See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/296188508

Wastewater treatment technologies: A review

Article · May 2011

CITATIONS READS
18 3,069

3 authors:

Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu Suriyaprakash T N K

112 PUBLICATIONS 1,541 CITATIONS

Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science
40 PUBLICATIONS 348 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Ashok Kumar
UCSI University
83 PUBLICATIONS 686 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Ashok Kumar on 04 October 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Article

Wastewater Treatment Technologies: A Review

S. Lakshmana Prabu1*, T.N.K. Suriyaprakash2, J. Ashok Kumar3

1
Dept. of Pharm. Technology, Anna University of Technology-Tiruchirappalli
2
Dept. of Pharmaceutics, Periyar College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tiruchirappalli
3
Faculty of Pharmacy, PRIST University, Thanjavur

Manufacturers must concentrate their wastewater treatment process to ensure that it complies with regulatory guidelines. The main
purpose of wastewater treatment process is to remove the various constituents of the polluting load: solids, organic carbon, nutrients,
inorganic salts and metals, pathogens. Effective wastewater collection and treatment are of great importance from the standpoint of
both environmental and public health. Wastewater treatment operations are done by various methods in order to reduce its water and
organic content, and the ultimate goal of wastewater management is the protection of the environment in a manner commensurate with
public health and socio-economic concerns. In this article wastewater treatment techniques are discussed briefly.

¾ The cost of treating water, including the Primary Treatment

Introduction cost of treating process and finding a Primary treatment involves the partial
Wastewater treatment is becoming ever home for the solid wastes. removal of suspended solids and organic
more critical due to diminishing water matter from the wastewater by means of
resources, increasing wastewater disposal Treatment of Wastewater3-23 physical operations such as screening and
costs, and stricter discharge regulations that sedimentation. Pre-aeration or mechanical
Treatment of wastewater in
have lowered permissible contaminant levels flocculation with chemical additions can be
pharmaceutical industry is carried out in four
in waste streams. The ultimate goal of used to enhance primary treatment. Primary
stages. They are
wastewater management is the protection of treatment acts as a precursor for secondary
the environment in a manner commensurate 1. Preliminary treatment treatment. It is aimed mainly at producing a
with public health and socio-economic 2. Primary treatment liquid effluent suitable for downstream
concerns1. Wastewater is a combination of biological treatment and separating out solids
water and water-carried wastes originating 3. Secondary treatment
as a sludge that can be conveniently and
from homes, commercial and industrial 4. Tertiary treatment economically treated before ultimate
facilities and institutions. Untreated disposal.
Based on the nature of wastewater,
wastewater generally contains high levels of
primary, secondary and tertiary treatment will Secondary Treatment
organic material, numerous pathogenic
be carried out before final disposal. For some
microorganisms, nutrients and toxic Secondary treatment processes are
wastes, primary treatment only is sufficient.
compounds leading to environmental used to convert the finely divided and
Most of the wastes require secondary
pollution and health hazards. So, the waste dissolved organic matter in wastewater into
water must be treated appropriately before treatment also. But some other effluents
flocculent settleable organic and inorganic
final disposal, which leads to protection of require tertiary treatment.
solids. The purpose of secondary treatment
the environment with public health and socio- Preliminary Treatment is the removal of soluble and colloidal
economic concerns 1. Understanding the organics and suspended solids that have
nature of wastewater is fundamental to Preliminary treatment process is
attempted to render the effluent suitable for escaped the primary treatment and reduce
design appropriate wastewater treatment BOD and COD through biological process.
plant and technologies. further treatment. Preliminary treatment
processes consist of physical unit operations In these processes, micro-organisms,
The following points are to be like screening and comminution for the particularly bacteria, convert the colloidal and
considered for choosing a suitable treatment removal of debris and rags, grit removal for dissolved carbonaceous organic matter into
process2. the elimination of coarse suspended matter, various gases and into cell tissue leading to
¾ How clean the final water effluent from and flotation for the removal of oil and grease. reduction of BOD and COD. This is typically
our plant must be Other preliminary treatment operations done through processes, namely treatment
include equalization, flow equalization and by trickling filtration, activated sludge
¾ The quantities and nature of the influent
neutralization. process, oxidation ditch and oxidation ponds
water we need to treat
are some of the common secondary
¾ The physical and chemical properties Preliminary treatment reduces or treatment procedures.
of the pollutants we need to remove or eliminates the non-favourable wastewater
render neutral in the effluent water characteristics like large solids and rags, Tertiary Treatment
¾ The physical, chemical and thermo- abrasive grit, odours, and, in certain cases, Tertiary treatment goes beyond the level
dynamic properties of the solid wastes unacceptably high peak hydraulic or organic of conventional secondary treatment for
generated from treating water loadings. purification of wastewater i.e. removal of

