diagram that just shows how many learners
read or don’t read in class. Figure 8 shows an Excel page where the observation tool
has been converted.

Figure 8: Use of an Excel spreadsheet to convert data

(Harrison, 2020)

You will notice in the above image that a small selection of data has been used to
create the graph. The researcher has counted the number of students who did and did
not read in class, created a table, and then used that to generate the graph. If all the
data were used in one chart, it would not make sense. We can see from this graph
that 50% of the learners are reading and 50% are not.
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Once you have created the graph, it can easily be cut and pasted into a word document
to represent it in your research report. Note that if you present data in a chart, you
must always label it as a figure, number the figure, and give it a caption.

Below is a helpful link to an introductory video showing how to create a basic graph
using your data. Available online at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TfkNkrKMF5c

In the next activity, you will get the opportunity to use Excel to apply what you have
learnt.

180 minutes
14
Let us see if you can now apply what you have just learnt.

1. Take one of your data sets, e.g. your observation field notes, document
analysis, learner work, etc., and transfer the information to an Excel
spreadsheet.
2. Name the spreadsheet by right-clicking on the tab at the bottom and typing in
the name, for example, Observation tool for reading.
3. Decide what type of graph you would like to generate, for example, Line, pie
chart, bar chart etc.
4. Now follow the steps in the link above to create your chart.
5. Use formatting tools to add data labels, colours and titles. Your graph should
be presented as clearly and colourful as possible. This can help to see
relationships and make sense of the data depicted in the diagram.
6. Now, look at the graph you have created and decide what it is telling you.
Consider the following:
• Does it make sense?
• Do you see relationships between the data?
• What is it saying about your data?
Jot down in your journal/notebook what you think this graph is saying and how
it links to your research question.
7. Save all your charts in a separate tab in the Excel spreadsheet, and remember
to make backups so that you do not lose your data.
8. Reflect on how easy or difficult you found this task. Write your notes.

Commentary:
This exercise will help you to produce some visual representations of your data. The
more you practice this, the easier it becomes. Be warned, though, that you must
check that your data makes sense and that you have produced a graph that is a
proper representation of your data. Please do not assume that because Excel has
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generated the graph for you that it is automatically correct. Note it is about which
data you select and how. Look again at Figure 7 above to see how only a portion of
the data was selected. Consider finding more YouTube clips to watch that will take
you through the process again, especially if you are still unsure.

In action research, we often mostly use qualitative data, and this has to be interpreted.

To come to conclusions, you have to organise your data into categories or themes.
For example, you could use headings like:

1) Attitudes towards reading;

2) Availability of reading material;
3) Difficulties learners have in reading; and
4) What kind of material learners have to read/would like to have to read.

180 minutes
15
Read Section 4 of the following core reader carefully to see how you can analyse
and present your data:

Alber, S.M. (2011). A Toolkit for Action Research. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers. Available online at EBSCOhost permalink:
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=350455&site=e
host-live

Make notes of what you read. Which of the methods that the authors show seem to
be most appropriate to your research? Provide reasons for your answer.

The collected data is used only to analyse and interpret the collection of data and to
highlight a particular problem area. What things are you learning that help you answer
your research question?

The steps below will guide you through the process of organising and analysing your
qualitative data.

Step 1: Organise your data: Transcribe all interviews (write them out word for word
from recordings), type up your notes, sort according to different types of data
(interviews, documents, etc.).
Step 2: Read through your data: make notes in the margin and write down
immediate impressions and start to think of categories.
Step 3: Begin detailed analysis: Put your data into categories. Look for learners
saying similar/different things about the topic; look for learners’ skills,
feelings, and attitudes: What patterns can you see?

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Step 4: Describe your themes: think about headings under which you can place the
different responses and under which you will write up your narrative.
Step 5: Decide how you want to present your data – mostly, you will use a
narrative, but it can be supplemented by tables, graphs, or figures if you used
quantitative methods as well.
Step 6: Interpret your research findings: write down what the data reveals under
the category/theme headings.

Two useful tips:

1) Give yourself plenty of time to transcribe, as this is always a slow

process.
2) Write out your research questions and sub-questions on strips of
paper and pin them up near your workstation so you can see them,
and keep referring to them as you progress through the project.

In a sense, qualitative data requires more preparation before it can be analysed than
quantitative data, but the rich, in-depth understanding you will gain makes it
worthwhile. Once you have grouped all your qualitative data into their different
categories, you can start working with the data.

The easiest way to make sense of qualitative data is to keep your research questions
and sub-questions in mind. The questions themselves will already suggest a few
themes that may emerge. Look at the example below:

Research question:
How can I improve learner participation in class?

Sub-research questions:
When are learners less likely to participate, and when are they more likely to
participate?
What are learners’ attitudes towards this subject?
How confident are learners in this subject?
What am I doing that might encourage or discourage learners from
participating?

The themes that might emerge based on these questions are:

• Learner attitudes towards the subject:

o Positive attitudes
o Negative attitudes.
• Capability of learners in the subject:
o Confidence levels
o Skill levels.
• Teaching strategies that encourage participation.
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In the example, you will be looking out for some of the themes when you start working
with the data. Remember, in qualitative studies, we often have much more text than
what we need – focus on the research questions you seek to answer.

Do not be discouraged by the hard work that is required for qualitative data analysis.
Qualitative studies are closest to what ‘real life’ reflects because the data collection
takes place in an ordinary (authentic) setting, collected from ordinary (actual) people.
Of course, quantitative studies cannot (and do not intend to) convey people’s feelings,
behaviour, and attitudes, but that is what qualitative studies can do very well.

7. ENSURING TRUSTWORTHINESS
The validation of findings in quantitative research refers to two concepts, namely
‘validity’ and ‘reliability’. Your findings are valid when they represent the state of affairs;
they are reliable when the same results occur if the research is repeated (Taherdoost,
2016).

However, this will never be the case in action research since contexts (and people)
change all the time. Since action research will mainly use qualitative research designs,
we look for the “trustworthiness” of the study.

Thus, in qualitative research, we tend to use the word “trustworthiness,” but some refer
to validity. Our research findings are valid in qualitative research when the results are
‘trustworthy’, ‘authentic’ or ‘credible’ (Creswell, 2014, p. 201). There are various
strategies to ensure validity (Creswell, 2014, p. 201):

• Triangulation
Triangulation means that your findings can be confirmed from different data
sources, for example, from the results of your questionnaires and your interviews
or other data sources. You can also ask someone else to analyse your data and
see if the results are similar (triangulation of researcher). Using a mixed-methods
approach can also be helpful because you are cross-checking across various data
sets.

• Member checking
Member checking means you share your findings with your participants to see if
they think the results are accurate and represent their views. This could mean
discussing what you found with your learners and check that they still hold those
opinions.

• Clarifying the bias of the researcher

This means that you, as the researcher, will explain your preconceived ideas. For
example, you will, explain how your background and perspective shape your
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interpretations. This can be further elaborated when you state if you are a
participant-observer or non-participant observer. You are viewing your research
through your lens of life experience. This will inform how you interpret what you
see, analyse your data and conduct your research as a whole. By stating your
position up front, you own that you can never be completely objective.

• Validation groups or critical friends

You can present your process and findings to a group of fellow students or your
lecturer/tutor and ask them to give critique. This is useful if it is done at each phase
of the research to make changes if needed. This is a helpful way of making sure
you are on track. However, it requires you to be organised and build in time in your
timeline to accommodate the sharing of ideas and early drafts of your proposal and
final research report.

Questions you can ask critical friends to consider are:

• Are you focused on the research question?

• Are your action plans suited to the question?
• Have you made sure your research is ethical?
• Are the data collection tools appropriate and well designed?
• Do you have enough evidence to back up your findings?
• Is your report clear and understandable?

(Adapted from Koshy, 2010, p. 120)

• Describing your research procedures

You will describe how you are going to collect and analyse data in detail. This is
so that people can judge if the process you followed was appropriate. Of course,
they can also use or adapt your process for their study, but we never expect the
results to be the same in a different context.

• Literature control
You use literature against which to compare your findings – are they similar or
different? This is your literature review and will be discussed further in this module.
Keep in mind that the literature review is not just to know what has already been
done in your field of research. The review must always be related to your research
questions and findings.

8. CONCLUSION

In this section, you learnt about the design of an action research study. This includes
the process, collecting and analysing data and ensuring the trustworthiness of the

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findings. In the next section, you will learn about the importance of ensuring your
research is ethical.

SECTION 2: THE ETHICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

1. INTRODUCTION
It would be best if you carried out your study in an ethical way. Ethics refers to a set
of principles that make sure that your participants are protected from harm; that you
have done what you say you have done; and that your findings are a true reflection of
the data (you did not just make them up, for instance) (Lichtman, 2013). In most
universities and other institutions, you have to show you have followed ethical
guidelines and practices before you are allowed to do your research.

2. DEFINING ETHICS
To be ethical, research must:

• Be done in a morally responsible way.

• Not disadvantage anyone or cause harm to anyone or anything.
• Protect the right to privacy, confidentiality and anonymity where applicable
• Be respectful of others’ views.
• Allow for voluntary participation (no one is forced to participate).
• Allow any participant to withdraw at any time or a parent to withdraw a child
without reason and any adverse consequences.
• Only be done when you have permission to do so.
(Lichtman, 2013)

Any research involves people, and as a teacher-researcher, you need to be especially

sensitive to research with children as research subjects – even if the research is
intended to benefit learners and improve classroom practice. The law protects
learners’ right to privacy and their right to refuse to participate in a research study. A
learner may never be forced or convinced into participating in a study.

For this reason, most universities and other research institutions require that the
researcher seek permission to conduct research. For children of school-going age,
permission must be granted by parents or guardians. The request may be simple, as
long as parents/guardians are aware of the study and have agreed that the child may
participate.

Although you need the consent (Lichtman, 2013) of parents for their children (any
learner under the age of 18), the learner still needs to agree to do so to participate in
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a research study. This is called assent. You explain the purpose and process of the
research to the learners, and they are free to decide not to participate if they don’t
want to.

You should clarify that it is their choice, and there will be no negative consequences if
they decide not to participate. However, you must be very careful to ensure that the
child understands what they are being told. The younger the child, the simpler the
explanation will have to be.

Since you are researching your teaching, the risk is low, as you will not be doing
anything that will harm the learner, and if your teaching improves, it will benefit them.
However, it depends on how formal your research will be and who you intend to share
your research findings with.

Suppose you intend to use your data to diagnose problems in class, for example and
plan to share your findings only with your colleagues. In that case, formal permission
may not be necessary (however, your future school may have a school policy on the
matter, in which case you need to follow those rules). However, for the sake of
completing your research project for B-RED 400, permission is required.

Note: If you intend to publish your research findings, especially as part of your further
studies, you will most definitely need permission. Most provincial departments of
education have a specific procedure that you should follow before you will be allowed
to do a formal research study.

3. GETTING PERMISSION
When learners are in lower grades, you need to get parental consent. If the learner is
old enough, they can give assent. When they are adolescents, this is called parental
permission; and the learners give adolescent consent.

Below is an example of a letter to your learners’ parents asking for permission when
you plan to undertake a formal study. Carefully study the example.

Example of consent letter for participants’ parents

24 May 2021

Dear Parent
As your child’s teacher, I am interested in improving how your child learns in
mathematics. I would therefore like to get your permission for your child to
participate in an action research project. However, before you give formal written
consent that you voluntarily participate in this project, I would like to provide you with
a few details to ensure you understand its purpose and the processes involved.

