Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.1 Rates of Change and

Tangents to Curves

Page 1 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 3: The Derivative
3.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves
3.2 The Derivative at a Point
3.3 The Derivative as a Function
3.4 Differentiation Rules
3.5 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
3.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
3.7 The Chain Rule

Page 2 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Introduction

Many of the ideas of calculus originated with the following two geometric problems:

The Tangent line Problem

Given a function 𝑓 and a point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) on its graph, find an equation of the line that
is tangent to the graph at 𝑃 (See the Figure below).

The Area Problem

Given a function 𝑓, find the area between the graph of 𝑓 and an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] on the
𝑥-axis (See the Figure below).

Page 3 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • Traditionally, that portion of calculus arising from the tangent line problem is
called differential calculus,
• and that arising from the area problem is called integral calculus.
• However, we will see later that the tangent line and area problems are so closely
related that the distinction between differential and integral calculus is
somewhat artificial.

In this section we will discuss three ideas: tangent lines to curves, the velocity of an
object moving along a line, and the rate at which one variable changes relative to
another. Our goal is to show how these seemingly unrelated ideas are, in actuality,
closely linked.

Page 4 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.1 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change
▪ Slope of Secant Lines

A secant line is a straight line that connects two points on the curve of a function
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Definition 1:

Using the formula for the slope of a line, we can write the slope (𝑚sec )of the secant
line passing through 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) and 𝑄(𝑥1 , 𝑓(𝑥1 )) on the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as

change in 𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )

𝑚sec = = = − − − (1),
change in 𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑥1 − 𝑥0
where
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ,
Δ𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ).

Δ𝑥 and Δ𝑦 are called increments of 𝑥 and 𝑦, respectively.

Page 5 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 1

Find the slope of the secant line passing through 𝑃(0,2) and 𝑄(2,6) on the curve of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2.

Solution

𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(2) − 𝑓(0) 6 − 2

𝑚sec = = = = 2.
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 2−0 2

Checkpoint 1

Find the slope of the secant line passing through two points on the curve of 𝑓(𝑥) =
1
at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥

Solution

▪ Average Rate of Change of a Function

Definition 2:

The average rate of change (𝑟avg ) (of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 over the interval

[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ] is
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑟avg = = − − − (2)
Δ𝑥 𝑥1 − 𝑥0

Example 2

Compute the average of change of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 over [−1,2].

Solution

Page 6 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

The average of change of the function 𝑓(𝑥) given by

𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑟ave = .
𝑥1 − 𝑥0

We have

𝑥0 = −1 and 𝑥1 = 2.

Now compute 𝑓(𝑥0 ) and 𝑓(𝑥1 ).

𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 − 1 = 0,

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(2) = (2)2 − 1 = 3.

Then

𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 3−0 3

𝑟ave = = = =1
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 2 − (−1) 3

Checkpoint 2

𝑥
Compute the average of change of function 𝑓(𝑥) = + 2 over [2,5].
𝑥 2 −1

Solution

Page 7 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.1.1 Tangent line To Curves
Now we can give a mathematical definition of the tangent line to a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at
a point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) on the curve. As illustrated in the Figure below, the slope 𝑚𝑃𝑄 of
the secant line through 𝑃 and a second point 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) on the graph of 𝑓 is

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚𝑃𝑄 = .
𝑥 − 𝑥0

If we let 𝑥 approach 𝑥0 , then the point 𝑄 will move along the curve and approach the
point 𝑃.

Suppose the slope 𝑚𝑃𝑄 of the secant line through 𝑃 and 𝑄 approaches a limit as
𝑥 → 𝑥0 .
In that case we can take the value of the limit to be the slope 𝑚tan of the tangent line
at 𝑃. Thus, we make the following definition.

Page 8 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 3:

Suppose that 𝑥0 is in the domain of the function 𝑓. Then the tangent line to the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) on the graph of 𝑓 is the line passing through 𝑃
and having slope

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚tan = lim 𝑚sec = lim , (4)
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0

provided the limit exists.

For simplicity, we will also call this the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥0 .

The equation for the tangent line to the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) is given by

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑚tan (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
or
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑚tan (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
See the appendix for more details on Equations of Lines.

Example 3

Use Definition above to find an equation for the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
at the point 𝑃(1,1).

Solution

Applying Formula (4) with 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑥0 = 1, we have

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1)
𝑚tan = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
2
𝑥 −1
= lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
= lim = lim (𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1

Thus, the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at (1,1) has equation 𝑦 − 1 = 2(𝑥 − 1) or equivalently

𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1.

Page 9 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

There is an alternative way of expressing Formula (4) that is commonly used. If we
let ℎ denote the difference

ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑥0

then the statement that 𝑥 → 𝑥0 is equivalent to the statement ℎ → 0, so we can rewrite

(4) in terms of 𝑥0 and ℎ as

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚tan = lim (5)
ℎ→0 ℎ

The Figure below shows how Formula (5) expresses the slope of the tangent line as
a limit of slopes of secant lines.

Example 4

2
Find an equation for the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = at the point (2,1) on this
𝑥
curve.

Solution

2
First, we will find the slope of the tangent line by applying Formula (5) with 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

and 𝑥0 = 2.