*E-mail address: [email protected]

Pharma Times - Vol. 43 - No. 05 - May 2011 9

 significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, Table 1: Preliminary Screening and Its Applications
heavy metals, biodegradable organics,
Screen Size of Application Types of Screens
bacteria and viruses. In addition to biological category openings
nutrient removal processes, other unit (mm)
operations like chemical coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation, followed by Coarse Removes large Manually cleaned bar screens/trash racks
filtration and activated carbon are frequently Screen >6 solids, rags, Mechanically cleaned bar
and debris. screens/trash racks
used. Less frequently ion exchange and
Chain or cable driven with front
reverse osmosis for specific ion removal or or back cleaning
for dissolved solids reduction are used. Reciprocating rake screens
Catenary screens
Treatment Procedures
Continuous self-cleaning screens
I. Preliminary Treatment
1. Screening Fine Reduces suspended Rotary-drum screens
Screen 1.5-6 solids to primary Rotary-drum screens with outward
The screening of wastewater, one of the treatment levels or inward flow
oldest treatment methods, removes gross Rotary-vertical-disk screens
pollutants from the waste stream to protect Inclined revolving disc screens
downstream equipment from damage, avoid Travelling water screens
interference with plant operations and Endless band screen
prevent objectionable floating material from Vibrating screens
entering the primary settling tanks. It is the
Very fine Reduces suspended –
process by which the larger suspended and screen 0.2-5 solids to primary
floating materials such as fibres, paper, rags, treatment levels
string substances and other materials are
removed. The openings may be of any Micro fine Upgrades secondary
shape, but are generally circular or screen 0.001-0.3 effluent to tertiary –
rectangular. The material retained from the standards
manual or mechanical cleaning of bar racks
and screens is referred to as "screenings",
1. Rotating cutter comminutor the effectiveness of secondary and advanced
and is either disposed of by burial or
2. Oscillating cutter comminutor wastewater treatment processes by levelling
incineration, or returned into the waste flow
out operation parameters such as flow,
after grinding. The conventional screening 3. Removal of Greases and Oils
pollutant levels and temperature, pH and
system is comprised of two units. The first Greases and oils tend to form an BOD over a period of time. During
one known as coarse screen consists of insoluble layer on water surface. Grease can equalisation most of the solids also settle
metal bars or heavy wires spaced 25 to 50 be removed using grease traps. Gravity or along with heavy metals. Sometimes
mm apart. They are set in the flow channel simple skimming methods are also used to equalisation may produce an effluent which
either at an angle of about 60 o to the remove the grease and oil. requires no further treatment.
horizontal axis of the flow or curved to the
radius of a circle. The second unit fine 4. Flow Equalization The size and shape as well as
screens, as the name implies are used to dimension of equalisation tanks vary with the
Flow equalization processes; by
remove the finer particles. The size opening quantity of waste and mode of discharge. The
levelling out operation parameters such as
ranges from 0.8 to 6.0 mm depending upon equalisation tank should have a capacity to
flow, pollutant levels and temperature over a
the type of effluent treated. The accumulated hold the volume of waste produced up to the
period of time until a near constant flow rate
materials at screens must be removed at completion of a cycle of operations. Each
is achieved; improve the effectiveness of
frequent intervals. Preliminary screening and unit volume of waste must be mixed
secondary and advanced wastewater
its applications are given in Table 1. thoroughly with the already discharged other
treatment process. There are four types of unit volume of wastes to render a
The coarse screen category includes flow equalization processes available. homogeneous effluent. Proper mixing is
manually or mechanically cleaned bar 1. Alternating flow diversion brought about by
screens and trash racks. Bar screens consist
2. Intermittent flow diversion 1. Appropriate distribution and baffling
of vertical or inclined steel bars distributed
3. Completely mixed, combined flow 2. Mechanical agitation
equally across a channel through which
3. Aeration
wastewater flows. Fine screens consist of 4. Completely mixed, mixed flow
various types of screen media, including Proper distribution involves the use of
slotted perforated plates, wire mesh, woven 5. Equalisation
several inlet pipes spaced at regular intervals
wire cloth and wedge-shaped wire. Different types of wastes may be across the width of the tank. For more
produced and discharged at different efficient horizontal and vertical distribution,
2. Comminution
intervals in an industry. The wastes exhibit over and under baffles are provided.
Comminutors are installed when there different characteristics from time to time and Mechanical agitation with the use of paddles
is a difficulty in handling the screening. They a proper treatment is not possible, unless the results in better mixing then baffling. The
are used to pulverize large floating material. character is uniform. For this, different agitators are normally placed along the
Comminutors are installed between the grit streams of effluents are allowed to be held centre line of the length of the tank spaced
chamber and the primary settling tanks and in a holding tank for a specified period such equidistantly. About 10 rpm to 20 rpm is
reduce odours, flies and unsightliness. Two that the character will be uniform. sufficient. Aeration prevents accumulation of
types of comminutors are available. Equalization is a technique used to improve settleable solids.