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The purpose of the project is to improve my teaching and your child’s learning. I will
do this by finding out what problems learners might experience with mathematics,
and I will explore new teaching methods to help learners overcome the problems.

What will you have to do?

This project is an action research project where I will gather information about the
problems and find ways to overcome them. I will ask you and the learners’ some
questions, and I may ask you to complete a questionnaire – you and your child will
not have to do anything apart from his/her usual work and tests.

What benefits are there for you?

Your child will benefit from better teaching, and the aim is that he/she will learn better
in the class.

What potential risks are there?

I do not think there are any risks for your child – his/her name will not be linked to
any of the findings or things I write about the research.

Will you be kept informed of the findings?

I will share my findings with you to help you understand your child’s performance in
mathematics. I will also make suggestions on how your child could improve their
performance.

What are your rights?

You may say to me at any time (or to another teacher if you prefer, and they will
inform me) that you do not want to answer these questions or have your answers
used in my study.

What will I do with the information you give?

I will use it to improve my teaching and write a report about it for my studies.

Who can you talk to if you have more questions?

You can ask me at any time whatever you want to know. Or, if you have concerns
about what I am doing, you can contact me (Here, insert the name and contact of
your HoD, Principal or someone else other than you).

YOUR NAME

Please sign below if you accept to be part of this project:

1. I understand my obligations and rights and choose to be part of this project.

2. I may withdraw at any time I want
3. I understand this will not affect my marks in any way.

Full name:
Date:
Signature:
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After studying the above example of a consent letter, complete the next activity.

120 minutes
16
Use the example above together with the Lichtman (2013) criteria (see below) to
design your consent letter that you can send out for your research.

Most important to remember in your letter asking for consent is that you must:
• Indicate the reason for what you are planning to do.
• Indicate what you will be doing to collect data and why you are doing it.
• Say how you will protect the learners’ privacy – here; you need to indicate
that you will never disclose their names.
• Always explain what the participants will be doing and what is expected of
them.
• Always stress that participants (or parents) can withdraw from (drop out of)
the research at any time during the project.
• Indicate what risks there might be with participation and any benefits you
can think of.
• Request written permission (and then store permission slips carefully).
• Always give them another person to contact in case they want to complain
about you or the process.
(Lichtman, 2013)

Commentary:
When designing your consent letter, make sure to include your school logo. Do not
be offended if a parent does not want their child to participate. Should this happen,
make sure that you plan what that child might be doing whilst conducting your
research.

However, ethics relate to more than just seeking permission to undertake a study – it
involves the ethical collection of data, ethical research procedures and ethical data
analysis (Creswell, 2014). Research is not helpful or meaningful if we cannot believe
the results because the data collection, procedures and analysis have somehow been
‘cooked’ (or made up).

For this reason, a research report will always describe every element and process that
has gone into doing the study. Thus, action research as a methodology is very
structured and therefore safeguards the research process and findings.

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4. OTHER ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The most important ethical consideration to keep in mind is respecting the rights of the
participants. You also need to make sure you report your study thoroughly and
honestly, without revealing the identity of individual learners in your findings. Give
participants numbers or pseudonyms in your analysis and reporting, not their real
names or any specific information that may make it possible to identify any particular
learner/parent or other participants.

Ethical research means to:

• Respect everyone involved.

• Be honest in everything you do (for example, do not trick learners into
participating by giving them false information).
• Be objective in your observations.
• Perform your role as a researcher with integrity.
• Be open about what you are doing as well as your findings.
• Keep all personal information confidential. Never expose the identity of your
participants in your research report.

(Lichtman, 2013)

5. CONCLUSION

In this Section, you learnt what ethics are and what you need to do for your research
to be ethical. You have now completed Unit 2. You should explain the importance of
ethics and the action research design. You should also be able to design your project.

Now it is time to reflect on what you have learnt so far and complete the self-
assessment activity.

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120 minutes
17
Self-assessment activity: Unit 2

If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.

Now that I have worked through this unit, I YES UNSURE NO

can:
Design an action research project.
Discuss how to select appropriate data
collection tools for the study.
Identify and implement ways to increase the
trustworthiness of your research.
Define ethics and explain its importance in
research.
Explain how to obtain informed consent from
parents and learners who will participate in
your study.

The next unit will help you to draw up a proposal for an action research project.

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UNIT 3: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn how to compile a research proposal for your action research
study. The role of theory and literature will be explained so that your proposal becomes
a scholarly piece of work.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 3

Unit 3 consists of the following three sections and learning outcomes:

UNIT 3
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
The proposal as a plan Role of theory and literature

Learning outcome: At the end of Learning outcome: At the end of

this section, you should be able to: this section, you should be able to:
• Identify and describe the • Explain how to locate suitable
components of a research academic sources for a research
proposal. project.
• Explain the function of each • Engage with relevant sources in a
component with examples. meaningful way for the purpose of
a literature review.
• Discuss the role of the literature
review and theoretical framework.

SECTION 3
Constructing your action research proposal

Learning outcome: At the end of this section, you should

be able to:
• Develop a research proposal for an action research
project.
• Identify and describe possible limitations of the
suggested research project.

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In Section 1, the proposal as a plan for research will be discussed.

SECTION 1: THE PROPOSAL AS A PLAN

1. INTRODUCTION

This section will cover the reason for needing a research proposal and the main
elements included in the proposal. Then, we will go into more detail in Section 3 and
give you some practical advice on how to construct your proposal.

2. PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The research proposal is a document usually prepared for a formal study, such as for
the action research project you will complete as part of this module (B-RED 400) in
your final year. However, it is also required as a plan for research in further academic
studies like for masters or PhD dissertations. Therefore, you need to ensure that you
understand, adhere to, and master each of the steps involved.

A research proposal includes:

• What the proposed research is about;

• What the study aims to find out or achieve;
• How the researcher will go about achieving his or her aims; and
• What the researcher hopes will be learnt from the research/study – why it is
worthwhile or significant.

(Punch, 2005, p. 10)

A research proposal is a document that you write before you start a study – whether
you do this for your development (especially at post-graduate level) or for other
reasons such as improving your teaching and your learners’ learning.

The research proposal is essential for two reasons (McNiff, 2014):

• It is a planning document; and,

• It provides a framework for the study.

Developing the research proposal as a framework for your study will already require
considerable research on your part. However, if this is done well, it cuts out many of
the difficulties you may experience once you start collecting data and writing up your
research findings. The research proposal involves all of the elements that we have
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been learning about thus far. This includes some discussion on relevant writing
(literature review or literature study) about your area of research and the theories
related to your topic.

It is important to remember that your research proposal will have an audience: your
lecturers and other SANTS academic staff members will read it and evaluate the
feasibility of your research plan. This means they will assess whether your research
project is doable. It is therefore critical that you write your proposal using the headings
given in this unit.

3. CONTENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The proposal in action research is similar to proposals in other research designs in

that it contains several elements. For example, a research proposal always has at
least the following elements:

• Motivation for the research (why the research is necessary);

• Discussion of what theory will guide your actions;
• Research question(s);
• Details on what data generation and analysis methods you will use to answer
your questions;
• Details about how you will ensure your research leads to valid findings;
• Explanation of how you will ensure your study is ethical;
• Motivation of why your findings will be significant; and
• Bibliography or reference list.

(McNiff, 2014)

In most academic writing, we do not write a research proposal in the first person ‘I’ but
instead talk about ‘the researcher’ (third person) as you want to show ‘distance’ or
objectivity. But in action research, it is entirely acceptable to write in the first person
(I, me, my).

You have to include the following information in your proposal (see Table 7 below):

Table 7: Content of research proposal

Main headings Type of questions to guide content

What is my concern? What is the problem that I have observed?
What issue am I interested in researching?
Why am I concerned Why do I want to research this issue?
What evidence can I gather to show that it
is a problem for my learners and me?
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Main headings Type of questions to guide content

What question can I ask to guide my
study?
What aim am I hoping to reach?
What can I do about it? What have others done about similar
issues?
What strategies can I try?
What kind of evidence can I gather to What design will I use and why?
show that I have an influence Whom will I gather data from?
What data generation strategies can I use
to show the changes?
How will I analyse the data?
How can I ensure that any findings I How can I show that my research findings
present are reasonably fair and are valid/trustworthy?
accurate?
What steps will I take to ensure my How will I make sure that my research
research is ethical? does not harm anyone?

What will be the significance of my What do I hope to learn from it?

research? What could be the benefit for other
teachers?
What could be the benefit for learners?

(Adapted from McNiff & Whitehead, 2011, p. 29)

Study the table above before you complete Activity 18.

120 minutes
18
Go back to the research challenges that you identified in Activity 6. Choose a
specific challenge you want to address.

Now, draw up a table similar to the one above in your journal/notebook, and answer
the questions. You will now have a first rough outline that you may use to develop
your research proposal.

Commentary:
You may find it helpful once you have drafted your table to discuss it with your study
group, family or colleagues at work. This discussion type will help shape your
thinking and identify where you may still be unclear on a particular issue.

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4. CONCLUSION

After studying this section, you should know the purpose of a proposal and the
information it requires. The following section will focus on the use of literature and
theory to guide your study.

SECTION 2: ROLE OF THEORY AND LITERATURE

1. INTRODUCTION

In this section, we will look at how literature and theory are used in your research
proposal. More specifically, we will discuss what, a literature review is, and its
contribution to your research plan. Then we will discuss the role of theory in your
research as well as some relevant theories.

2. THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Before we look at the types of literature and how to write a literature review, we look
at the purpose of literature review.

2.1 Purpose of a literature review

Creswell (2014, p. 31) states that a literature review is about “locating and
summarising the studies about the [research] topic.” But you may ask why do you need
to read what others have written and studied? In action research, you are developing
your theory about your teaching, sometimes called a “living theory” (Whitehead, 1989,
p. 42) because it comes out of your lived experience as a teacher.

However, we also need propositional theories, to guide us, in deciding what actions
are needed and how to analyse and conclude the data. In action research, we need
to read about what others have done or found to help us to:

• Justify that the issue we want to research is an important one; and

• Provide confirmation (or contradiction) of our findings.

The purpose of the literature review is to find out what people are already saying about
the matter: “literature is an extremely valuable resource, and an important storehouse
of knowledge and thinking about a topic or area” (Punch, 2005, p. 43).

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You may also discover that not many people have studied the research topic you are
interested in – this is when your research becomes exciting because you will be adding
new knowledge in the field. Your literature review will therefore also indicate the gaps
in current knowledge.

The literature review will give you a first taste of what research is all about. In action
research, the literature will be integrated under each question since you will have to
provide literature to support your intended actions. With your literature review, you will
show that you understand the key concepts associated with your research question
and that you can relate these concepts to your study. In addition, we look at other
research to provide evidence that our concern is a problem that needs to be
researched (Creswell, 2014).

For example, if we are concerned that our learners are not reading well, we can go to
what others have written about the importance of reading for children to learn in every
subject and do well in general.

We can also use literature to help us validate our findings – have others found the
same as we have? Or have others found something different? It is terrific if your
findings are different. This means that you have created new knowledge. Do not
underestimate the importance of this aspect of your project as it shows your audience
that you have read widely, understood what you have read and that you can identify
the relevance of your research within your discipline.

In your proposal, you will use literature to answer the questions “What is my concern”
and “Why am I concerned” as well as to help you decide what action to take and what
research methods to use. To get started, you need to identify a few keywords related
to your topic.

You can also use keywords to find literature about your research design and methods.
It will be helpful to design a table to help you keep track of what articles you want to
use and where you want to use them in your proposal. You can add more lines as you
need. It is good to write down the complete reference not to struggle later when you
need to include it in the final document.