These yields

Page 10 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝑓(2 + ℎ) − 𝑓(2)
𝑚tan = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2 2 − (2 + ℎ)
−1 ( )
2 + ℎ 2+ℎ
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
−ℎ −1 1
= lim = lim =−
ℎ→0 ℎ(2 + ℎ) ℎ→0 2 + ℎ 2

Thus, an equation of the tangent line at (2,1) is

1 1
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑥 − 2) or equivalently 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 2
2 2

(see the Figure below).

Example 5

Find equations of the straight lines that are tangent and normal to the curve 𝑦 = √𝑥
at the point (4,2).

Solution

The slope of the tangent at (4,2) (See the Figure below) is

Page 11 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 √4 + ℎ − 2 (√4 + ℎ − 2)(√4 + ℎ + 2)
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ(√4 + ℎ + 2)
4+ℎ−4
= lim
ℎ→0ℎ(√4 + ℎ + 2)
1 1
= lim = .
ℎ→0 √4 + ℎ + 2 4

The tangent line has equation

1 1
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 4) + 2 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
4 4

and the normal has slope −4 and,

therefore, equation

𝑦 = −4(𝑥 − 4) + 2 or 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 18.

Checkpoint 3

Find the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 at the points (0,1)
and (−1,2), as shown in the Figure below.

Answer:

𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0 at (0,1).
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −2 at (−1,2).

Page 12 of 19 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.2 The Derivative of a Function

Page 1 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.2 The Derivative of a Function
In this section we will discuss the concept of a "derivative," which is the primary
mathematical tool that is used to calculate and study rates of change.

3.2.1 Definition of the derivative a function at a point

▪ In the last section we showed that if the limit

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

exists, then

✓ it can be interpreted either as the slope of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
✓ or as the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
▪ This limit is so important that it has a special notation:

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim (1)
ℎ→0 ℎ

Page 2 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 You can think of 𝑓 ′ (read " 𝑓 prime") as a function whose input is 𝑥0 and whose
output is the number 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) that represents either

✓ the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 or

✓ the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

To emphasize this function point of view, we will replace 𝑥0 by 𝑥 in (1) and make the
following definition.

3.2.2 The Derivative as a Function

Definition 1:

The function 𝑓 ′ defined by the formula

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (2)
ℎ→0 ℎ

is called the derivative of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥. The domain of 𝑓 ′ consists of all 𝑥 in

the domain of 𝑓 for which the limit exists.

If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , then the point-slope form of the equation of the

tangent line to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 may be found using the following
steps:

Finding an Equation for the Tangent Line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

Step1: Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥0 ); the point of tangency is (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )).

Step2: Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and evaluate 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ), which is the slope 𝑚 of the line.
Step3: Substitute the value of the slope 𝑚 and the point (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) into the point-
slope form of the line

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

or, equivalently,

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

Page 3 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 1

Find the derivative with respect to 𝑥 of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and use it to find the equation of
the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2.

Solution

It follows from (2) that

′
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
2 2 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ − 𝑥 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim (2𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥
ℎ→0

Thus, the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2 is 𝑓 ′ (2) = 4.

Since 𝑦 = 4 if 𝑥 = 2, the point-slope form of the tangent line is

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝑦 = 𝑓(2) + 𝑓 ′ (2)(𝑥 − 2)

= 4 + 4(𝑥 − 2)

which we can rewrite in slope-intercept form as 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4 (See the Figure below).

Page 4 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • The function 𝑓 ′ is a "slope-producing function" since the value of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .

• This aspect of the derivative is illustrated in the Figure below, which shows the
graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and its derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 (obtained in the previous
Example).

• The figure illustrates that the values of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 at 𝑥 = −2, 0, and 2

correspond to the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 at those
values of 𝑥.

Checkpoint 1

Differentiate
(1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥.

Answer:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1.

Solution

Page 5 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 2

𝑥
Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−1

Solution

𝑥 (𝑥+ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = , so
𝑥−1 (𝑥+ℎ)−1

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (Definition)
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
−
= lim 𝑥 + ℎ − 1 𝑥 − 1
ℎ→0 ℎ
1 (𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ − 1)
= lim ⋅
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
1 −ℎ
= lim ⋅
ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
−1 −1
= lim = . ( Cancel ℎ ≠ 0. )
ℎ→0 (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥
The Figure below shows the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (Black Curve) and its
𝑥−1

−1
derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = (Red Curve).
(𝑥−1)2

Exercise:

(a) From the graph on the right,

find 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓 ′ (2).

(b) Find 𝑓 ′ (0) and 𝑓 ′ (2) using the

−1
equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = .
(𝑥−1)2

Compare the results from part (b) with

those obtained in part (a).

Page 6 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Summary

We have been discussing slopes of curves, lines tangent to a curve, the rate of change
of a function, and the derivative of a function at a point. All of these ideas refer to the
same limit.

The following are all interpretations for the limit of the difference quotient,

𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

✓ The slope of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0

✓ The derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) at a point.