10 Pharma Times - Vol. 43 - No. 05 - May 2011

6. Neutralisation of acid wastes & waste or sewage is continuously exposed performance level. The principal factors in
alkaline wastes and subjected to biological degradation process control are as follows :
Mixing of acid wastes with alkaline carried out by the microbial floc suspended
(a) Maintenance of dissolved oxygen levels
wastes generated within the same plant. by mechanical means. The effluent from the
in the aeration tanks;
Commonly Lime-slurry treatment procedure reaction tank is allowed to settle and a portion
of the sludge is recycled to the tank itself for (b) Regulation of the amount of returning
is done for the neutralisation of acid wastes
effective microbial population. The flocs activated sludge;
and sulphuric acid treatment for the
neutralisation of alkaline wastes. include the microbial mass of bacteria, fungi, (c) Control of the waste activated sludge.
protozoa, rotifers and sometimes
II. PRIMARY TREATMENT nematodes. Among these, bacteria are the Advantages of activated sludge process
most important. The bacteria involved in are removal of soluble organic substances,
1. Sedimentation
activated sludge systems are primarily Gram- colloidal matter, particulate matter and
Sedimentation also referred to as negative species, including carbon oxidizers, inorganic substances. Some substances
clarification is a fundamental unit operation nitrogen oxidizers, floc formers and non-floc which are not Biologically degradable can
in wastewater treatment which takes place formers, and aerobes and facultative also be removed by this process.
in a settling tank and involves the settling of anaerobes. Variety of bacteria and other Disadvantages like deficiency of any
solid particles based on gravitational force microorganisms are present in the slimes but nutrients results in the growth of filamentous
in a suspended mixture. This process is used the nature of organic matter in the waste is anaerobic bacteria, fungi etc., which prevents
to remove grit, particulate matter, and the determining factor of predominance of settling & leads to formation of turbid effluent.
biological floc in the activated sludge settling the exact type and species of bacteria, and 2. Aerated Lagoons
basin, and chemical flow when the chemical other microorganisms required.
coagulation process is used. There are three These are large holding tanks or ponds
main designs, namely, horizontal flow, solids Oxygen is the primary material supplied lined with cement or preferably by butyl
contact and inclined surface. to the activated sludge. If the system has to rubber or polythene, 3-5m in depth in which
be operated properly, atleast a residual of wastewater is treated either on a flow-
2. Coagulation 0.5mg/l should be present at all times. through basis or with solids recycling. These
Coagulation is a process by which the Oxygen is supplied either by mechanical or lagoons are used for oxidation of dissolved
colloidal particles are destabilised by the diffused aeration systems. The average organics. The effluent after primary treatment
addition of certain chemicals and period of aeration for industrial wastes is passed on to these tanks and oxygenated
consequently aggregated and bound to form ranges from 6 to 24 hrs and for sewage about by mechanical aeration by surface, turbine
a floc which settles rapidly. The formed flocs 6 hrs. If the oxygen supplied is less than the or diffused aeration technique. Floating
absorb and entrap the colloidal and other amount required, anaerobic conditions aerators are most commonly employed to
suspended matter and bring them down. The develop resulting in turbid effluents due to supply the necessary oxygen and mixing
commonly employed coagulants are: the growth of filamentous bacteria than the power. Detention period ranges from 2 to 6