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Table 8: Literature review table

Complete reference of the Summary of important Where will I use it in

article information my proposal?
Catts, H. W., Kamhi, A. G., & This article provides To justify my concern
Adlof, S. M. (2013). The evidence of the and why I am
development of reading is importance of children concerned.
one of the major being able to read well
achievements of the early as a foundation for the
school years. For rest of their learning.
most. Language and Reading
Disabilities: Pearson New
International Edition, 47:25-
39.

You are now ready to do the next activity.

120 minutes
19
Look at the example below:

Research question: “How can I help my learners to improve their reading skills?”
Key words: literacy; children’s books; reading problems in children; importance of
reading; encouraging reading; reading interventions.

Your keywords will change, depending on what aspect of the topic you are
interested in, the age of your learners, etc.

1. Let us practice this. List at least four keywords for each of the following research
questions:
1.1 “How can I encourage my learners to participate more?”
1.2 “How can I make mathematics more attractive to learners?”
1.3 “How can I improve discipline in my class?”

2. Now go back to your research challenge (the one you identified in Activity 6 and
17), and do the following:
2.1 List at least four keywords for your topic.
2.2 Search EBSCOhost to find articles on your topic. Once you find articles on
that keyword, evaluate them quickly to see if they will help you research.
Try to find at least one helpful article per keyword.

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Now draft a literature review table like the example in Table 8 with your sources.
This will assist you once you start with your literature review.

Commentary:
A relatively quick way of evaluating if an article is helpful is to start by reading the
abstract at the beginning of the article. This is an overview of what the article is
about. Also, check the article’s date as you ideally want to include the most up-to-
date information on your topic. A rule of thumb is to use references that are not more
than five years old. If you evaluate a book to see if it will be helpful, start with the
contents page and see if any of the chapter headings look like they match your
keywords or research question. Suppose they do then dip into the chapter and begin
to read the first few pages. This will give you an idea of if the chapter is going to be
helpful.

2.2 Types of literature

There are different types of literature. Depending on your research question, you may
need to consider all these types (Koshy, 2010, pp. 49–50). Let us look at some of
these.

Policy-related literature

Policy-related literature is official documents that outline education policy related to

your research topic. It will often be necessary to include policy literature in educational
research. Policies are often insensitive to the realities on the ground, so reviewing
these documents will give you the basis to critique the official position on a particular
topic.

Theoretical literature

Theoretical literature is used when you are inclining towards a particular paradigm
(world view). Therefore, theoretical literature about the perspective that you are going
to use is essential.

Research design and methods

In discussing your research design and methods, you have to show that you have read
and understood the design. You have to justify why you want to use it and the most
common research methods used for your action research (e.g. interviews, document
analysis etc.). These articles and books often also help you to define your data
collection tools and research design.

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Existing empirical research

The bulk of your review will consist of existing research available from other
researchers interested in the same or similar topic.

Beginner teacher-researchers may feel overwhelmed by the amount of literature

available. You will have to focus your literature search on your specific research topic
and avoid being side-tracked by the number of articles, papers and books. It is always
helpful to constantly refer back to your research questions and identify specific
keywords when analysing information.

2.3 Writing the literature review

The literature review should show that you understand what you have read and the
implications of what you have read for your study. Unfortunately, students often fall
into the trap of just ‘rattling off’ the opinions of the authors that they found, without
engaging with the content, or even worse, to just copy and paste a long string of direct
quotes, without making meaning from it. Have a look at the example below:

Example: Literature review

Kuh (2009, p. 683) defines student engagement as ‘the time and effort students
devote to activities that are empirically linked to desired outcomes of college and
what institutions do to induce students to participate in these activities.’ This
definition is similar to Krause (2005), who defines engagement as ‘the time,
energy and resources students devote to activities designed to enhance
learning at higher education institutions.’

Zepke and Leach (2005) present a more detailed definition, including the
student’s emotional commitment, cognitive involvement, and active participation in
activities and conditions likely to generate high-quality learning. This definition
seems to speak to the ‘academic integration’ element of Tinto’s Revised
Student Integration Model (1997), addressing the assimilation of academic skills or
capital.
(Stoltz-Urban, 2017)

When you look at the words printed in bold, you will see that the author looked at the
various definitions, compared them, and identified the similarities and differences.
That means, rather than just giving a description and stopping there, she has
interpreted what she had read and presented it in such a way that the reader can see
that she understood what she read. She also paraphrased (summarised in her own
words) what Zepke and Leach said, rather than repeating the whole definition. She
also made connections between the various theories.

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That is what you should aim for in your literature review. Look at the next activity:

120 minutes
20
The following paraphrasing exercises should support the drafting of your literature
review:

Rewrite these two paragraphs in your own words:

1. More and more people are experiencing health problems throughout the world
due to consuming too much fast food. Therefore, some people have proposed
imposing taxes on this food to address the issue.
2. Many people feel that efforts by individuals to address climate change are futile
and that only government can change the situation. Others, however, believe
that individual action is essential and necessary.

Now check your work:

• Did you leave out any of the most critical information?
• Do you believe that your version of these paragraphs is accurate and
complete?

Many similar paraphrasing exercises are available online if you want to practice this
critical skill a bit more.

Commentary:
It is always helpful to first read the literature, try and tell someone else what you just
read, then write this down and see if you have captured the article’s essence,
chapter or concept. Remember that you must constantly ask yourself if the literature
that you are inserting in your proposal and ultimately your research report is relevant
to your study and in what way.

Throughout each aspect of your research report, you will need to reference what
you say, provide supporting literature to confirm or negate what you are saying and
look at if the literature is relevant. Be extra careful of plagiarism. By this, we mean
copying the author’s words without acknowledging them. Avoid as much as possible
inserting lengthy portions of a text. If it is more than a line or two, instead, put it in
your own words. If it is a phrase or a sentence or two, then it must go in inverted
commas.

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2.4 Capturing the literature review process

To consolidate your understanding of literature reviews, we will look at the diagram

below and note each step of the process when constructing a literature review. This
will assist you in identifying what each step looks like and how it relates to the next
step.

Select
research
topic

Writing
review Search the
(own literature
words) Literature
review
process

Critique/
evaluate Develop
the ideas
literature

Figure 9: Overview of the literature review process

(Harrison, 2020)

The above diagram shows you the thinking you need to be doing together with the
actions you will take when processing the literature for your Literature review. Note
that it can be time-consuming to source good literature, and therefore you must allow
yourself the time when constructing your research timeline.

Use a variety of sources when looking for literature. You have access to EBSCOhost
but are not restricted to this only. Use Google Scholar, go to your local library, search
terms and see what comes up and even borrow books from peers if need be.

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3. THE ROLE OF THEORY IN YOUR RESEARCH

The literature review acted like a thorough foundational process that should assist you
in developing a research topic, helping you support your research question, and
identifying current opinions. A theory, however, is regarded as a literature concept that
is applied to the implementation of your research. This is why it is sometimes referred
to as the ‘Theoretical/Conceptual framework’. In the past three years, you have
encountered many theorists and learned the importance of theory in developing our
understanding of teaching and learning. A theory has been presented as the basis for
informing practice (Rasmussen, 2017). The theoretical framework of your study allows
you to clarify the purpose of the research and define key concepts (Babbie & Mouton,
2010).

For example, you could say that the purpose of your research was to investigate
whether or not children who read in class and at home obtain improved literacy results.
You most probably intend to draw from the work of Lev Vygotsky with particular
reference to his concepts of the Zone of proximal development, mediation and
collaborative learning. You consider Vygotsky to be an appropriate choice for your
study because of his work related to the role of language in development and learning.
In this way, you show your audience where you are getting your ideas and how they
apply to your research.

It can further be said that theory guides your research and assists you in organizing
your ideas. Let us consider the analogy of a pile of bricks lying around on a building
site. Each brick has the potential to be made into something, but on its own, it doesn’t
say much. However, it can become a wall, house, or any structure you imagine when
pulled together by the builder. Similarly, each idea you might have about what you
want to research, why and how, represents one of those bricks. Your theory is like the
builder who puts those bricks together to create something significant.

When you apply your data or supporting evidence, your theory is strengthened to
make predictions and generate new research. You may choose to test a theory and
make that the basis of your research. For example, you may want to know if
collaborative learning using a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) leads to the
acquisition of new learning. Here you would be testing out the work of Lev Vygotsky.

3.1 Choosing a theorist

The obvious next question you might ask is how one chooses a theorist that matches
your research. The first step is to consider the theorists you have encountered so far
and the essential ideas they have given us.

Below is an image showing six critical theorists and their seminal ideas:
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Figure 10: Key theorists and their theories

(Teacher infographics, 2015)

The above image shows six theorists that are commonly referred to in education. You
will have encountered these theorists in Education Studies 1: Theories of Child
Development (B-EDS 111) (Hardman & Blom, 2020) and Education Studies 2:
Theories of Teaching and Learning (B-EDS 122) (Hardman & Blom, 2020) modules
and throughout your studies. There are, of course, many more theorists.

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Use the image to guide your thinking when doing the activity below.

240 minutes
21
Look back through your modules from the last three years and do the following:
1. Write down the name of any theorists you find in any of your modules.
2. Next to the name of that theorist, write one or two sentences isolating their key
ideas. For example, Piaget = stages of development; learning through
discovery; drawing from existing knowledge; etc.
3. Add another column next to each theorist and jot down what area of knowledge
they fit into if you were using them for your research. Consider, for example:
• Are they applicable to any grade, subject or way of thinking?
• Are they specific to say language development or mathematical knowledge?
4. Which theorists do you resonate with, and do you think you might like to use in
your research?
5. Write a paragraph for each theorist you have chosen, identifying why and how
you might use them for your research project.

Commentary:
Read about the theorists that you want to use. The more you know about a theorist,
the more you will see if they apply to your study.

Note that you can have more than one theorist in your research report. For example,
you may draw from the work of Bronfenbrenner when discussing your context of
teaching and learning but use the work of Bruner to describe how you scaffold learning.
However, it is desirable to have one overarching theory for your research and then
use other theories for specific areas of your project, as described above.

3.2 Applying a theory to your research

Once you have chosen a theorist, you need to steep yourself in their concepts and
then look at how they can be applied to your research. Note you do not have to use
all of their concepts in your study. For example, you may choose only to address
Piaget’s concepts of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Therefore
ignoring other aspects of this theorist and use Vygotsky to explain the pedagogical
aspects of learning. What you use and how you use it must always be justified and
referenced.

Start by introducing your chosen theorist and unpacking their theory, how it relates to
your study, and then referring back to it when discussing your findings. Your findings
may support what the theorist suggests or possibly even negate them. A theory is
therefore performing the role of helping us to make sense of what we are finding. When
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applying your theory, you need to provide evidence and a thoroughly constructed
argument grounded in your chosen theory.

4. CONCLUSION

This section has focused on the role of theory and literature in action research and
equipped you with some of the practical skills required to do a literature review for your
study.

The last section in this unit will give information on the specific elements of the action
research proposal you will complete to conduct your project next semester.

SECTION 3: CONSTRUCTING YOUR ACTION

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. INTRODUCTION

The writing of a proposal need not be a daunting task. It is straightforward if you follow
the guidelines given below. Each element has specific content, and you must check
that your proposal contains all the information necessary for others to understand what
you want to do, why you want to do it and how you will do it.

In the previous units, we discussed the tools you need to start developing your
research proposal. There are many ways of structuring your proposal. Most institutions
also have preferences regarding how a proposal should be written. Subsequently, we
have provided a template for an action research proposal. This will assist you in writing
your proposal and helping our tutors to assess your work.