Page 7 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Differentiable on an Interval; One-Sided Derivatives

Definition 2:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on an open interval (finite or infinite) if it has a

derivative at each point of the interval.

It is differentiable on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is differentiable on the interior

(𝑎, 𝑏) and if the limits
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
lim+ (Right-hand derivative at 𝑎)
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑏 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑏)
lim (Left-hand derivative at 𝑏)
ℎ→0− ℎ
exist at the endpoints (See the Figure below).

Page 8 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 3

Show that the function 𝑦 = |𝑥| is differentiable on (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) but has no
derivative at 𝑥 = 0.

Solution

The derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 is the slope 𝑚. Thus, to the right of the origin,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(|𝑥|) = (𝑥) = (1 ⋅ 𝑥) = 1, (Because (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚, |𝑥| = 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

To the left,

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(|𝑥|) = (−𝑥) = (−1 ⋅ 𝑥) = −1, ( |𝑥| = −𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(See the Figure below). There is no derivative at the origin because the one-sided

derivatives differ there:

|0+ℎ|−|0| |ℎ|
Right-hand derivative of |𝑥| at zero = lim+ = lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ
= lim+ |ℎ| = ℎ when ℎ > 0
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim+ 1 = 1
ℎ→0
|0+ℎ|−|0| |ℎ|
Left-hand derivative of |𝑥| at zero = lim− = lim−
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
−ℎ
= lim− |ℎ| = −ℎ when ℎ < 0
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim− − 1 = −1.
ℎ→0

Page 9 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 ▪ Differentiation

The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. You can think of

differentiation as an operation on functions that associates a function 𝑓 ′ with a function
𝑓.

▪ Other derivative notations

When the independent variable is 𝑥, the differentiation operation is also commonly

denoted by

𝑑
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)] or
𝑑𝑥

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]

In the case where there is a dependent variable 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the derivative is also
commonly denoted by

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) or
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 𝑦(𝑥)

With the above notations, the value of the derivative at a point 𝑥0 can be expressed
as

𝑑
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]| ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]|𝑥=𝑥0 ,
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 ),
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = |
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

The symbol ⬚|𝑥=𝑥0 is called an evaluation symbol.

Page 10 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 4

𝑥
Find the value of the derivative of 𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 4.
𝑥−1

Solution

−1
In the previous example, we found that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , so,
(𝑥−1)2

𝑑 𝑥 −1 −1 1
𝑓 ′ (4) = ( )| = | = = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 1 𝑥=4 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥=4 (4 − 1)2 9

or in other notation

𝑥 −1 −1 −1
𝑓 ′ (4) = 𝑦 ′ (4) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]|𝑥=4 = 𝐷𝑥 [( ) ]| =[ ]| = =
𝑥 − 1 𝑥=4 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥=4 (4 − 1)2 9

Checkpoint 2

𝑑 𝑥
Find ( )| .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥=2
Answer:
𝑑 𝑥 1
( )| =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥=2 9

Solution

Page 11 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative. So, Differentiability
Implies Continuity.

Theorem 1:

If 𝑓 has a derivative at 𝑥 = 𝑐, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Proof

• Given that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists, we must show that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐),

𝑥→𝑐

or equivalently, that

lim 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑐).

ℎ→0

• If ℎ ≠ 0, then

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑐) + (𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐))

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
= 𝑓(𝑐) + ⋅ℎ
ℎ

• Now take limits as ℎ → 0 and Use the Sum Rule and Product Rule of limits,
we obtain

𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
lim 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ) = lim 𝑓(𝑐) + lim ⋅ lim ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

= 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) ⋅ 0
= 𝑓(𝑐) + 0
= 𝑓(𝑐)

Page 12 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.3 Differentiation Rules

Page 1 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Differentiation Rules
This section introduces several rules that allow us to differentiate constant functions,
power functions, polynomials functions, rational functions, and certain
combinations of them, simply and directly, without having to take limits each time.

3.3.2 Derivative of a Constant Function

Theorem 1:

If 𝑓 has the constant value 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then

𝑑𝑓 𝑑
= (𝑐) = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Proof

We apply the definition of the derivative to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, the function whose outputs have
the constant value 𝑐 (See the Figure above).

At every value of 𝑥, we find that

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐−𝑐

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

Example 1

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝜋2 𝑑
[1] = 0, [−3] = 0, [ ] = 0, [−√2] = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 − 1 𝑑𝑥

Page 2 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.3.2 Derivative of a Positive Integer Power

Theorem 2:

If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then

𝑑 𝑛
[𝑥 ] = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Proof: See the Appendix.

The Power Rule is actually valid for all real numbers 𝑛.

Theorem 3:

If 𝑟 is any real number, then

𝑑 𝑟
[𝑥 ] = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟−1
𝑑𝑥

Example 2

Differentiate the following powers of 𝑥.