other required bacteria and protozoa. The days; in this time duration a healthy flocculent
1. Alum ( Aluminium sulphate) filamentous bacterial growth retard floc sludge is formed due to oxidation of organic
2. Ferric sulphate compaction and settling. matter. Around 90% of BOD removal is
3. Chlorinated copper
achieved by this aerated lagoon. Most of
4. Ferric chloride The process recycles a portion of the
these solids must be removed in a settling
settled sludge back to the aeration basin to
Among these, alum is the most popular basin before final effluent discharge. The
maintain the required activated sludge
coagulant used both in water and wastewater effluent from lagoons may contain bacteria
concentration. The process also intentionally
treatment. and need further biological purification.
wastes a portion of the settled sludge to
Advantage is the operation and maintenance
3. Flotation maintain the required solids retention time
is simple. Disadvantage is that it occupies
(SRT) for effective organic removal. The
Flotation is a unit operation used to more space.
microorganisms should supply with essential
remove solid or liquid particles from a liquid
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous). 3. Trickling Filtration
phase by introducing a fine gas, usually air
Usually nitrogen and phosphorus are
bubbles. The gas bubbles either adhere to The trickling filter is the most commonly
supplied by the addition of either urea or
the liquid or are trapped in the particle encountered aerobic attached-growth
mono ammonium or diammonium hydrogen
structure of the suspended solids, raising the biological treatment process used for the
buoyant force of the combined particle and phosphate. Other nutrient elements such as
removal of organic matter from wastewater.
gas bubbles. In wastewater treatment, potassium, calcium, magnesium are usually
In this method, wastewater after primary
flotation is used mainly to remove suspended present in the waste. Iron, molybdenum and
treatment is sprinkled by moving sprinklers
matter and to concentrate biological sludge. cobalt are also required in trace quantities. over a bed of highly permeable medium to
The various flotation methods are dissolved Other important factors that determine the which organisms are attached, forming a
air-flotation, air-flotation, vacuum flotation efficiency of activated sludge are pH value, biological slime layer, and through which
and chemical additives. temperature and oxidation-reduction wastewater is percolated. The filter medium
potential. The optimum pH range is 6.5 to usually consists of rock or plastic packing
III. SECONDARY TREATMENT 9.0. Below 6.5, fungi will compete with the material. The bacterial slimes formed on the
1. Activated Sludge Process bacteria and above 9.0, rate of metabolism bed oxidise the wastewater during its
will be decreased. So, it is essential that pH passage. As the micro-organisms grow, the
This method is the most valuable one measurement must be made at regular
for biological oxidation method for treating thickness of the slime layer increases and
intervals in the aeration tank or aeration the oxygen is depleted before it has
industrial wastes. The activated-sludge period to ascertain deviation from normal penetrated the full depth of the slime layer.
process is an aerobic, continuous-flow condition. The depth of the bed may be increased more
system containing a mass of activated micro-
than 3 meters. The gelatinous film of aerobic
organisms that are capable of stabilizing Control of the activated-sludge process
organisms formed on the whole surface of
organic matter. In this process, industrial is important to maintain a high treatment
the filter medium absorbs both the dissolved