The three most important questions that a proposal should answer:

• What questions is it trying to answer? (questions and aims)

• How will the proposed research answer these questions? (design,
methodology, ethics)
• Why is this research worth doing? (background and rationale; the significance
of study)

You have learnt about all of these elements throughout this module. Review what you
have learnt so far before attempting your research proposal. Notably, ‘the proposal
itself needs to be presented as an argument’ (Punch, 2005, p. 66). You may also want
to refer back to Dison and Evans (2020) in your Academic Literacy Module (B-ALI
110), to discuss how to develop an argument. You want to clarify to your reader that
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you have the knowledge to do the study. Therefore, you must think clearly about the
puzzle, the topic, and the issue to be addressed.

2. CONSTRUCTING YOUR PROPOSAL

It is now time to put all the different parts you have covered in this module to present
a proposal for why you want to do this action research study, how you think you can
do it, and what you think you expect to learn.

The SANTS template/format for your research proposal is included in this guide as
Addendum A. Have a look at it now before you continue reading these more general
guidelines on the content of your proposal. Note that the headings may not be the
same. If you are in doubt, refer to the template.

2.1 Background and rationale

Since the action research study is about improving your teaching and your learners’
learning, it is crucial to give the context of your research. Refer to the Who am I
heading in Mcniff (2014, p. 149). This involves giving the reader some information
about you, your school and your learners. General information is needed so that the
reader can understand the circumstances under which you teach. Avoid detailed
information that violates your privacy or that of your school and learners. In action
research, the researcher is always situated in the context of the study.

Action research deals with real-life problems in real-life situations. Therefore, the
researchers cannot be separated from their teaching role and cannot be stopped being
a teacher when they undertake their research. In your research proposal, you will
declare your relationship with your research subjects e.g. I am a teacher at a rural
school. Because the school is so small, I teach a multi-age class – with ages ranging
from 10 to 12.

Thus, by indicating your relationship, you also show (declare) your own possible bias.
In other words, you demonstrate how you and your research may be influenced by
being within the situation that you are studying. An example is given below:

My context:

I am a Grade 5 teacher of Language and Literacy. The school where I teach is

situated in the Northern suburban areas of Port Elizabeth, a formerly “coloured”
suburb. Still, now it draws most of its learners from former ‘black’ suburbs as far
afield as Motherwell, one of the oldest townships in Port Elizabeth, and learners from
Greenbushes, a semi-rural area outside Port Elizabeth. Consequently, more than

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60% of the learners at the school are isiXhosa-speaking. A relatively impoverished

working-class community surrounds the school.

As mentioned above, over 60% of the learners at the school are isiXhosa-speaking,
while the remainder is either Afrikaans or English speaking. However, the language
of instruction at the school is English. A third, primary or home language subject,
isiXhosa, was introduced to cater to isiXhosa-speaking learners. Still, surprisingly
most of these learners chose to study English as their primary or home language.
The school is reasonably well resourced, mainly due to the continuing support from
the Catholic Church who assists in raising funds for the school from international
donors. However, we still face many social problems that emanate from the
historical and socio-economic issues facing the communities from which our
learners are drawn.

Study the above example of ‘my context’ again before you do the next activity.

60 minutes
22
Write a similar section to describe your context (i.e. your job at your school and the
context of the school in which you work) in your learning journal. You will use this
as the introduction to your proposal later.

Commentary:
When doing this activity, describe your context of teaching. Describe where the
school is situated, for example, in an urban, peri-urban or rural area. Explain the
diversities encountered in your classroom and any special features related to your
school. Examples could include that the school receives children with disabilities,
has increased class numbers, teachers have limited teaching space or no resources
such as a library or school hall. These are contextual issues that may affect or
impact how learners respond to learning and your response to your learners. For
example, you may struggle to understand the cultural perspective of learners who
speak a different language to yours and come from another socio-economic group.
It is therefore vital to record and acknowledge that similar differences could affect
your study.

Once you have explained your context, the following section should cover why you
want to conduct the study (research). What is this research about, and why do I want
to do it? (McNiff, 2014, p. 150). Here you explain your concern and present some
evidence from your experience to show why it is a concern. You also relate it to the
“bigger picture” by giving some literature references to show that it is also a problem
that others have come across.

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Read the information below and complete the activity that follows.

What is my concern, and why am I concerned?

Because the vast majority of the learners at our school are isiXhosa-speaking and
that the medium of instruction is English, many learners have low levels of reading
ability in English. For instance, more than 50% of my class attained less than 50%
in the last exam. I have also noticed that my learners only read for school work and
do not read for enjoyment or self-development. In short, learners see reading as a
“drag”. This is a concern for me because I always strive for excellence and the
optimal development of learners. However, this is not being achieved due to their
lack of literacy skills in English. Therefore, learners struggle to read, and their
academic work suffers, resulting in poor performance in all subjects since reading is
the basis for most learning (Brinkman, Gregory, Harris, Hart, Blackmore & Janus,
2013). This problem is also of national concern since South African learners perform
poorly in national and international standardised tests (Spaull, 2013).

Furthermore, literature shows that English learners’ reading ability can be

significantly improved if they read more, even if it is mainly for pleasure (Pressley &
Allington, 2014). We also know that reading improves general knowledge, grammar,
concentration and spelling (Sullivan, 2015). However, all of these benefits are lost
because our learners do not read enough in English. Most teachers at our school
value reading because they know the benefits for learners, particularly in improving
their overall academic performance.

Before implementing this action research project, there was no authentic culture of
reading extensively in our school. The library, which contained old books, soon
became neglected and was used as a storeroom. There was no time set aside for
reading in the timetable, and very little was done to promote reading in the school
or raise awareness of its benefits. This situation denied my value of wanting each
learner to be able to reach their potential. If they cannot read well, their academic
performance will be lower, and they will not reach their full potential. Even though
these children face many social and economic challenges in life, they will better their
opportunities if they make the most of their educational opportunities.

Now complete the next activity.

120 minutes
23
Use the research challenges you identified in Activity 6 and extended in Activity 17,
and compose a similar rationale for why it is a problem for you and in general. Then
find at least five references to support your argument. You can find these references

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from EBSCOhost or Google Scholar. Note these references in your references table
– you will need them later.

Commentary:
This is an opportunity to reflect on your teaching and learning context and look back
on all the activities you have done so far. What have been the research questions
and ideas that have emerged? Look at any notes you may have made in your
Journal/notebook.

2.2 Research questions and aims

Once you have explained, the concern and why you want to investigate it you can
develop your research question and aims. What do I hope to find out from this research
project? (McNiff, 2014, p. 150). You can then think of some questions that will lead
from the main question. See below for an example:

RESEARCH AIMS AND QUESTIONS

For example, based on the above discussion, my aim in this research is to determine
why my learners do not enjoy reading to find the best way to motivate them to read
more.

My main question is: “How can I help learners to enjoy reading?”

To answer this question, I will also address the following sub-questions:

• Why do my learners not enjoy reading?

• What does the literature tell me about how reading can be made more
enjoyable?
• What strategies will work best in my context?
• What difference have my actions made?

Answering these sub-questions will lead you through the action research cycle.

60 minutes
24
Have a look at the research question and sub-questions that you developed in
Activity 6. Can you improve on them now that you have read the above content?
Then, rewrite them in your journal/notebook.

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Note: If you have decided not to pursue the research topic you chose initially, write
a new question and sub-questions (refer to Unit 1 for guidance).

Commentary:
When working through this activity, remember to revisit what you wrote in your
journal/notebook. See if your thinking has developed or shifted in any way. Also,
take into account a few things when choosing your research question. These include
how easy it is to access participants, how much time you have to conduct your field
work or does your topic give you access to literature. If there is very little available,
then you need to note this. Still, it does make your literature review a lot more
challenging to conduct. Is this a topic you feel passionate about, and do you think
will be interesting to study? The last two points are vital as they will shape your
attitude towards your research project and keep you motivated.

2.3 Actions to improve the situation

To answer the questions, you will need to decide what actions you can take. For
example, where and when will I conduct the research? How will I conduct the
research? (McNiff, 2014, pp. 150–152). First, you need to consult literature on your
topic to learn what others have done in the same situation. In this example, you would
use your keywords to search for literature about “encouraging reading habits” or
“motivating learners to read” or “reading strategies in the classroom” or other similar
ones. You then explain what strategy you think will be best to try and why.

Actions planned to improve the situation

In this section, you discuss some of the theories and strategies that you have found
in the literature and explain the approach that you think will best suit your learners
in terms of age and needs. It would be best to justify why you think this is the best
approach by referring to the literature. This is an example of how your literature
review informs your research.

Then outline some possible strategies that you will use and why. Also, say where
and when you will conduct the research. Remember, you only need to implement
one research cycle for this project, choosing one or two strategies rather than many.
Your research project must be manageable.

Now complete the next activity.

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120 minutes
25
Consult at least three sources that give possible ideas for action to improve your
situation and decide on at least one action. Explain what this is and why you want
to do it by referencing literature. Also, explain how, where and when you might do
it. Note the example below.

Willingham (2015, p. 2) suggests that teachers should set aside 20 minutes per day
for learners to read for pleasure and that they should be able to choose their books.
I think it is also important to ask learners questions about what they have read, to
see if they understand it well. I will use the first 20 minutes after the break will be set
aside for pleasure reading. I will also set up a bookcase in my class, filled with books
that the learners have chosen to have a wide variety to choose from.

Your example might be longer and more in-depth than this one.

Commentary:
Using your keywords will assist you in sourcing relevant examples. Your choice of
articles and actions can also be linked to your research method. For example, you
may find an article describing the use of a case study approach to promoting an
understanding of how children learn. This article might be your motivation to use a
case study approach, whether it is individual case studies or multiple case studies.
This exercise aims to see how you can source relevant literature and then evaluate
it in your research project. In other words, how does the literature assist or inform
your research?

Let us look at the research design next.

2.4 Research design

In your proposal, you must explain exactly how The word paradigm is derived from the Greek
you will conduct your research. (How will I gather word paradeigma meaning a pattern. A
research paradigm refers therefore to a set of
and generate evidence? (McNiff, 2014, pp. 152– collectively held beliefs, values and
assumptions regarding the nature and conduct
153). The paradigm you adopt will determine of research. Look back on Figure 3 and the
what design you choose, so you always start by section dealing with research paradigms.

explaining your paradigm. For action research,

the paradigm will be critical or emancipatory.

Follow the steps below:

• Using a few references to back up what you say, explain what your paradigm
is.
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• Explain your choice of research design (action research) and explain why it is
a suitable choice for a critical, emancipatory paradigm. Use a couple of
references to substantiate what you say. Next, define the action research
process using a few references and link it to your study (how will you apply it to
answer your question?).

120 minutes
26
Design a diagram showing the design (plan) of your research with each step (for
example, literature review, theoretical framework, research methods, data
collection, analysis of data, findings, and conclusion) that you plan to do in your
cycle research. You may want to include this in your proposal.

Commentary:
Remember that the following points will assist you in unpacking your research
paradigm:
1. An ontological inquiry = What is the reality that you want to explore and
understand?
2. An epistemological inquiry = What is it (the ontology) available to explore, and
how do I reach it?
3. A methodological inquiry = What methods and procedures will make this inquiry
possible?

Use the above questions to guide you when constructing your diagram.