2 4
1
(a) 𝑥 3 (b) 𝑥 3 (c) 𝑥 √2 (d) (e) 𝑥 −3 (f) √𝑥 2+𝜋
𝑥4

Solution

𝑑
(a) (𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 3−1 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

2 2 1
𝑑 2
( )−1 2
(b) (𝑥 3) = 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 3 3

𝑑
(c)
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 √2 ) = √2𝑥 √2−1

𝑑 1 𝑑 4
(d) ( ) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 −4 ) = −4𝑥 −4−1 = −4𝑥 −5 = − 𝑥 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 4

4 4 7
𝑑 − 4 −( )−1 4 −
(e) (𝑥 ) = − 3 𝑥
3 3 =− 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 3

𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑑 𝑑 1+( ) 𝜋 1+( )−1 𝜋 ( ) 1
(f)
𝑑𝑥
(√𝑥 2+𝜋 ) =
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 ) = (1 + 2 ) 𝑥 2 = (1 +
2
) (𝑥 𝜋 ) 2 = (2 + 𝜋)√𝑥 𝜋
2

Page 3 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.3.2 Derivative Constant Multiple Rule

Theorem 4:

If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥 and 𝑐 is any real number, then 𝑐𝑓 is also differentiable at 𝑥 and

𝑑 𝑑
[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using prime notation:
′
(𝑐𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑐𝑓′(𝑥)

Proof: See the Appendix.

Example 3

Differentiate the following powers of 𝑥.

𝜋
(a) −4𝑥 8 (b)
𝑥

Solution

𝑑 𝑑
(a) [−4𝑥 8 ] = −4 [𝑥 8 ] = −4[8𝑥 7 ] = −32𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝜋 𝑑 𝜋
(b) [ ]=𝜋 [𝑥 −1 ] = 𝜋(−𝑥 −2 ) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

Example 4

𝑑
Find [ √𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝑑 𝑑 1 1 (1)−1 1 −1 1
[√𝑥 ] = [𝑥 2 ] = 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 √𝑥

𝑑 1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 [√𝑥 ] = 2
√𝑥

Page 4 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.3.2 Derivatives of sums and differences

Theorem 5:

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable at 𝑥, then so are 𝑓 + 𝑔 and 𝑓 − 𝑔 and

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥))] = [𝑓(𝑥)] + [𝑔(𝑥)];
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥))] = [𝑓(𝑥)] − [𝑔(𝑥)].
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or using prime notation
′
(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
′
(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)

Proof: See the Appendix.

Note:
The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any number of functions.
For instance, using this theorem twice, we get

(𝑓 + 𝑔 + ℎ)′ = (𝑓 + 𝑔)′ + ℎ′ = 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′ + ℎ′

Example 5

4
Find the derivative of the polynomial 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1.
3

Solution

𝑑 𝑑 4 𝑑 𝑑
𝑦′ = (𝑥 3 ) + ( 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥 (1) (Sum and Difference Rules)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3

4 8
= 3𝑥 2 + ⋅ 2𝑥 − 5 + 0 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5.
3 3

Page 5 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • We can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated
the polynomial in the Example above.

• All polynomials are differentiable at all values of 𝑥.

Checkpoint 1

𝑑
Find the derivative [2𝑥 6 + 𝑥 −9 ].
𝑑𝑥

Solution

Example 6

𝑑 √𝑥−2𝑥
Find the derivative [ ].
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥

Solution

𝑑 √𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑑
[ ] = [1 − 2√𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 1
= [1] − [2√𝑥] = 0 − 2 ( )=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 √𝑥 √𝑥

Checkpoint 2

3
Find the derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥 2.

Solution

Page 6 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 7

4
𝑑𝑔
Calculate | , where 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 −3 + 2√𝑡 − 𝑡 −5 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=1

Solution

We differentiate term-by-term using the Power Rule without justifying the intermediate
1
steps. Writing √𝑡 as 𝑡 2 , we have

𝑑𝑔 𝑑 1 4 1 1 4 9
= (𝑡 −3 + 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 −5 ) = −3𝑡 −4 + 2 ( ) 𝑡 −2 − (− ) 𝑡 −5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 5
1 4 9
= −3𝑡 −4 + 𝑡 −2 + 𝑡 −5
5
𝑑𝑔 4 6
| = −3 + 1 + = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=1 5 5

Example 8

Does the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 2 have any horizontal tangents? If so, where?

Solution

𝑑𝑦
The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope is zero. We have
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 4
= (𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 2) = 4𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Now solve the equation = 0 for 𝑥 :
𝑑𝑥

4𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 = 0

4𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

4𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 0,1, −1

Page 7 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 2 has horizontal tangents at 𝑥 = 0,1, and −1 .

The corresponding points on the curve are (0,2), (1,1), and (−1,1). See the Figure

below.

We will see in Chapter 4 that finding the values of 𝑥 where the derivative of a function
is equal to zero is an important and useful procedure.

Checkpoint 3

At what points, if any, does the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4 have a horizontal tangent

line? (Answer: At 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 1)

Page 8 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 9

Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 √𝑥 at the point
(1,1).

Solution

1 3
The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 √𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 is

3 3 3 1 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 2−1 = 𝑥 2 = √𝑥
2 2 2

3
So the slope of the tangent line at (1,1) is 𝑓 ′ (1) = .
2

Therefore, an equation of the tangent line is

3 3 1
𝑦 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1) or 𝑦 = 𝑥 −
2 2 2

The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, so its slope is the negative
3 2
reciprocal of , that is, − . Thus, an equation of the normal line is
2 3

2 2 5
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑥 − 1) or 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
3 3 3

We graph the curve and its tangent line and normal line in the Figure below.