Pharma Times - Vol. 43 - No. 05 - May 2011 11

 and colloidal organic matter which are then process are used effectively for the treatment of chemicals used and the care with which
oxidised by the metabolic activities of the of wastewater from beet-sugar manufacture, the process is controlled.9 Suspended solids
bacteria in the slime. As the film layer vegetable and fruit canning factory and edible removal through chemical treatment involves
increases in thickness, the organic matter is oil refineries. Advantage of oxidation pond a series of unit operations like rapid mixing,
degraded before it reaches the micro- is simple operation, economical and has less flocculation and settling. Most of the heavy
organisms near the surface of the medium. maintenance. Disadvantage is that the metals are precipitated as hydroxides at
effluent requires further treatment in a elevated pH. Coagulant selection for
The removal of organics depends on separate pond. enhanced sedimentation is based on
the organic concentration and temperature performance, reliability and cost. Chemical
of the waste, size of the bed stone, microbial IV. TERTIARY TREATMENT coagulants that are commonly used in
surface area, depth of the filter and retention Tertiary treatment is applied to the wastewater treatment include alum, ferric
time and oxygen transfer. The microbial layer waste for the removal of dissolved inorganic chloride, ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate and
is very sensitive to temperature, and the solids and bacteria and sometimes for the lime. Organic polyelectrolytes are sometimes
metabolic activities are directly proportional removal of final traces of organics. Removal used as flocculation aids. 10 Lime is the
to the temperature of the waste passing of bacteria especially of faecal origin is cheapest and effective precipitating agent.
through the filter. This process is effectively achieved by keeping the effluents from
used for the treatment of Industrial wastes secondary biological treatment units in Effluent guidelines and
from dairy, distiller, breweries, food maturation ponds for specified periods. If the
processing units, pharmaceuticals and final effluent still contains enough bacteria,
standards24
petrochemicals. it is chlorinated. Inorganic dissolved solids Environmental standards are developed
Advantage is that it produces consistent are removed by the following methods. to ensure that the treated wastewater
quality effluents, sludge can be removed 1. Evaporation discharges into ambient waters which is of
easily and quickly, more economic, simple acceptable quality in physical and chemical
in design and operation. Both aerobic and It is a simple process of boiling the aspects. Regulations and procedures vary
anaerobic digestions can be achieved. waste and vaporising the water phase. This from one country to another and are
method is especially useful for the
Disadvantage is that the cost of construction continuously reviewed and updated to reflect
concentration of radioactive waste and other
and ventilation duct for air supply are high. growing concern for the protection of ambient
wastes of smaller volumes. It is suitable only
waters. Standards play a fundamental role
4. Oxidation Ditch when the recovered solids, or concentrated
in the determination of the level of
solution are reused.
The oxidation ditch is a modification of wastewater treatment required and in the
the conventional activated sludge process 2. Reverse Osmosis selection of the discharge location and outfall
(shape and the aerator). For oxidation ditch structures.
This method is especially suitable for
no primary clarification and sludge treatment
the removal of dissolved solids from the The United States Environmental
are necessary. Oxidation ditch is a long
waste. When the liquid waste containing Protection Agency (USEPA) developed the
continuous channel, usually oval in shape
much dissolved solids is passed over the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
and 1.0 to 2.0 m deep. Waste after being
surface of a semi permeable membrane at a
subjected to preliminary treatment is passed System (NPDES) to control water pollution
pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure
into oxidation ditch where longer retention by regulating point sources that discharge
of the feed waste, the water in the effluent
times are provided. For hydraulic, retention pollutants into waters. Under this
passes through the membrane leaving
time is 12 - 24 hrs & for solids it is 20 - 30 programme, secondary treatment standards
concentrated liquor on the surface. Cellulose
days. were established by USEPA for Publicly
acetate and polyamide-hydrazide are the
most effective membranes. Owned Treatment Works (POTWs),
5. Oxidation ponds
governing the performance of secondary
Oxidation pond is a large shallow pond 3. Dialysis wastewater treatment plants. The limitations
in which wastes are added at one end and It is a method of separation of solutes for the secondary wastewater treatment
effluent removed at another end. from the solution based on the difference in plants and the European Community
Stabilisation of organic matter is brought the rates of diffusion. Environmental Directive Requirements (EC
about by bacteria. Oxygen required for its EDR) for discharges from urban wastewater
metabolism is supplied by algae in the pond. 4. Ion exchange treatment plants are shown in the Table 2.
In turn it utilises the carbondioxide released Application of ion exchange as a
by bacteria for its photosynthesis. For method of waste treatment is a development Conclusions/Summary
effective treatment of wastes, maximum high over the traditional method of water
penetration for photosynthesis of algae, wind softening. It is economical only when The ultimate goal of wastewater
actions for mixing, maximum natural aeration exchanged salts are reused in the process. management is the protection of the
are necessary. The purification is carried out If removal of dissolved solids is the aim, then environment in a manner commensurate with
by a combination of aerobic facultative and this method may not be economically public health and socio-economic concerns.
anaerobic processes. feasible. Based on the nature of wastewater it is
decided whether primary, secondary and
Solids in the waste settle at the bottom, 5. Chemical Precipitation tertiary treatment will be carried out before
this solid layer acts as anaerobic phase, and
Dissolved solids present in traceable final disposal. Understanding the nature of
top liquid layer acts as aerobic phase. The
more is the algae in the pond more will be level can be removed by chemical wastewater is fundamental to design
the amount of oxygen released and precipitation method. Chemical coagulation appropriate wastewater treatment process,
consequently increased rate of purification. of raw wastewater before sedimentation to adopt an appropriate procedure,
The growth of algae is enhanced by the promotes the flocculation of finely divided determination of acceptable criteria for the
nutrients present in the waste. If the pond is solids into more readily settleable flocs, residues, determination of a degree of
devoid of oxygen, the anaerobic conditions thereby enhancing the efficiency of evaluation required to validate the procedure
set up lead to putrefaction of wastes and suspended solids, BOD 5 and phosphorus and decision on the residues to be tested
release of foul odours. removal as compared to plain sedimentation based on toxicity. So it is necessary to ensure
without coagulation. The degree of the safety, efficacy, quality of the treated
Both the oxidation ditch and pond clarification obtained depends on the quantity wastewater.