Research methods

Under this heading, you explain who you will be collecting data from (your learners)
and what tools you will use to do it and how you will analyse the data. Remember, you
will gather data at two points in the cycle. Firstly, to provide evidence that your concern
exists (e.g. learner assessments; examples of the issue; interviews with learners;
literature to show that it is a problem for others). Secondly, to generate evidence that
your actions have made a difference to the issue (e.g. learner assessments;
photographs; questionnaires; interviews).
An example is given below (note that this is just an excerpt and is not complete):

Example:

Data generation techniques

According to James, Milenkiewicz and Bucknam (2008, p. 66), qualitative data

collection tools are used when researchers require in-depth information and
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understand how the participants appropriate meaning to the context and, in turn,
how they are influenced by it. There is an excellent variety of qualitative research
methods that can be used to collect data and for evaluating qualitative research. I
plan to employ multiple methods for triangulation and crosschecking of various
perspectives and information to enhance validity in qualitative research.

Reflection diaries and learner journals

Research journals are often called reflection diaries, action research journals or ‘log
books.’ The reflective diaries are a legitimate source of data, and it constitutes the
subjective perspective that needs to be triangulated with other viewpoints (Zuber-
Skerritt, 2011, p. 38). Journal writing will also be encouraged among the learners
because it will make their thoughts explicit, creating learning opportunities shared
among members and providing a platform for reflection-on-action. My research diary
will be used to chart the progress of the study and could potentially achieve the
following:

• Provide a detailed account of particular events and situations with discipline

notes that I could use in the written report.
• In addition, Mills, Chapman, Bonner, and Francis (2007, p. 70) suggests that
journals may provide valuable ‘windows’ into their situation's insights,
thoughts, and impressions. Journals, conceptualised in the manner
mentioned above, provide a continuous, systematic reflection of the research
practice that honours all the participants’ unique and powerful voices,
explains Mills et al. (2007, p. 70). Moreover, it keeps track of observation and
the feelings associated with and accompanying the action research.

I will make observations, write them up as field notes in my research diary, and
reflect on them throughout this process. Birks and Mills (2011) state that field notes
refer to records made during fieldwork to record events, activities, and the
researcher’s responses during the study period. Field notes will be used both in data
generation and in data analysis. For data generation, I will observe these learners
gain a better picture of them. I will encourage the learners to have their reflective
diaries and use them daily. This implies that they will be encouraged to reflect upon
their actions and learning due to participation in this study.

Data Analysis example:

Data analysis starts early in the research design because of a cyclical process of
collecting and analysing data (Zuber-Skerritt, 2011). Reflection occurs at every
session of the data collection process, providing an iterative unbroken chain of
impressions. Data from all sources will be thematically analysed (Creswell, 2005) at
each study cycle by myself, independent coders and the participants. I will employ

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techniques that will enable them to, actively participate in data analysis to ensure
that it is not my interpretation guiding the study.

Now do the next activity.

120 minutes
27
1. Choose one data generation strategy for your study and write a paragraph
explaining what it is, why you chose it and how you will do it.
2. Briefly explain how you will analyse your data.
3. Remember to use references to back up your statements.
4. Take your completed activity to your next study group meeting. Work with a peer
and share what you did. You may also want to discuss your strategy with your
mentor teacher at your WIL school. Make notes of the constructive feedback
from your peers or mentor teacher.

Commentary:
Look back at the different data collection techniques we have discussed in this
module; observation to make field notes, interviewing your learners, and using a
questionnaire. Always consider what type of information each research method will
give you and the information you need for your research question.

2.5 Ensuring trustworthiness

This section will explain how you plan to ensure trustworthiness, as outlined in Unit 2.
How will I test the validity of my claims to knowledge? (McNiff, 2014, p. 152). An
example is given below; you need to remember to consider what measures are
appropriate for your study (your research topic and question).

Techniques for trustworthiness

The following techniques will be adopted in this research to ensure trustworthiness

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 219):

• The research will take place in the natural setting of the participants.
• Tape recordings will be made of all interviews.
• Various data collection procedures will be followed.
• A literature control will be performed.
• Independent coding and recoding will be undertaken.
• A detailed description will be used to portray the situation so that the
readers can draw their conclusions.
• A detailed description of the research methodology will be provided.
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2.6 Ethical considerations

As explained in Unit 2, your research must be conducted ethically. You will need to
explain how you will ensure confidentiality and how you will attain consent/assent. The
example below addresses informed consent – this is only one of the ethical measures,
so you will have to add others. This is a crucial part of your proposal as it speaks to
your credibility and the rigour you apply to your research. Take the time to look at the
literature around ethics. Refer to the literature when writing up this section of your
proposal.

Example of informed consent:

I will apply the principle of informed consent. Individuals will be requested to

participate in this study of their free will (De Vos, Delport, Fouché, & Strydom, 2011).
Participants will be informed about the goal of the investigation. This information will
be contained in a letter to potential participants. An assent/consent form will be
developed stating the above and signed by willing and eligible participants. If
needed, consent will also be sought from parents, depending on the age of the
participant. Based on the information, potential participants and the parents or legal
guardians will decide to volunteer their participation. Since I am a teacher at the
school, I will use a gatekeeper to facilitate initial contact with the research
participants. The gatekeeper will only disclose contact details to me upon receiving
permission from the participants.

In the next activity, you will get the opportunity to show how you will ensure
trustworthiness in your study.

120 minutes
28
1. Considering what you have learnt about trustworthiness, write a similar
paragraph to show how you will ensure trustworthiness in your study (research
project).
2. Write another paragraph to show how you will ensure your study complies with
ethical requirements. Include at least the following elements: consent, voluntary
participation, and privacy protection of the participants.

Commentary:
It is helpful to draw up a list for each of the above elements. Indicate next to each of
the elements who this may affect and what type of action you need to take to ensure
ethical practice. For example:

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Element Who does it affect Action to be taken

Protection of privacy of Learners Changing learners
participants names to colours &
storing all research data
in a safe place

2.7 Expected impact and significance of the study

This section describes what changes you should expect to arise from the study
concerning the aim/question you propose to answer. How will the study improve your
teaching? The learning of your learners? What significance might it have for other
teachers? For education in general? For policy? In other words, why is the study worth
doing? Of course, in action research, we do not need to be able to generalise the
findings. However, the outcome of your investigation should assist you in improving
your teaching. Moreover, other teachers may be able to learn from your explanation
of your learning.

Consider the following example before you complete the activity that follows.

Example:

This study contributes to the available scholarship in teaching because it focuses on

addressing a significant problem of learners not performing well in reading. It
addresses a real issue that the education sector faces and could lead to possible
improvement in the literacy of learners, which influences their performance in all
subjects. This study can also inspire teachers globally to try new strategies to
improve reading in the classroom and help them be open to experimentation with
unique and engaging teaching methods.

120 minutes
29
Write a similar paragraph to show what you think your study will contribute. Again,
you have to refer back to the context in which you are doing the study (the
school/class) and what impact your findings will have on teaching and learning, the
development of your learners, and your professional development as a teacher.

Commentary:
This section of the proposal essentially asks you to justify why your choice of
research topic is worth doing. Before writing this section, talk to a peer or a family
member and tell them why you chose your case and what difference your research
may make. Again it would be best to remember your literature review and what your
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reading on your topic tells you. For example, if the literature showed that literacy
levels in Grade 4 South African classrooms are below international levels, this would
be a justification for studying why they are and how you can aim to improve them.

2.8 Limitations of the study

It is essential also to indicate what your study cannot do. This is referred to as
limitations. All studies have limitations (certain things you cannot do or cannot include
in your research).

It would be best if you also described the limitations. This is called ‘delimiting’ the
study. For example, even though physical activity is vital for children of all age groups,
in my research, I will only investigate physical activity and its relationship to
achievement in my Grade 3 class. By doing so, you draw the boundaries around the
study, showing what should be excluded.

120 minutes
30
1. Draw up a list of the limitations of your study.
2. Next to each limitation, write why you think this is a limitation.
3. Now use your list to write the paragraph you will include in your proposal
regarding the limitations of your study.

Commentary:
Consider what your study can show and what it cannot show. Also, take into account
your sample size. The smaller the sample size, the less likely you are to be able to
make generalisations. This would be considered a limitation. Another limitation may
be contextual. For example, if you wanted to test your research across all the grades
in your school and struggled to get permission to do this, then your sample size
would be impacted, which then becomes a limitation.

2.9 References

Referencing is very important in research since it indicates where you got your
information and whose ideas influenced you. You were taught how to reference in the
Module: Academic Literacy (B-ALI 110). Use that information to help you to construct
a reference list for the proposal. Referencing is an integral part of your proposal, but it
is often something that gets neglected. Poor referencing reflects poorly on your work
ethic and your behaviour as a teacher-researcher because it indicates an attitude
towards your work. Therefore, it is worthwhile to do your references correctly.

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Below are a few valuable tips for referencing:

• Keep careful records of everything you read and plug in the reference on your
reference table using the correct referencing style.
• Give yourself sufficient time to check your references before you submit your
proposal and or research project.
• Consider making use of a referencing manager. These are available online and
allow you to plug in the relevant information, and then it generates the correct
style of reference. You then cut and paste that reference into your list.
• Make sure you go to the source. For example, do not reference something that
was referenced in an article as referenced from somewhere else. Instead,
please find the original article/source and then reference it from there.
• Familiarize yourself with the SANTS referencing guide.
• Note that all illustrations, unless produced by you, must also be referenced
correctly.
• Use up to date references as much as possible.
• If you cannot find any recent literature, then note this in your comments.

3. CONCLUSION

You have now come to the end of Unit 3. You should be able to construct your research
proposal following the guidelines given here. This proposal will be the basis for your
research project next semester. By studying this module, you should have gained the
knowledge to write a research proposal and successfully conduct your research
project.

Before you complete the self-assessment activity for this unit, we would like you to
look at the Assessment Rubric in Addendum B.

Evaluate your research proposal against this rubric before submitting it to SANTS for
marking.

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120 minutes
31
Self-assessment activity: Unit 3

If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.

Now that I have worked through this unit, I YES UNSURE NO

can:
Identify and describe the components of a
research proposal.
Explain the function of each component with
examples.
Explain how to locate suitable academic
sources for a research project.
Engage with relevant sources in a meaningful
way for the purpose of a literature review.
Discuss the role of the literature review and
theoretical framework.
Develop a research proposal for an action
research project.
Identify and describe possible limitations of the
suggested research project.

We will now move on to the actual research process.

The next unit will help you convert your proposal into a research report, conduct the
research, and finalise the report.

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UNIT 4: CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

1. INTRODUCTION

In the previous units, you have learnt all the theory you will need for your action
research project, and you have also, learnt how to construct a research proposal.

This is a concise, practical unit. In this unit, we will look at converting your proposal
into a research report and the practical execution of your research project.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 4

Unit 2 consists of the following three sections and learning outcomes:

UNIT 4
CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Preparing to conduct research Conduct the empirical study

Learning outcomes: At the end of Learning outcomes: At the end of

this section, you should be able to: this section, you should be able to:
• Convert your research proposal • Collect data as planned in your
into a research report. research proposal.
• Plan and manage your research • Organise the data to draw
project and timelines. conclusions from the data.

SECTION 3
Constructing your research report

Learning outcomes: At the end of

this section, you should be able to:
• Structure the format of the
research report.
• Write and finalise the research
report.

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SECTION 1: PREPARING TO CONDUCT

RESEARCH

1. INTRODUCTION

You wrote a research proposal as an assignment in B-RED 400. This has to be

submitted by the end of semester one as a formative assessment task. But you need
to review that proposal in light of the feedback you received to submit the final research
report. You should be able to improve it and use it to report on your research project.

This section will look at practical steps to guide you through activities that will help you
write your research report. This final research report has to be submitted for the
summative assessment. See Addendum C for the assessment rubric of the research
report as the summative assessment. Please use this rubric to evaluate your work
before you submit your research report.