Page 9 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.3.2 Product and Quotient rules

Theorem 6:

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions, then 𝑓𝑔 is differentiable and

(𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

Theorem 7:

𝑓
If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions, then is differentiable for all 𝑥 such that 𝑔(𝑥) ≠
𝑔

0, and

𝑓 ′ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)

( ) (𝑥) =
𝑔 [𝑔(𝑥)]2

✓ The derivative of a reciprocal function is a special case of the quotient rule

1 ′ 𝑔(𝑥)(1)′ − (1)𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥)

( ) = =−
𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2 [𝑔(𝑥)]2

Example 10

Find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = (4𝑥 2 − 1)(7𝑥 3 + 𝑥).

Solution

Method 1: (Using the Product Rule)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= [(4𝑥 2 − 1)(7𝑥 3 + 𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= (4𝑥 2 − 1) [7𝑥 3 + 𝑥] + (7𝑥 3 + 𝑥) [4𝑥 2 − 1]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (4𝑥 − 1)(21𝑥 + 1) + (7𝑥 + 𝑥)(8𝑥) = 140𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 − 1
2 2 3

Page 10 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Method 2: (Multiplying First)

𝑦 = (4𝑥 2 − 1)(7𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = 28𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥

Thus,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= [28𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥] = 140𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

which agrees with the result obtained using the product rule.

Example 11

Find 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) .
𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1 1
(a) 𝑦 = . (b) 𝑦 =
𝑥+5 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥−5

Solution

Applying the quotient rule yields

𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 + 5) [𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 1] − (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1) [𝑥 + 5]
(𝑎) = [ ] = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥+5 (𝑥 + 5)2
(𝑥 + 5)(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) − (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1)(1)
=
(𝑥 + 5)2
(3𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 20𝑥) − (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1)
=
(𝑥 + 5)2
2𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 1
=
(𝑥 + 5)2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 4𝑥+3
(b) = ( ) = − (2𝑥 2+3𝑥−5)2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 2 +3x−5

Page 11 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 12

If 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑔(4) = 2 and 𝑔′ (4) = 3, find 𝑓 ′ (4).

Solution

Applying the Product Rule, we get

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [√𝑥𝑔(𝑥)] = √𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] + 𝑔(𝑥) [√𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= √𝑥𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑥 −1/2
2
𝑔(𝑥)
= √𝑥𝑔′ (𝑥) +
2 √𝑥

𝑔(4) 2
So 𝑓 ′ (4) = √4𝑔′ (4) + =2⋅3+ = 6.5
2√4 2⋅2

Checkpoint 4

Differentiate
1−𝑥 2
(a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3)(7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) (b) 𝑦 =
1+𝑥 2

Answer:
(a) 𝑦 ′ = 35𝑥 4 − 72𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 + 42𝑥 − 12
4𝑥
(b) 𝑦 ′ = − (1+𝑥 2)2

Solution

Page 12 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Second- and Higher-Order Derivatives

• If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable function, then its derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is also a

function.
• If 𝑓 ′ is also differentiable, then we can differentiate 𝑓 ′ to get a new function
of 𝑥 denoted by 𝑓 ′′ .
✓ So 𝑓 ′′ = (𝑓 ′ )′ .
✓ The function 𝑓 ′′ is called the second derivative of 𝑓 because it is the
derivative of the first derivative.
✓ It is written in several ways:

′′
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 ′
𝑓 (𝑥) = 2 = ( )= = 𝑦 ′′ = 𝐷2 (𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• The symbol 𝐷2 means the operation of differentiation is performed twice.

If 𝑦 = 𝑥 6 , then 𝑦 ′ = 6𝑥 5 and we have

𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 ′′ = (𝑦 ′ ) = (6𝑥 5 ) = 30𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Thus 𝐷2 (𝑥 6 ) = 30𝑥 4.

𝑑𝑦 ′′ 𝑑3𝑦
• If 𝑦 ′′ is differentiable, its derivative, 𝑦 ′′′ = = , is the third derivative of 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3

with respect to 𝑥.
• The names continue as you imagine, with

(𝑛)
𝑑 (𝑛−1) 𝑑 𝑛 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑦 = 𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

denoting the 𝒏th derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 for any positive integer 𝑛.

Page 13 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • We can interpret the second derivative as the rate of change of the slope of
the tangent to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at each point.

• You will see in the next chapter that the second derivative reveals whether the
graph bends upward or downward from the tangent line as we move off the point
of tangency.

• In the next section, we interpret both the second and third derivatives in terms
of motion along a straight line.

Example 13

Find the first four derivatives of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2.

Solution

The first four derivatives are

First derivative: 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥

Second derivative: 𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 − 6

Third derivative: 𝑦 ′′′ = 6

Fourth derivative: 𝑦 (4) = 0.

All polynomial functions have derivatives of all orders. In this example, the fifth and

later derivatives are all zero.