12 Pharma Times - Vol. 43 - No. 05 - May 2011

 Table 2: USEPA, NPDES and EC EDR for Discharges from Urban Wastewater Treatment Plants plants. Planning, design and
operations. 2nd ed. Lancaster PA:
NPDES EC EDRWD
Technomic Publishers; 1999.
Parameter 30-day 7-day Percentage Concentration Percentage 17. Haller E. Simplified wastewater
average average of (mg/L) of treatment plant operations. Lancaster
concentration concentration removal removal PA: Technomic Publishers; 1999.
18. Sanks RL, Asano T. Land Treatment
BOD 30mg/L 45mg/L 85 25 70-90 and Disposal of Municipal and Industrial
Wastewater. Ann Arbor Science
TSS 30mg/L 45mg/L 85 35-60 70-90 Publication; Ann Arbor Michigan; 1976.
19. Standard methods for examination of
pH 6-9 – – – – water and wastewater. 20th ed.
American public health association, DC:
COD -- – – 125 75
Washington; 1998.
Total Nitrogen -- – – 10-15 70-80 20. McGhee TJ. Water Supply and
Sewerage. New York: McGraw-Hill;
Total 1991.
Phosphorous -- – – 12 80
21. Rowe DR, Abdel-Magid IH. Handbook
of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse.
References Vol. 1, 2 & 3, Lancaster PA: Technomic Boca Raton: Lewis; 1995.
Publishers; 1999-2000. 22. Droste RL. Theory and Practice of
1. Metcalf and Eddy. Wastewater
14. Prince JK. Basic Math concepts for Water and Wastewater Treatment. New
Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and
water and wastewater plant operations. York: John Wiley and Sons; 1996.
Reuse. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill,
1991. Lancaster PA: Technomic Publishers; 23. Gilman HD. Instrumentation in
1991. Wastewater Treatment Facilities.
2. Cheremisinff NP. Hank book of water
15. Spellmann FR, Drinan J. Fundamentals Manual of Practice No. 21, Alexandria,
and wastewater treatment technologies:
for the water and wastewater Virginia: Water Environment
An overview of water and water
treatments. Butterworth-Heinemann maintaining operator services, Federation; 1993.
publication, 2002, 1-60. electricity, electronics, pumping, water 24. United States Environmental Protection
hydraulics, piping and valves and blue Agency, National Pollutant Discharge
3. Cheremisinff NP. Hank book of water
print reading. Lancaster PA: Technomic Elimination System: Secondary
and wastewater treatment technologies.
Publishers (distributed by CRC press, Treatment Standards; 2002. http://
Marcel Dekker (NY); 1995.
Boca Raton, FL); 2000-2002. c fp u b . e pa . g o v / n p d e s /
4. Spellman FR. Mathematic manual for
16. Qasim SR. Wastewater treatment techbasedpermitting/sectreat.cfm.
water and wastewater treatment plant
operations. CRC Press; 2004.
5. Sincero AP, Sincero GA. Physical-
Chemical treatment of water and
wastewater. CRC Press; 2003.
6. Drinan JE, Whiting NE. Water and
wastewater treatment: A guide for the
nonengineering professional. CRC
Press; 2001.
7. Subramanyam CVS. Pharmaceutical
Production and Management. Vallabh
Prakashan; 344-358.
8. Waste water treatment Technologies: A
General Review. United Nations, New
York; 2003.
9. Liu DHF, Liptak BG. Wastewater
Treatment. CRC Press; 2000.
10. Reed SC, Middlebrooks EJ, Crites RW.
Natural Systems for Waste
Management and Treatment. New
York: McGraw-Hill; 1988.
11. Henry K. New face of security, Gov.
Security, April 2002, 30-37.
12. Spellman FR. Safe work practices for
wastewater treatment plant. 2nd ed.
Lancaster PA: Technomic Publishers;
2001.
13. Spellman FR. Spellmann's standard
handbook for wastewater operations.

Pharma Times - Vol. 43 - No. 05 - May 2011 13

View publication stats