2. TURNING YOUR PROPOSAL INTO AN OUTLINE FOR

THE RESEARCH REPORT
Your proposal was a plan for your study, so you have to make sure you follow the
approved plan. First, you need to look at the feedback you received from this
assignment to see where you can improve. See Addendum A for an example of a
completed, concise research report.

120 minutes
32
Critically reflect on your marked research proposal (assignment). Ask yourself
questions such as:
• Does my title align with my questions?
• Are my questions clear and appropriate for what I want to do?
• Do I need to add more literature?
• Have I explained what I am going to do?
• What improvement has the assessor suggested?
• Do I know exactly how I will gather and analyse the data?
• Is my referencing accurate?

Review each section and make changes where needed. Ensure you understand
why you have to make the changes. If you are not sure, contact your SANTS lecturer
to discuss.

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Commentary:
Your signed-off research proposal expands into your research report, and therefore
this document must be as accurate as possible. It is worth the time spent addressing
any concerns or comments.

You used the template below to compile your proposal. You will now use this as a
basis for your research report, but we will change some headings and add content.
First, look at this guide (Table 9) for turning your proposal into a research report:

Table 9: Turning your proposal into a research report

Main headings of proposal and The main header of the research

questions to guide content report and questions to guide
content:
What is my concern? Background to the study
What is the problem that I have What is the context of your school?
observed? What issue am I interested What was the problem that you observed?
in researching?
Why am I concerned? The rationale for the study
Why do I want to research this issue? Why was it a concern for you?
What evidence can I gather to show What evidence did you have to show that
that it is a problem for me and my it was a concern – from your own
learners? experience and literature?
What question can I ask to guide my What was your research question?
study? What aims did you derive from your
What aim am I hoping to reach? question?
What can I do about it? Theories that informed action
What have others done about similar What did you do, and why did you do
issues? What strategies can I try? these specific actions?
What theories guided your actions?
What kind of evidence can I gather Research methodology
to show that I have an influence? What research design did you use and
What design will I use and why? why?
Whom will I gather data from? Who did you gather data from?
What data generation strategies can I What data generation strategies did you
use to show the changes and why? use and why?
How will I analyse the data? How did you analyse the data?
How can I ensure that any findings Measures to ensure trustworthiness
I present are reasonably fair and What measures did you take to ensure
accurate? trustworthiness?
How can I show that my research
findings are valid/trustworthy?

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Main headings of proposal and The main header of the research

questions to guide content report and questions to guide
content:
What steps will I take to ensure my Ethical considerations
research is ethical? What did you do to ensure the research
How will I make sure that my was ethical?
research does not harm anyone?
Discussion of findings
What did the data reveal about the
situation?
What improvements were there?
What evidence do you have of
improvements?
What can you conclude from your
findings?
What will be the significance of my Significance of research
research? What did you learn from this study about
What do I hope to learn from it? What yourself, your teaching and your learners?
could be the benefit for other What is the benefit of this learning?
teachers? For learners? How will this learning help you to improve
your practice?
What other questions have arisen from
this study?

(Adapted from McNiff & Whitehead, 2011, p. 29)

Refer back to the plan you wrote in the form of your proposal. Use this plan, but if you
would like to do something differently (e.g. use different data generation strategies);
you are allowed to do so as long as you fully explain what you did and why in the
report.

You will now plan for and collect the data you need to answer your research
question(s). In this regard, time management is essential.

3. TIME MANAGEMENT
Managing your time is a vital element of research skills, whether for work or academic
purposes. We noted this right near the beginning of this module when we addressed
the basics. It is now time to look at what you originally wrote down in your basic timeline
and see if you need to make any changes.

There is no content to study to complete this project (semester 2) as you will be

executing and implementing what you know about the importance of reflective
practice. Therefore, it is expected that you will need to spend at least 160 hours
working on this project to complete it successfully.
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It would be best if you compiled a research work plan. This plan should consider the
institution’s requirements and assist you to keep track of your progress. Ensure that
you will finish your research in time and have allowed adequate time to compile your
research report.

Table 10 below is a simple work plan template. It provides a guideline regarding when
each section should be completed. We have given guidance regarding the timeframe.
You should complete the table by adding the applicable date. You may want to work
with your SANTS lecturer to set more precise and realistic goals.

Table 10: Research work plan template

Action research work plan

Section Timeframe Date
1. Review research proposal after
feedback
2. Conduct literature review
3. Plan and prepare for data
collection
4. Do empirical study/ execute
research
5. Finalise and write up a research
report

Now complete the next activity.

120 minutes
33
Consider the work plan template given in Table 10. Now have a look at the
submission date for your final research report. Copy the table into your
journal/notebook. You may add additional steps or break big steps into smaller
components. For example, complete a literature search, then complete a literature
review (reading,) and then complete a literature review (writing) as you see fit. Add
dates to the plan, and create reminders in your phone or calendar to ensure that
you meet these timelines.

Commentary:
The plan you put together must be realistic and fit your individual needs. Once you
have settled on your plan, you should stick to it as closely as possible. Otherwise,
you may find yourself running out of time for critical aspects of your work.

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Now that you have your research report in the correct format and understand how it
will be evaluated and you have a project plan, you are ready to start with your data
collection.

Let us have a look at how to prepare for and practically conduct the data collection.

SECTION 2: CONDUCT THE EMPIRICAL STUDY

1. INTRODUCTION
You have compiled a data collection strategy as part of your research proposal, and
you have already drawn up your research questions.

Let us have a look at practical aspects of the collection of data.

2. PLANNING FOR DATA COLLECTION

In your research proposal, you set out how you are going to collect data. This should
have included whether or not you were piloting any of your research tools, why you
would do this and how. Now you need to get everything ready that you will need to
collect your data.

We will now have a look at what you need to do to prepare for data collection.

2.1 Consent forms

Go back to Section 2 in Unit 2, which deals with ethics in research, if you need to
refresh your memory about the purpose of obtaining consent from participants. Below
is a brief recap about obtaining consent/assent:

Before you can collect your data, you need to get permission. First, you need
permission from the individuals you plan to collect data from. If these individuals are
learners, then their parents need to provide consent. Typically you would need
parents’ approval when asking learners questions or doing activities apart from regular
teaching. Use the example in paragraph 3, in Unit 2 of Section 2 to help you with this.

The consent form should include:

• A brief explanation of the purpose of your research;

• What you would like the person to do (e.g. participate in a 10-minute interview);
• Reassurance that the data will be used anonymously (you are not allowed to
give the names of the participants in the discussion of your research);
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• A request that they participate; and

• Space for the person to sign the consent form.

If you plan to, actively involve learners in your research, i.e. they would participate in
a way other than they would in regular lessons. Therefore, you need to gain written
consent from their parent/guardian and verbal assent from the learner. For example,
if you would like to interview groups of learners, you need consent, but you do not
require consent if you only want to observe learners.

You may not make any person feel they have an obligation to participate – it must be
their free choice. However, it would be best if you reassured anyone who would
potentially be involved that there will be no adverse consequence – whether they
choose to participate or not.

You will need to include the completed consent forms with your education research
project.

2.2 Data collection strategies

You may want to go back to the section dealing with data collection to refresh your
memory. Here is a quick summary/refresher:

To collect data, you will need data collection strategies. What you need will depend on
how you plan to collect data and what data you need to collect. You may use more
than one data collection strategy. This will increase the trustworthiness of your
research.

Here are some ideas of appropriate data collection strategies:

• Interview schedule (list of questions or topics you want to address);

• Observation points / observation form (for observing learners’ reactions);
• Questionnaire; and
• A reflection guide (topics you want to reflect on).

Your primary focus right now is to implement the plan you devised. Therefore, you
need to ensure that you have the resources required to gather your data, e.g. do you
need to develop a questionnaire? Or get paper and pencils for drawing? Or develop
interview questions? You tried out most of these as you worked through this module,
so at this stage, it should be a matter of simply tweaking what you did already.

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60 minutes
34
Draw up a table like the one below and enter the information applicable to your
study.

Data generation tool What resources do I need to use this tool?

Commentary:
You may want to add to this table a column for a time frame. By this, we mean
stating how long you have allocated yourself to finish a particular data collection
task. Take into consideration if you need to print out hard copies of your
questionnaire. Does your school have facilities for this, or do you need to go to a
print shop to do this?

Now that you have done your planning to collect the data, you are ready for the data
collection.

3. DATA COLLECTION
As soon as you have consent from those who will participate in your research and your
data collection instruments are ready, you can start collecting your data. At every step
in implementing your research, you should go back to your research proposal to
ensure that you are on track.

Make appointments if needed with the people you will gather data from. You need to

120 minutes
35
Consider the data schedule given below:

DATA COLLECTION SCHEDULE

DATA COLLECTION PARTICIPANTS DATE
STRATEGY

1. Draw up a schedule for your data generation activities using a similar table.
2. Now approach the respondents and confirm these dates and times with them.
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Commentary:
When completing this task, be sure to take into consideration the availability of
participants. For example, suppose part of your research involves interviewing
teachers. In that case, you need to make sure you set a time outside of teaching
hours and, most importantly, convenient to the participants involved. Remember
that you have to explain, what the study is about as well as their rights (using your
consent letter). They have to sign a consent. You must also assure them that the
data will be treated confidentially.

4. DATA INTERPRETATION
To interpret your data, you will need to write up your data and findings, draw
conclusions and reflect on your results. So let us start with writing up the data.

4.1 Writing up the data

When you write up your data, reflect on and discuss what you found during data
collection in a way that makes sense to you. You need to organise and summarise the
data you gathered with your data collection instruments.

During this step, you gather your thoughts on what you have found to enable yourself
to come to conclusions. You need to be objective and include everything in your write-
up, whether you think it is crucial at this stage or not. You may start identifying themes
in your research which you can use in your research report. It is often helpful to use a
colour coding system to sort your data.

For example, you may elect to use an orange highlighter for all the examples in your
survey where the learners indicated they don’t like reading. Or a green highlighter for
all learners who said that they could not find anything to read at home. This will allow
you to isolate relevant comments when talking about a particular finding quickly. If you
transfer your data onto an Excel spreadsheet, you can use the highlighting function to
colour-code different themes.

240 minutes
36
Completing your action research project through empirical observation.
Consult page 15 of this core reader:
Choeda, C., Drukpa, P., Yuden, Y., Dukpa, P. & Chuki, S. (2018). A Guide to
Action Research: Enhancing Professional Practice of Teachers in Bhutan.
Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Education Council. Available online at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326647992_A_Guide_to_Action_Re
search_Enhancing_Professional_Practice_of_Teachers_in_Bhutan

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Begin to organise your data into qualitative or quantitative as necessary.

If quantitative, decide on how you will present it – tables or graphs? Try to do a bar
chart of your results and write a short interpretation of it.

Share this with a fellow student to see if they understand how you have interpreted
your data. Then, use the following questions to help you to write about it:

1. What does the chart show, and for what period?

2. What changes have there been over time?
3. What differences and similarities are there?
4. What do changes show?

In qualitative, your data is typically presented in a narrative form, for example:

“Three of the learners seemed to have grasped the concept, although one was
not confident when expressing his view. However, the other learners could not
answer the question and hence….”

Commentary:
When presenting a graph, you must also write about what you see before or after
introducing the chart. It is pointless to insert a graph and expect the audience to
know what you are saying about the information on it. Where applicable, refer back
to your literature review to show how your findings may support or negate something
you presented in the study.

Drawing conclusions will be discussed next.