Checkpoint 5

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2. Find 𝑓 (5) (𝑥).

Solution

Page 14 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

SUMMARY OF DIFFERENTIATION RULES

The following table summarizes the differentiation rules that we have encountered
thus far.

𝑑
• (𝑐) = 0, 𝑐 is a constant.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
• 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟−1 , 𝑟 is a real number.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
• [ √𝑥 ] = 2
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥
′
• (𝑐𝑓(𝑥 )) = 𝑐𝑓′(𝑥)
′
• (𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
′
• (𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)

• (𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

𝑓 ′ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)

• ( ) (𝑥 ) =
𝑔 [𝑔(𝑥)]2

1 ′ 𝑔(𝑥)(1)′ −(1)𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥)

• ( ) = =−
𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2 [𝑔(𝑥)]2

Page 15 of 18 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric

Functions

Page 1 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.2 The Derivative of a Function

3.2.1 The Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

3.2.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Page 2 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

The Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

• Trigonometric functions such as sin 𝑥 ⁡, cos 𝑥 ⁡, and tan 𝑥 are continuous

wherever they are defined.
✓ Thus, sin⁡ 𝑥 and cos⁡ 𝑥 are continuous at the arbitrary point 𝑐.
✓ This means that

lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐 ⁡and⁡ lim cos⁡ 𝑥 = cos 𝑐 (1)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

• The formulas in (1) can be used to find limits of the remaining trigonometric
functions by expressing them in terms of sin⁡ 𝑥 and cos⁡ 𝑥; for example, if cos⁡ 𝑐 ≠
0, then

sin⁡ 𝑥 sin⁡ 𝑐
lim tan⁡ 𝑥 = lim = = tan⁡ 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 cos⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑐

Thus, we are led to the following theorem.

Theorem 1:

If c is any number in the natural domain of the stated trigonometric function, then

lim sin⁡ 𝑥 = sin⁡ 𝑐 lim cos⁡ 𝑥 = cos⁡ 𝑐 lim tan⁡ 𝑥 = tan⁡ 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim csc⁡ 𝑥 = csc⁡ 𝑐 lim sec⁡ 𝑥 = sec⁡ 𝑐 lim cot⁡ 𝑥 = cot⁡ 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example 1

Find the limit

𝑥 2 −1
(a) lim cos⁡ ( ) (b) lim ⁡sin⁡(𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→−2

Solution

(a) Since the cosine function is continuous everywhere, it follows that

lim cos⁡(𝑔(𝑥)) = cos⁡ (lim 𝑔(𝑥))

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Page 3 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Thus,

𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
lim cos ( ) = lim cos ( )
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= lim⁡ cos⁡(𝑥 + 1) = cos (lim (𝑥 + 1)) ⁡ = cos 2 ⁡

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

(b) Since the sine function is continuous everywhere, it follows that

Lim sin(𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 1) = sin [ lim ⁡(𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 1)]

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

= sin[(−2)3 + 7(−2) + 1] = sin(−21) = − sin 21⁡(𝑤ℎ𝑦? )

Page 4 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

The Two Special Trigonometric Limits:

• The two important trigonometric limits are essential in calculus and are often
used it the study of limits, derivatives, and integrals involving trigonometric
functions.
• The are typically stated in a theorem commonly referred to as the Standard
Trigonometric Limits Theorem.
• It is fundamental in calculus and analysis and helps establish basic properties
of trigonometric functions, particularly their behaviour as the argument
approaches zero.

Theorem 2:

sin 𝑥
(a) lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
1−cos⁡ 𝑥
(b) lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥

We can prove the results above, using the Squeezing Theorem.

Example 2

Find
tan 𝑥 sin 2𝜃 sin⁡ 3𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝜃→0 𝜃 𝑥→0 sin⁡ 5𝑥

Page 5 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Solution

(a)

tan⁡ 𝑥 sin⁡ 𝑥 1 sin⁡ 𝑥 1

lim = lim ( ⋅ ) = (lim ) (lim ) = (1)(1) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos⁡ 𝑥

(b) The trick is to multiply and divide by 2 , which will make the denominator the same

as the argument of the sine function [ just as in Theorem above (a) ]:

sin⁡ 2𝜃 sin⁡ 2𝜃 sin⁡ 2𝜃

lim = lim 2 ⋅ = 2lim
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0 2𝜃 𝜃→0 2𝜃

Now make the substitution 𝑥 = 2𝜃, and use the fact that 𝑥 → 0 as 𝜃 → 0.

This yields

sin⁡ 2𝜃 sin⁡ 2𝜃 sin⁡ 𝑥

lim = 2lim = 2lim = 2(1) = 2
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0 2𝜃 𝑥→0 𝑥

(c)

sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥

sin 3𝑥 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ⁡⁡⁡⁡lim ⁡(3 ⋅ 3𝑥 ⁡)⁡⁡⁡ ⁡⁡3⁡lim ⁡( 3𝑥 ⁡)⁡⁡⁡ 3 ⋅ 1 3
lim = lim 𝑥 = 𝑥→0 = 𝑥→0
= =
𝑥→0 sin 5𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 5𝑥 sin 5𝑥 sin 5𝑥 5 ⋅ 1 5
lim ⁡(5 ⋅ ) 5⁡lim ⁡( )
𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥

Checkpoint 1

Evaluate the limit.

tan⁡ 4𝑡 sin 𝑥 2 𝑥2 tan⁡ 3𝑥 2 +sin2 ⁡ 5𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim
𝑡→0 𝑡 sec 𝑡 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1−cos2 ⁡ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥2

Hint: sin2 (𝑥) + cos 2 𝑥 = 1

Solution

Page 6 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Page 7 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
3.2.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
• Many phenomena of nature are approximately periodic (electromagnetic fields,
heart rhythms, tides, weather).
• The derivatives of sines and cosines play a key role in describing periodic
changes.
• This section shows how to differentiate the six basic trigonometric functions.
• We will assume in this section that the variable 𝑥 in the trigonometric functions
sin⁡ 𝑥, cos⁡ 𝑥, tan⁡ 𝑥, cot⁡ 𝑥, sec⁡ 𝑥, and csc⁡ 𝑥 is measured in radians.

Theorem 3:

Derivative of Sine and Cosine The functions 𝑦 = sin⁡ 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos⁡ 𝑥 are differentiable and

𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥⁡
𝑑𝑥
and
𝑑
⁡ (cos 𝑥) = −sin⁡ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Proof: See the Appendix

Example 3

𝑑𝑦
Find if 𝑦 = 𝑥sin⁡ 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Solution

Using Formula

𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥⁡
𝑑𝑥

and the product rule we obtain

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⁡= [xsin 𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Page 8 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝑑 𝑑
=𝑥 [sin 𝑥] + sin 𝑥 [𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥cos⁡ 𝑥 + sin⁡ 𝑥

Example 4

𝑑𝑦 sin⁡ 𝑥
Find if 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 1+cos⁡ 𝑥

Solution

Using the quotient rule, we obtain

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (1 + cos⁡ 𝑥) ⋅ [sin⁡ 𝑥] − sin⁡ 𝑥 ⋅ [1 + cos⁡ 𝑥]
⁡= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 (1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)2
(1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)(cos⁡ 𝑥) − (sin⁡ 𝑥)(−sin⁡ 𝑥)
⁡=
(1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)2
cos⁡ 𝑥 + cos 2 ⁡ 𝑥 + sin2 ⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑥 + 1 1
⁡= = =
(1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)2 (1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)2 1 + cos⁡ 𝑥

Checkpoint 2

(a) Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 sin⁡ 𝑥.

(b) Calculate 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥cos⁡ 𝑥.

Answers:
(a) 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 2 cos⁡ 𝑥 + 2𝑥sin⁡ 𝑥.

(b) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −2sin⁡ 𝑥 − 𝑥cos⁡ 𝑥

Solution

Page 9 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Derivatives of the Other Basic Trigonometric Functions

Because sin⁡ 𝑥 and cos⁡ 𝑥 are differentiable functions of 𝑥, the related functions

sin⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑥 1 1
tan⁡ 𝑥 = , ⁡cot⁡ 𝑥 = , ⁡sec⁡ 𝑥 = , ⁡ and ⁡csc⁡ 𝑥 =
cos⁡ 𝑥 sin⁡ 𝑥 cos⁡ 𝑥 sin⁡ 𝑥

are differentiable at every value of 𝑥 at which they are defined. Their derivatives,
calculated from the Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas. Notice the
negative signs in the derivative formulas for the cofunctions.

Theorem 4:

The derivatives of the other trigonometric functions:

𝑑 𝑑
(tan⁡ 𝑥) = sec 2 ⁡ 𝑥 (cot⁡ 𝑥) = −csc 2 ⁡ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(sec⁡ 𝑥) = sec⁡ 𝑥tan⁡ 𝑥 (csc⁡ 𝑥) = −csc⁡ 𝑥cot⁡ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

To show a typical calculation, we find the derivative of the tangent function.

Example 5

𝑑(tan 𝑥)
Find
𝑑𝑥

Solution

We use the Derivative Quotient Rule to calculate the derivative:

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (sin 𝑥) − sin 𝑥 (cos 𝑥)
(tan 𝑥) = ( ) ⁡ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥

cos xcos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥(− sin 𝑥)

=
cos 2 𝑥

Page 10 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥
=
cos 2 𝑥
1
= 2
= sec 2 ⁡ 𝑥
cos ⁡ 𝑥

Example 6

𝜋
Find 𝑦 ′′ if 𝑦 = sec⁡ 𝑥. Then find 𝑓 ′′ ( )
4

Solution

Finding the second derivative involves a combination of trigonometric derivatives.

𝑦 = sec 𝑥
𝑦′ = sec xtan 𝑥
𝑑
𝑦 ′′ = (sec xtan 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= sec 𝑥 (tan 𝑥) + tan 𝑥 (sec 𝑥) ⁡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= sec 𝑥(sec 2 𝑥) + tan 𝑥(sec xtan 𝑥) ⁡
= sec 3 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan2 𝑥

Thus,

𝑓 ′′ (𝜋/4) ⁡= sec 3 ⁡(𝜋/4) + sec⁡(𝜋/4)tan2 ⁡(𝜋/4)

⁡= (√2)3 + (√2)(1)2 = 3√2

Page 11 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus (1) (Math 105)

3.5 The Chain Rule

Page 1 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

3.5 The Derivative of a Function
The Chain Rule is used to differentiate composite functions such as 𝑦 = cos⁡(𝑥 3 )
and 𝑦 = √𝑥 4 + 1.