4.2 Drawing conclusions

Now that you have an accurate recording of your findings, you should start connecting
your findings to your previous knowledge gained from literature and the theories you
choose to guide you in your actions.

240 minutes
37
To conclude your data:
1. Search your data to find evidence that will answer your research question. This
needs to be done irrespective of whether it shows that you have improved on
the situation or not. For example, if your question was to find out how to
improve, learner reading, look for a piece of data that shows improvement;
learners read more books, ask for reading material, etc.
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2. Conclude from evidence. For example, learners appear to be reading more and
are keen to read. The conclusion you draw is a claim to knowledge, and you
have validated it by providing evidence.
3. Share your findings with fellow students or colleagues (validation group) and
see if they agree with your conclusions. They may be able to see other findings
you missed, so take note of what they say.

Commentary:
It is helpful to look across your different data sets to see if one set corroborates
another. For example, if your survey showed that students who did not read at home
did not perform well in their literacy tests, and your observation field notes showed
that these same students were resistant to reading in class. You can then conclude
that not reading during class and at home supported poor literacy development.

When you analyse your results, you should not express your own opinion without
evidence to back it up or convince your reader that he/she should agree with you.
Instead, let your findings speak for themselves and expect people to interrogate
(question and critique) them. You should use literature to confirm or contradict your
findings – who has had similar findings? Who has had different findings?

4.3 Reflect on the results

The reflection on your findings (results) should indicate what challenges you faced and
the successes. How do you plan to change your practice based on what you learnt?
What can others learn from your experience? What other concerns emerged out of
this study?

120 minutes
38
1. When reflecting on the results, use the following questions to guide you:
1.1 What is the importance of your research findings for your learning?
1.2 Can other teachers also learn from your findings?
1.3 Why should you be able to explain what you learnt and how it affects
your teaching?
2. Present the importance of your action research findings to a fellow student(s) or
mentor teacher. Ask them if they can see any crucial aspects and add to the
improvement of teaching and learning. Add their feedback to what you wrote.

Commentary:
This reflection will echo what you said about the significance of your study. Think
about whether or not your research has made a difference. Also, look back in your
journal/notebook and read your reflections along the way. These may assist you in
answering this task.
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The process of improvement should never be complete – you should aim to continue
improving for the entire duration of your teaching career. Useful phrases to use when
reporting your findings are:

• Research revealed that …

• Data showed that …
• Investigation into the topic suggests that …
• Many interviewees reported that …
• The survey’s data support earlier studies that found that. …

Your research findings should be described appropriately, accurately, and in great

detail to answer your research questions.

Let us now look at the format and finalisation of your action research report.

SECTION 3: CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH

REPORT

1. INTRODUCTION

Now that you have completed the empirical (evidence-based) part of your action
research study, you are ready to finalise your research report. To make it easy for you,
we have developed a template for your report. We will now consider this template.

2. YOUR ACTION RESEARCH REPORT

Please use the following headings to structure the format of your report. You do not
need to number them as we have done here to make it easier to follow.

2.1 Research report title

Decide on a title for your research essay that captures the essence of your research
study. It should be short. The title should grab the attention of the reader and make
them want to read further. The title of your research should clearly show what your
research is about and preferably not be too long.

Have a look at the following examples. Can you see what the study is about?

The impact of weekly class tests on Mathematics results in a Grade 4 classroom

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Testing the improvement in reading skills after regular group reading exercises
in a Grade 6 classroom

The title should indicate what the study is about (in other words, it should be closely
linked to your research question).

2.2 Background to the study

The background introduces the study to the reader and should live up to the
expectation created by the essay title. You can provide some background information
about your context – describe your school, learners, the environment etc. and mention
what grade you teach and what subject. Introduce the problem or concern you had by
giving some examples from your own experience and literature. You are, in a way
setting the stage for the audience to see the context of your study.

2.3 Rationale for the study

Explain under this heading why it was a concern for you – what was the negative effect
it was having on teaching and learning? What does the literature say about this
concern?

Once you have explained why it is a concern and presented evidence from your
experience and literature, then formulate your primary research question:
“How can I …….?” and a few aims that you hope to achieve by doing this study.

2.4 Literature that informed action

This section explains what action you should take to address your concern and why
you selected this action. Refer to specific literature that led you to believe that this
would be a good action. Finally, explain how you implemented the action in the
classroom so that the reader understands what you did.

2.5 Theories that informed action

This section outlines the theories or theorists you will draw from to support your
research (See Unit 3, Section 2). For example, you may decide to use Lev Vygotsky
to explain how you used his concept of collaborative learning to assist your students
in group guided reading. You also drew from B.J. Skinner to show how you reinforced
learning through repetition by requiring your learners to read regularly during the
reading period. You can see from this example that you may use more than one
theorist or one theorist utilising a variety of aspects of their theory.

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2.6 Research methodology

Describe in detail what research design you chose (action research) and why. Start
with explaining the paradigm you adopted and why it is suited to action research. Then
explain who you gathered your data from, what strategies of data generation you used
and why (refer to literature on data generation strategies to support your choices; how
you analysed the data (again, refer to literature).

2.7 Measures to ensure trustworthiness

Describe what measures you took to ensure your findings would be reasonably
accurate and valid. Use a literature reference to back up your choice. If required, refer
back to Unit 2, Section 1.

2.8 Ethical considerations

Explain how you have obtained consent/assent and how you have ensured that your
research did not harm anyone in any way. Make use of literature to substantiate your
explanations. For clarification, refer to Unit 2, in Section 2.

2.9 Discussion of findings

Present your interpretation of the data with evidence to support it from your data, e.g.,
excerpts of what learners said; tables or graphs to show improvement in marks;
drawings, or other visual data. Choose only the best evidence to support what you
found. You are looking for evidence to show improvement in your teaching practice
and learners’ learning. You could identify some themes or just explain the
improvements you found.

2.10 Significance of research

In this section, you should reflect on what you learned from this study. This could
typically be something about your teaching, your learners, or anything significant for
your practice. Consider, for example:

• What changes will you make because of what you have learned?
• What questions arose from this study that you think you need to explore?
• How can others benefit from your learning?

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2.11 Reference list

Compile a reference list that indicates and acknowledges the original authors of the
literature you have used in your report. Refer to your Academic Literacy module (B-
ALI 110) (Dison, & Evans, 2020) and the SANTS reference guide (available on
MySANTS) to ensure that your referencing and reference list are made correctly in
your research report.

2.12 Research report annexures

You can attach any annexures you feel necessary to support your report, e.g. an
example of the consent letter (blank) and an example of your data generation tools.
This can enhance the quality of your report but is only necessary if you refer to them
in the report.

3. CONCLUSION
This is your opportunity to practice and implement good time management skills, as
you will be expected to submit both the research report and WIL assignment
simultaneously. Therefore, please submit a clean, neatly typed and well-organised
education research report on your project. Take the trouble to have it properly edited
and ask one of your peers to read through it to identify any errors and make sure what
you are saying makes sense.

Before you complete the self-assessment activity for this unit, we would like you to
look at the assessment rubric for the research report in Addendum C.

Evaluate your research report against this rubric before submitting it to SANTS
for marking.

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120 minutes
39
Self-assessment Activity: Unit 4

If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant

section to study it again.

Now that I have worked through this unit, I YES UNSURE NO

can:
Convert your research proposal into a research
report.
Plan and manage your research project and
timelines.
Collect data as planned in your research
proposal.
Organise the data to draw conclusions from the
data.
Structure the format of the research report.

Write and finalise the research report.

Good luck on your journey as a new teacher-researcher and reflective professional!

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ADDENDUM A: FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The guidelines will support you as you go through your research proposal and your
research essay. Ensure you have answered the questions and provided information
for directives that appear in each section.

The questions and directives is a guide, and you should duplicate them in your
research proposal. Instead, it would be best to tick in the completed column once you
are done with that section of your proposal.

Note: Please look at the assessment rubric for this module (both proposal and report)
attached as Addendums B and C, respectively.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL GUIDELINES

Headings in the research proposal Completed

1. Proposal introduction

• What is the topic of the research?

• Why is the research important

• What is the motivation for undertaking the research?

2. Statement of the problem

• What is the origin of the problem?

• How was the problem identified?

3. Context of study

• What is the context for the study (school, class, content, subject
area)?

• How does the research relate to the real-life experience of the

researcher?

• How will this research project have an impact on the

researcher?

4. Purpose of the study

• What does the researcher hope to find out?

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

• What does the researcher hope to achieve?

• How does the intended research relate to the problem

statement and the research questions?

5. Research questions

• What is the specific question(s) the research aims to answer?

• State the primary research question that the research will seek
to answer.

• State sub-questions that may help to unpack the primary

research question.

• Ensure that all questions related to the problem statement and

the purpose of the study.

6. Perspectives informing the research

• The theoretical background of the research (refer to Unit 3,

Section 2 in CLG).

• What academic work was consulted when you came up with the
problem statement and why?

• How will these theories guide the practical research process?

7. Research design

• What is action research?

• Which elements of action research are best suited for the

research problem and why?

• How is using action research going to help in answering the

research questions?

8. Population and sample

• Who will you choose to collect the data from?

• How will you choose them?

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

• Why are they the best people to collect data from?

• Are you going to use the same data collection method with all
the participants that you collect data from, and why?

9. Validation

• What method(s) are you intending to use to make sure your

findings are trustworthy, authentic and credible?

10. Data collection

• How will you collect the data? Will it be interviews,

observations, questionnaires, reflections, etc.?

• Why did you choose this/these data collection method(s)?

• How do these methods of data collection relate to your

research design?

• Who will you collect the data from?

• What is the frequency or the time frame during which you will
be collecting data?

11. Data analysis

• What steps will you follow to help you understand the data?

• What data analysis method will you use to translate the data
from your own words, observations, reflection, etc., into a
coherent academic presentation?

• How does the academic presentation relate to the research

questions, the purpose and the problem?

12. Role of researcher

• What will you as a researcher do during the research project?

• Why is it vital for you to play that role during the research
project?

• How will you try to prevent your own bias?

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

13. Ethical issues

• What possible ethical issues do you think you will come across
during the research project?

• How will you deal with these ethical issues?

• Have all ethical protocols been complied with?

14. Proposal conclusion

14.1 Expected impact and significance of the study

• What impact do you think the study will have on improving

your teaching practice and those of others in your field?

• How do you think you can use the findings of the research in
future?

14.2 Limitations of the study

• What issues that may be related to your research question

will your research project not address?

• Why are you excluding these issues?

14.3 Broad Plan for Conducting the study

• Tabulate the steps and dates you will follow in conducting

your research project.

• These should include dates when you will collect and analyse
your data and submit your final research project report.

15. Reference list

• Use the SANTS preferred Harvard referencing style

consistently in the text and the reference list. Refer to the
Student Orientation Booklet for information on the Harvard
referencing style.

• For Harvard, look at the following examples:

The acknowledgement in the text will read -

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

“The things that are most interesting and most worth having are
impossible to define” (Boulton, 1974, p. 1).

or

Boulton (1974) maintains that it is impossible to define the most

interesting and valuable things in life.

The following entry is then required in the reference list:

Boulton, M. (1974). The Anatomy of Poetry. London: Routledge &

Kegan Paul.

In the case of two authors, the reference is handled in the following

way:

“Stories are, above all else, to be experienced” (Dietrich & Sundell

1974, p. 225).

and the reference list entry will read:

Dietrich, R.F. & Sundell, R.H. (1974). The Art of Fiction. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

For more than two authors, the text reference will read:

• First reference to such a text – All authors’ names: “Knowing

how to use language properly means knowing how to think”
(Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 1995, pp. 124–125).

• If such a reference is part of the sentence, “and” is used and

not “&”: Du Toit, Heese and Orr maintain that “knowing how
to use language properly means knowing how to think” (1995,
p. 124).

• Subsequent references to the same source: “Knowing how to

use language properly means knowing how to think” (Du Toit
et al., 1995, p. 124).

In the reference list, write

Du Toit, P., Heese, M. & Orr, M. (1995). Reading, Thinking and

Writing Skills. Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers.

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

Chapters in a book edited by someone else

Literary criticism has been discussed by many writers (Lawrence,

1974; Eliot, 1974) would have the following entries In the reference
list:

Eliot, T.S. (1974). Tradition and the Individual Talent, In: ed. D.J.
Enright and E. De Chikera. English Critical Texts, Oxford: Oxford
University Press. pp. 293–301.

Lawrence, D.H. (1962). Why the Novel Matters. In: D.J. Enright &
E. De Chickera, English critical Texts, 16th to 20th century. London:
Oxford University Press. pp. 286–292.

Journal articles

Brown, D.S. (2011). The elementary child and reading. Journal of

Higher Education, 33(2), pp. 346–358.

Articles in newspapers

Mahlapa, T. (2004). South Africans are shaking off prejudice.

Pretoria News, 12 February, 7.

Articles in magazines are referenced in the text as for books; however,

the reference list entry will read:

Van Rensburg, R. (2004). SA Kids are Stupid! You, 13(2), pp. 20–
21.

Where ‘13’ denotes the volume, ‘(2)’ the number of that particular
issue and ‘20–21’ the page numbers.

Referencing information from the internet

The date on which the website was accessed should be specified

as web documentation may change or disappear at any time;

• Always refer to the date of the last update;

• The date is usually found at the bottom of the document;

• If you cannot identify the title in any other way, refer to the top
of the page above your browser.

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

Where no author is present, the reference list entry will read:

You and your African Grey. http://www.wingscc.com/aps/ag1.htm

Accessed on 19 September 2005.

When an author is present, the reference list entry will read Maxilla
Evans. Isabel never told me when Isabel sold me An African Grey
that… http://www.wingscc.com/aps/ag1.htm Accessed on 19
September 2005.

• In the case of unpublished internet documents, the title is not

italicised.

• If no date is available, use the date of the latest update of the

site, but NEVER use the date you have accessed the area as
the date of publication. If no date is available, use [s.a.] (sine
anno or ‘without date’.

• The reference list should always be in alphabetical order.

16. Annexures

Supplementary material for clarity and ethical clearance

presentations may include:

• Letters of permission granting access to the site.

• Letters of consent and/or assent.

• Examples of interview questions, field notes and research log,

etc.

• List of other tools for data collection, i.e. video recording, etc.

Preliminary Literature Review

A preliminary literature review is an essential part of your

proposal. However, for the final research report, you will expand
your literature review substantially.

For the proposal, the following questions are helpful:

• What is the research trying to find out?

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Headings in the research proposal Completed

• What question(s) is it trying to answer?

• What is the research saying about your research problem and

question(s)?

• How did other researchers deal with similar problems and

questions?

Note:
The proposal and literature review should be finalised by the end of the first semester
of the module.

The proposal and literature review will be part of the final research report, to be
submitted end of the second and last semester.

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ADDENDUM B: ASSESSMENT RUBRIC FOR PROPOSAL IN YOUR FIRST SEMESTER

EDUCATION RESEARCH PROPOSAL ASSESSMENT RUBRIC: FOUNDATION AND INTERMEDIATE PHASE TEACHING PROGRAMME
THE PROPOSAL AND PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW: FIRST SEMESTER

STUDENT NAME: __________________________________________________ DATE: ________________________

MARK: ASSESSOR NAME: _________________________________ SIGNATURE: ___________________________

SECTION 1

ASSESSMENT 4 3 2 1 0
DECISION 75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%
INTRODUCTION; EXCEEDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO
CONTEXT; STANDARDS STANDARDS STANDARDS EVIDENCE
PROBLEM; Introduction Introduces the main topic and Introduces the topic without A general introduction with An incomplete introductory No introductory
PURPOSE AND area that will be addressed as clarifying the main area (or no specific mention of the statement, with no mention of statement
well as the motivation for the vice versa). Limited motivation topic, area and motivation topic, area or motivation
QUESTIONS study for the study of the study

Problem Identifies the origin of the Identifies the problem but no Unclear about the genesis Little or no discussion of the No problem
Statement problem and provides provision of support evidence of the problem or evidence problem statement statement
evidence of how it was of how it is identified
identified

Context of the Clearly describes the school, Describes content (topic and States but does not explain Incomplete description of the No context
Study classroom and teaching the area) context but omits school study context (school, context provided
content (topic and area) and classroom context classroom, topic and area)
context

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Purpose of the Precise alignment between Clear purpose but lacks Unclear purpose and not An incomplete and Absent of study
Study purpose topic, area and alignment with topic, area and aligned with topic, area unfocussed purpose that is purpose
problem statement problem statement and problem statement not aligned with the topic,
area and problem statement.

Research The research question is The research question is Research question The research question is No Research
Questions specific and links to the specific and aligned to some included but not aligned to vague and misaligned with question
problem statement, topic and but not all of the following: the topic, area, problem the problem statement, topic,
area and purpose problem statement, topic, area statement or purpose area and purpose
and purpose

SECTION 2

ASSESSMENT 4 3 2 1 0
DECISION 75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%
EXCEEDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO
STANDARDS STANDARDS STANDARDS EVIDENCE

PROCEDURES; Perspectives The theoretical background of The theoretical background is Theoretical background Theoretical background and Theoretical
Informing the the research is transparent; indicated; academic work is and academic work academic work is vague and background and
METHODS; academic work was evident; some evidence of present, but not linked to inadequate academic work
Research
TRUSTWORTHINESS; consulted; evidence of theories informing research the problem, purpose and absent
ETHICS theories informing research questions

Research Design Appropriate research design Appropriate design but Research design and No research design; only No research
and strategies that link to the incomplete research strategies indicated but strategies indicated design or
purpose of the study and strategies that link to purpose misaligned to the purpose strategies
research question/s and main question/s and main research indicated
questions

Population and The population is indicated; The population is indicated; Population and sample are Incorrect sampling methods Discussion on the
Sample included, but limited link and not linked to purpose and population and
Appropriate sampling; Appropriate sampling but with
purpose and research research question sample is absent
Motivation is linked to no motivation. Linked to
questions are provided
purpose and main research purpose and research
question question

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Data Collection Complete and elaborated Complete but not elaborated Incomplete description of Unclear description of data No description of
Methods description of data collection description of data collection either data collection collection techniques and data collection
techniques and analysis techniques and analysis techniques and analysis analysis methods techniques and
methods that link to purpose methods methods analysis methods
and research questions

Data Analysis Complete and elaborated Complete but not elaborated Incomplete description of Unclear description of data No description of
description of analysis description of data analysis either data analysis analysis methods data analysis
methods that link to purpose methods methods methods
and research questions

Validation Clear discussion and detailed Trustworthiness defined and Trustworthiness defined; Ill-defined description of No discussion
trustworthiness definitions described but not linked to no discussion and no link trustworthiness and not
and discussion linked to own own research to own research related to own research
research

Role as Clear and well defined; noting Specified and linked to bias Ill-defined and not related Not clearly specified Not included
Researcher possible bias and subjectivity but not subjectivity to bias and subjectivity

Ethical All ethical protocols adhered Ethical protocols adhered to Incomplete ethical Insufficient ethical protocols No evidence of
Considerations to and adequately discussed but not adequately discussed protocols and limited and not a clear description in ethical protocols
in the report in the report discussion in the report the report

SECTION 3

ASSESSMENT 4 3 2 1 0
DECISION 75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%
EXCEEDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO
STANDARDS STANDARDS STANDARDS EVIDENCE
PROPOSAL Significance of The significance of the The significance of the Significance of the Significance of the research is The significance
Study research is identified with links research is identified, but no research is indicated but vaguely referred to, with no of the research is
CONCLUSION to past or current research links to past or current not discussed or linked to link to past and current not indicated
research past or current literature research

Limitations A detailed description of Limitations indicated but not Limitations are incomplete Limitations unclear and not No indication of
limitations that are linked to related to literature and not connected to the linked to literature limitations
the literature literature

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Plan for Well-formulated plan; focused Complete plan with unrealistic Incomplete plan and Incomplete plan and no No plan
conducting the and realistic timelines timelines unrealistic timelines timelines included submitted
Study included

Bibliography Correct citation style; The correct citation style used The correct citation style Citation style incorrect. No No bibliography
accurately used. All sources but not all accurately listed. All used. Not all sources are scholarly sources, sources included
are scholarly and listed sources are scholarly and scholarly. Not all sources not alphabetically listed
alphabetically listed alphabetically listed alphabetically

SECTION 4
ASSESSMENT 4 3 2 1 0
DECISION 75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%
EXCEEDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO
STANDARDS STANDARDS STANDARDS EVIDENCE
LITERATURE Literature review: Relevant literature research The review of literature Relevant literature but fails A literature review not No literature
that places the student’s topic situates the study but little to place the current suitable or incomplete. review included
REVIEW Identify what the in context with previous engagement with how the research in the context
research is trying research. Critical literature relates to the current
to find out; interpretation of related study
literature regarding the study
Relate to the
research
question;
What did other
authors say;
How did other
authors deal with
the problem

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ADDENDUM C: ASSESSMENT RUBRIC FOR RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT FOR THE SECOND
SEMESTER

EDUCATION RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT ASSESSMENT RUBRIC: EXECUTION OF THE RESEARCH: SECOND SEMESTER

Student Name: ________________________________________________________ DATE: ___________________

MARK: ASSESSOR NAME: ______________________________ SIGNATURE: ___________________________

SECTION 1

ASSESSMENT 4 3 2 1 0
DECISION
75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%

EXCEEDS STANDARDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO EVIDENCE

STANDARDS STANDARDS

EXECUTION OF Data collection; An accurate, thorough Adequate description of Description of how data Incomplete description of Description of
THE RESEARCH description of how data was how data was collected was collected and how data was collected how data was
Analysis collected and analysed. and analysed and linked to analysed not clearly and analysed collected and
methods; Linked to purpose and purpose and research articulated analysed not
research questions. question/s. Methods not included
Relationship with
Appropriate methods related clearly specified
problem, purpose
to purpose and outcome of
and questions
research

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SECTION 2

4 3 2 1 0

75+% 70 – 74% 60 – 69% 50%

ASSESSMENT EXCEEDS STANDARDS ADEQUATELY MEETS MOSTLY MEETS MEETS STANDARDS NO EVIDENCE
DECISION STANDARDS STANDARDS

FINAL REPORT OF Well-structured research Results presented in a Interpretation and Research not well- The research
RESEARCH (introduction, body, and structured study with analysis of results structured, and the report not
conclusion) with sufficient interpretation of included, not adequately interpretation and analysis included
PROJECT interpretation /analysis of results that link to purpose discussed. No link to are not informed by the
results linked to purpose and and research question/s. purpose and research results, not linked to
main research question/s. No suggestions for further questions. No purpose and research
research suggestions for further question/s
Appropriate suggestions for research
further research in the area
included

SUMMATIVE MARK TO BE CALCULATED BY ADDING THE MARKS OF SEMESTER 1 AND 2:

SEMESTER 1: 100 MARKS (weighting 40%)

SEMESTER 2: 100 MARKS (weighting 60%)

BED (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) / BED (INTERMEDIATE PHASE TEACHING) 133