Recall that a composite function is obtained by "plugging" one function into another.
The composite of 𝑓 and 𝑔, denoted 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, is defined by

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

• For convenience, we call 𝑓 the outside function and 𝑔 the inside function.

• Often, we write the composite function as 𝑓(𝑢), where 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).

For example, 𝑦 = cos⁡(𝑥 3 ) is the function 𝑦 = cos⁡ 𝑢, where 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 .

Theorem 1:

The Chain Rule:

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) is differentiable at the point 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥, then the
composite function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is differentiable at 𝑥, and
′
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥).

In Leibniz's notation, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥), then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
where is evaluated at 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑𝑢

Page 2 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

When applying the Chain Rule, it is helpful to think of the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔
as having two parts-an inner part and an outer part.

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), then 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑢) ⋅ 𝑢′

Equivalently,

𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥)

Example 1

𝑑𝑦
Find if
𝑑𝑥

5
(a) 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)2 (b) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1. (c) 𝑦 = √(2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 2)3

Solution

(a) The function 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)2 is the composite of

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢2 and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 1.

Page 3 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Calculating derivatives, we see that

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅ = 2𝑢 ⋅ 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

= 2(3𝑥 2 + 1) ⋅ 6𝑥⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(Substitute for 𝑢)

⁡
= 36𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 ⁡⁡
⁡

Calculating the derivative from the expanded formula (3𝑥 2 + 1)2 = 9𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 1

gives the same result:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
⁡= (9𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 36𝑥 3 + 12𝑥

(b) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1

1 2𝑥
⇒ 𝑦′ = ∙ 2𝑥 =
2√𝑥 2 + 1 2√𝑥 2 + 1

3
5 3
(c) 𝑦= √(2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 2)3 = (2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 2) 5

3
′ 3 3 ⁡−1
⇒ 𝑦 = 5 (2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 2) 5 ∙ (6𝑥 2 + 7)

3 5
3 2 3 ⁡−⁡
= 5 (6𝑥 + 7)(2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 2) 5 5

−2
3 2 3 3(6𝑥 2 +7)
⁡= 5 (6𝑥 + 7)(2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 2) 5 = 5
5⁡ √(2𝑥 3 +7𝑥+2)2

Page 4 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 2

Find the derivative.

𝑑
(a) 𝑦 = cos⁡(𝑥 3 ). (b) [tan3 𝑥 5 ]
𝑑𝑥

Solution

(a) 𝑦 = cos(𝑥 3 )

⇒ 𝑦 ′ = sin 𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥2 = 3𝑥2 sin 𝑥 3

𝑑 𝑑
(b) [tan3 𝑥 5 ] = [(tan 𝑥 5 )3 ] = 3 (tan 𝑥 5 )⁡2 ∙ sec 2 𝑥 5 ∙ 5𝑥 4 = 15𝑥 4 tan2 𝑥 5 ∙ sec 2 𝑥 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Checkpoint 1

Find the derivative.

𝑑
(a) [sin⁡(√1 + cos⁡ 𝑥)] (b) 𝐹(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 1)120
𝑑𝑥
3𝑥−1 2
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 (d) 𝑦 = ( )
𝑥 2 +3

Solution

Page 5 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Page 6 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
The General Power Rule

The function 𝑦 = [𝑢(𝑥)]𝑛 is one of the most common types of composite functions.
The rule for differentiating such functions is called the General Power Rule, and it is
a special case of the Chain Rule.

Theorem 2:

If 𝑦 = [𝑢(𝑥)]𝑛 , where 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥 and 𝑛 is a rational number, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑛[𝑢(𝑥)]𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
or, equivalently,
𝑑
⁡ [𝑢𝑛 ] = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑢′ .
𝑑𝑥

Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule

Theorem 3:

The "Chain Rule versions" of the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions are as follows.

𝑑 𝑑
[sin⁡ 𝑢] ⁡ = (cos⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′ [cos⁡ 𝑢] ⁡ = −(sin⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⁡ [tan⁡ 𝑢] = (sec 2 ⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′ ⁡ [cot⁡ 𝑢] = −(csc⁡2 ⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⁡ [sec⁡ 𝑢] = (sec 𝑢 tan⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′ ⁡ [csc⁡ 𝑢] = −(csc 𝑢 cot⁡ 𝑢)𝑢′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Page 7 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Do not make this mistake.

(1) If 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 )7 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 7(3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)6

(2) If 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = − sin(3𝑥 2 )

The coreect Answer

(1) 𝑦 ′ = − sin(𝑥 3 ) ∙ 3𝑥 2 .

And

(2) 𝑦′ = 7(𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 )6 (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥).

Page 8 of 8 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi