Environmental Management

Final Revision

Dr. Zeinab Fahmy

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Chapter 1
The earth and its rocks
Layers of Earth:

Types of Rocks
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks
▪ Molte magma flows ▪ Existing rocks are ▪ Existing rocks are
towards the surface exposed to weathering exposed to heat and
▪ The magma cools and erosion forming pressure
down to form igenous sediments ▪ This causes a change
rocks ▪ Sediments form layers in the structure
▪ They are compacted and either physically or
cemented under chemically
pressure ▪
Intrusive: Granite, E.g. Sandstone, lime E.g. marble, slate
Extrusive: basalt stone, shale

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Mineral exploration
Prospecting is the examining of the surface of the rocks
Remote sensing is taking images from the air then the images is
analyzed carefully for the presence of minerals it
can cover more area
Radiation detection a way to detect minerals by detecting their unique
radiation pattern
Satellite signals satellites send signals to the earth’s surface
and collect the reflected signals
Geochemical analysis analyzing chemical properties of the rocks by taking
samples
Geophysics a series of seismic waves are sent through the
earth’s surface they are reflected back to the
sensors on the surface the shock waves send
different patterns depending on the types of rocks
present

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Factors that decide the way of extraction and the extraction decision

1- The costs of exploration and extraction

2- The amount of minerals present in the soil
3- The accessibility to the minerals
4- The environmental impact of the extraction
5- The supply and demand of the mineral

Methods of mining
i) Open-cast mining

➢ The vegetation is removed and the top soil is cleared

➢ The rocks are loosen using explosives
➢ The diggers are used to remove the loose rock
➢ The rocks are carried in trucks or railway wagons
ii) Sub surface mining/deep mining/shaft mining
➢ Sinking the vertical shaft down to the rocks containing minerals
➢ Horizontal tunnels are dug down to the mineral layers
➢ The loose rock is brought from the mines and piled up on the surface
➢ The minerals are then transported away.

Conservation of environment damaged by mining

Land restoration Bioremediation
fill the mine with piles or microorganisms like bacteria are
waste used to absorb pollutants and
add top soil change them into less harmful
add fertilizers to the top substances
soil ➢ exsitu- the removal of contaminated
plant trees to restore waste from a site to a treatment
vegetation plant
➢ insitu- the treatment of
contaminated waste where it was
left

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Making lakes Landfill sites

fill the holes of the mines fill the holes with waste
with water to form lakes top it with soil and make some holes
use this lake as a natural after some time the waste will
reserve or use it for fish decompose and release methane gas
farming collect the methane gas from the
small wholes
use the methane gas to generate
electricity
Impacts of Mining
Negative Impacts Positive Impacts
Loss of habitat due to the removal More job opportunities are
of the vegetation, may cause loss of available
biodiversity More income
Noise pollution due to machinery More foreign exchange because the
and explosives used exporting increased
Water pollution due to the toxic Better transportation system is
mineral ions that can leach and created
dissolve in the water Better services like healthcare and
Land pollution due to the waste education and infrastucture
materials that is left on the
surface after mining
Air pollution due to the dust
particles that are blown into the air
Visual pollution due to the damage
in the landscape

Sustainable use of minerals

1- Recycle the rocks and minerals
2- Efficiency of extraction of minerals
3- Efficiency of use of minerals
4- Legislation (the government passes laws that require the manufacturers
to recycle minerals)

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Chapter 2
Fossil fuels as a source of energy: Coal, oil and natural gas:
Formation of Coal Formation of Oil and natural gas
Vegetation (plants) die Sea creatures die
Buried under the ground Buried under the seabed
Covered with sediments Covered with sediments
Exposed to heat and pressure Exposed to heat and pressure
For millions of years For millions of years

▪ Coal is extracted via mining

▪ Natural gas and oil are trapped under
the porous rock layer and at the top of
the sandstone rock layer
A drilling rig is used to extract oil and gas

Increasing demand for electricity because

1- population size increases
2- increasing urbanisation and industrialisation
3- standard of living improves
Non renewable sources Renewable sources
Limited Can be used over and over again
It takes millions of years to be Can be recharged in a short time
recharged
Geothermal
Fossil fuels like coal , oil and Hydroelectric
natural gas
Tidal
Nuclear power
Wave
Wind
solar
biofuel

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How electricity is generated:

Fossil fuels are burned
heat is released
water is heated producing steam
steam rotates turbines that drives generator
The generator converts mechanical energy into electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
• cheap in the short term • produces carbon dioxide, causing
• provide job opportunities global warming
• plentiful supply of energy • produces sulfur and nitrogen
oxides that cause acid rains
• damages local area
• limited

Nuclear energy

▪ It is produced by a chain of fission reactions in which atoms split and

release a large amount of energy
▪ The produced heat is transferred to the reactor, heats the boiler,
where water turns to into steam, which rotates the turbines which in
turn drive the generators to produce electricity.
▪ Then steam is cooled through a condenser and reused.

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Advantages Disadavantaes
No Carbon dioxide emission risk of radiation leakage
does not produce sulfur or radioactive waste can not be
nitrogen oxides recycled
it is high energy-dense limited supply
job opportunities
smaller amounts of wastes

Alternative/renewable sources:
Hydroelectric power:
▪ Water from rivers are stored in reservoirs behind dams.
▪ Fast running water (from a waterfall) is used to drive turbines which
produce electricity.
▪ Suitable conditions should be present :
A deep narrow valley where a dam can be built
Impermeable rocks
Low temperature so less water evaporation

Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission it impacts the natural flow of water
does not produce sulfur or relocation of people because dams
nitrogen oxides are built on a specific area
job opportunities visual pollution
unlimited supply it affects aquatic life
not weather dependent expensive to construct and
water can be reused maintain

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Wind Power:
▪ Turbines are used which are blown by wind to generate electricity
▪ Turbines are usually constructed in those areas with strong wind e.g. hill
tops, coastlines

Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission only certain locations are available
does not produce sulfur or it is weather dependent
nitrogen oxides visual pollution
job opportunities large areas needed
unlimited supply kills the migrating birds
low running cost insufficient amount of energy
expensive to construct

Solar Panels:

▪ Absorbs heat energy from the sun to produce electricity

▪ uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when
exposed to light
▪ a bank of cells organised into solar panels
▪ they produce a good amount of energy
Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission it is weather dependent
does not produce sulfur or insufficient amount of energy
nitrogen oxides expensive to construct
job opportunities needs large areas
unlimited supply visual pollution
low running cost

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Biomass:

▪ Energy can be made from fuel woods, animal dung (wastes) and fuel
1. crops are planted
2. it is burned
3. heat is released
4. water is heated and steam is produced
5. turbines rotate and drive the generator
6. The generator converts mechanical energy into electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
renewable source of energy produces carbon dioxide, causing
global warming
growing plants use carbon dioxide
produces sulfur and nitrogen oxides
plentiful supply
that cause acid rains
a lot of land needed
removal of vegetation and
ecosystems so less biodiversity
less land for food drops

Wave energy:

▪ Sea waves can create energy

▪ Waves move air column that rotates turbines
▪ A generator converts this mechanical energy into useful electricity.

Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission Weather dependant
does not produce sulfur or Expensive to construct
nitrogen oxides Affects aquatic life
job opportunities Affects tourism
unlimited supply
low running cost

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Geothermal Power:
▪ Geothermal energy involves heat from
the ground in areas of volcanic activity
used to produce electricity
▪ Water is pumped under high pressure in
between rocks.
▪ Water is heated and steam rotates
blades of turbines.
▪ Generators are turned to generate
electricity.
Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission expensive to install
does not produce sulfur or only certain areas have suitable
nitrogen oxides conditions
job opportunities risk of earthquakes
unlimited supply
low running cost

Tidal
1. uses the natural rise and fall of water
2. when water levels drop, it is held back by a tidal barrage
3. water is released from a high altitude and falls very fast
4. rotates the turbines that turns on the generator

Advantages Disadvantages
No Carbon dioxide emission limited to specific coastal areas
does not produce sulfur or impact tourism
nitrogen oxides impact local fishing
job opportunities
unlimited supply
low running cost
not weather dependant

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Conservation and management of energy resources

1- Loft insulation, adding an insulation layer into the roof space
2- Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer to the floor
3- Cavity wall insulation
a gap between inside and outside walls
fill the gap with an insulating material
this material will slow the passage of heat into the house
4- Double (or triple) glazing
two panes of glass with a gap in between
fill the gap with air or an inert gas
then seal the gap

Strategies to save use of fossil fuels:

▪ Use alternative sources of energy (ex: …)
▪ Unplug devices when not used
▪ Use energy saving devices.

Energy from waste (digester)

▪ reuse existing waste materials to extract energy
▪ breakdown the organic matter using bacteria
▪ this process takes place in a sealed container
▪ methane gas is produced and collected
▪ it is used to generate electricity
▪ the rest of the waste can be used as organic fertilisers

Transportation policies
▪ Use hybrid or electric cars
▪ Encourage public transportation
▪ Encourage walking and cycling.
▪ Encourage car sharing

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Development of new sources

▪ A vertical hole 2-3 km deep to reach the fuel-rich rocks

▪ Water sand and chemicals are pumped down into the shale
rock layer
▪ This causes the rock to fracture
▪ The trapped oil and natural gas are released and are forced to go to the
surface and be collected

Advantages Disadvantages
access to more oil and gas risk of toxins entering the water
less pollution than burning coal table
the need to import reduces chemicals are toxic and may
provide many jobs affect local people
uses a lot of water
noise pollution
damage to natural areas
may cause earthquakes

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Effects of an oil spill

Organism Effect
oil floats on the surface of the water and blocks the
Phytoplankton

sunlight from entering

the phytoplankton can not photosynthesis
they die

when phytoplankton numbers decrease

no food is available for fish
Fish

oil floating on the surface prevents the gas exchange

fish become short of oxygen and die
direct contact with the fish affects their gills
shortage of food as fish dies
may consume oil when eating fish oil is toxic
Birds

when hunting for food

feathers are covered with oil
the bird can no longer fly
food sources are decreases
Mammals

may swallow oil while feeding oil is toxic

coating with oil will affect their skin

complete destroy of reefs

Reefs
Coral

due to lack of oxygen and death of species

oil washed by tides coats the rocks

organisms in shallow water may die due to oil's toxic
Beaches

effect
animal food sources are affected
tourism decreases

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Causes of oil spills:

1. Flushing of ship tankers in water
2. Accidents
3. Leakage from oil rigs
4. Leakage or cracks of oil pipes

Managing oil spills:

1. Tanker design:
increase the number of compartments within the hull of the ship
use double-hulled tankers
2- Floating booms
A floating barrier is used to surround the oil slick
Preventing it from spreading
3- Detergent sprays
detergent helps breaking down oil slicks into smaller droplets
that eventually degrade and disperse
they are very effective on small spills
but it causes damage to the coral reefs
4- Skimmers
clean the water using a material that oi easily attaches to
the skimmer drags oil of the sea water surface
then scrapped of into a container
5- Controlled burning
Burning of small oil spills

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Chapter 3
Agricultural techniques and management
Soil components:

Soil
Components

Organic Soil
Air Water Minerals
matter organisms

Bacteria Fungus Earth worms

Types of soil:
Sand particles Silt particles Clay particles

Sand is the largest Smaller particle size The smallest particle

mineral component of soil. than sand size from all the types
Good water drainage and Moderate water Poor water drainage
low retention. drainage and moderate and good retention.
retention.
Good aeration Moderate aeration Poor aeration

Easy to cultivate Moderate Difficult to cultivate

Poor in humus Moderate Rich in humus

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Types of farming:

Subsistence farming Commercial farming

Is the cultivation a n d production of Is the cultivation of products ( c a s h
food to meet the needs of the c r o p s ) with the main focus of selling
farmers and their families. them for p r o f i t While some of the
food may be used by the farmers
Arable farming Pastoral farming
is the production of plants for Production of animals and animal
consumption by humans. Including related products. This is known as
growing rice, maize, wheat and livestocks farming for grazing
soybeans. Plants such as grass or grain may be
grown on the farm but they will be
used to feed the animals.
Pastoral farms can produce meat or
other animal byproducts, such as milk,
wool or eggs.
Extensive production Intensive production
Occurs when there is a relatively small Occurs where large amounts are
amount of production (either crops or produced from small areas of land.
animals) from a large area of land.. This style of production tends to
have high 'inputs', such as a lot of
labour, fertilisers or machinery. It is
often considered to be very efficient.

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Techniques for improving crop yield

Crop Control Selective Glass

Fertilizers Irrigation Genetic
rotation competing Breeding Houses
Modiication
organisms

Techniques to increase yield:

• Irrigation from rivers and lakes through canals

• Chemicals such as inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to increase yields
and kill pests
• Mechanization
• Terracing
• Contour ploughing
• Crop rotation
• Inter cropping

Negative effects of modern methods:

• Overuse of fertilizers and pesticides leads to eutrophication and

nitrates accumulating in ground water that we drink
• Use of irrigation water leads to salinization and the land becomes too
salty for crop growth and all negative consequences from large dams
occur
• Over cultivation and overgrazing leads to soil erosion and desertification

Use of appropriate technology:

• Instead of irrigation surface channels, sprinklers and trickle drip

techniques should be used
• Organic fertilizers such as animal dung should be used

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• Mixed cropping should be practiced since they are healthier and more
economical and prevents soil exhaustion
• Use biological control as small birds
• New seeds should be used with more plant varieties

Power from living resources:

• Use of biofuel that are obtained from vegetable oils and distilled
products of crops
• They are used in diesel and petrol engines and are carbon neutral thus
environment friendly
• Use of biogas which is clean methane gas produced from animal dung
which is fermented in pits in villages
• The dung after converting into gas leaves plenty of material for
fertilizers

Terracing Contour Ploughing

Common water application methods

Over head
Clay pot Trickle drip Furrow (flood)
sprinkler

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Alternatives to chemical control

Hand weeding Biological

Weed barriers Flame guns
and hoeing control

Deforestation
Causes of Effects Management
deforestation
• Cultivation/farming • Global warming • Reforestation
• Ranching and logging • Decreased • Awareness
• Fuel wood as an precipitation • Selective cutting
energy source • Increased flooding • Afforestation
• Furniture • Increased soil • Set aside areas of
• Due to urbanization erosion rainforest
• Firewood • Extinction of species • Ban cutting of
• Paper making • Lack of fuel wood endangered tress
Soil erosion:

• It is the loss of top soil by wind and water

Causes Effects
• deforestation, poor farming • Reduction in crop yields
practices and clearance of natural • Less productive land
vegetation • Farmers spend more on fertilizers
• These results in soil erosion to improve yields, increasing income
because trees would no longer be • Sediments of soil after being
there to break the force of falling washed away settle on seabed

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rain (less interception) • They are costly to remove and

• Tree stems will no longer be there increased amount of sediments in
to obstruct the water flow down dams can cause flooding
the slopes (surface runoff)

Desertification
Causes Effects
• It is the process in which a land • Reduction in crops hence less
is turned in to a desert food
• Decline in rainfall • Reduced total biomass hence
less food
• Overgrazing
• Less wood
• Over cultivation
• Reduced water
• Irrigation and salinization • More sand dunes
• Increased demand for food and • Increased disruption of life and
fuel wood increased migration
• Soil erosion

Conservation of soil:

• Terrace farming
• Contour ploughing
• Plant trees in line to check wind speed and prevent erosion
• Mixed/intercropping to prevent erosion
• Grow more trees around crops to maintain surface cover and humus
• Plant trees on slopes
• Uses include growing plants and farming for which the soil should have
pore spaces
• Aeration (perforating the soil with small holes to allow air, water and
nutrients to penetrate the grass roots. This helps the roots grow deeply
and produce a stronger, more vigorous lawn.)

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Causes and consequences of land pollution: Pollution due to farming:

• Eutrophication due to excess fertilizers (drain into water and algae
grow in water. This reduces the amount of O2 in water for marine
organisms
• Pesticides kill other organisms in the soil
• Salinization due the input of large quantity of water on soil surface
Pollution due to industrial and urban waste

• Domestic waste-Garbage
• Toxic waste from industries
• Nuclear waste containing radioactive substances
• When domestic waste is burned, it causes air pollution.
• Toxic waste is dumped in rivers/freshwater sources so it pollutes them
• Nuclear waste can cause cancers

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Chapter 4
Water cycle:

Process Definition
Evaporation is changing of water(from sea and land)into water vapour
due to heat
Transpiration Evaporation of water from leaf surface
Precipitation rain and snow that reaches the ground
Condensation Changing water vapour into liquid
Surface runoff flows over the ground surface and flows its way to reach
the rivers
Infiltration is the process by which water enters the ground
Ground flow is the water that enters the soil and flows into the
(through flow) underground streams and flows there
Effects of vegetation cover on water cycle
• Interception increases as there are leaves to block rain
• Transpiration increases as leaves are the main source of water loss
• Run-off decrease as less water reaches the ground due to presence of
leaves
• Infiltration increases as water slowly enters the soil after travelling
the leaves

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How to obtain water artificially:

Desalination plants: Salt is separated from water

Underground aquifers: Water can be pumped from underground stores via

wells

Uses of water

• Domestic uses: in homes for cleaning , bathing, washing, cooking and

drinking
• Industrial uses: used in factories as solvent and for cooling
• Also used in pharmaceutical industries
• Used in irrigation (Agriculture)

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Dams:

• A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water or

underground streams.
• Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide
water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial
use, aquaculture, and navigability.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Provide and irrigate a large area • Large-scale evacuation of
• Huge electricity production nearby villages
• Stops flooding • Destroys natural habitat
• Creates recreational facilities • Very expensive to construct and
and tourist spots maintain
• Siltation can decrease capacity
• Can effect fisheries and
increase unemployment
Water related Diseases
Cholera

• A water-borne disease
• A bacterial disease
• Caused by consumption of contaminated water
• Causes dehydration and diarrhea
• Vaccines are present
• Can be treated by rehydrations

Typhoid:
• A water-borne disease
• A bacterial disease
• Caused by consumption of contaminated water
• Causes Fever , abdominal pain with a skin rash
• Diarrhoea and vomiting are not uncommon
• Vaccines are present
• Can be treated by antibiotics.

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Strategies to spread their control

• Water should be treated in treatment plants before drinking
• Sanitation should be improved
• chlorination

Malaria:

• A water-bred disease
• Mosquitoes breed in stagnant water and female (Anophalus) mosquitoes
carry parasites
• It bites a human to suck blood for the development of its eggs and
releases the parasites in the human body

Strategies to spread their control spread of malaria

• Destroy breeding grounds for mosquitoes
• Dry wetlands
• Wear long sleeves.
• Don’t go out in dusks and dawns
• Sleeping under a mosquito net
• Use insecticides
• Use biological control (small fish that eats larvae)

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Chapter 5
Ocean resources:
Food fish that includes true fish, finfish, shellfish and any
other se animals that can be eaten
Chemicals and many materials in the oceans have been eroded from the
building land, where rain and wind break down rocks, and are carried
materials into the oceans via rivers. Some substances can be extracted
directly e.g. salt, magnesium, tin, gold, diamonds (found in
greater numbers in ocean floor than on land) and titanium
Sand, gravel mined for the construction industry.
and crushed
rock
Salt obtained from seawater that is left behind over many weeks
in the hot sun.
Oil chemical that is extracted by offshore drilling rigs.
Wave energy enormous amount of energy in the waves is estimated to
produce twice the present world energy production if
harnessed properly.
Tidal energy due to varying gravitational pull of the sun and moon, water
in the sea moves up and down on a twice-daily basis.
Tourism seaside is a major tourist attraction as people are attracted
to see marine sites of great natural beauty, sea creatures
and to carry out activities such as diving, snorkeling,
windsurfing, jet skiing and deep-sea fishing or simply
sunbathing.
potable water After treatment (distillation or reverse osmosis)
Transport ships are important to transport people and goods; however,
shipping is less common to transport people now due to the
advent of aviation

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Types of ships:
Ship Type Load or purpose
Bulk carriers Transport of food such as rice and wheat.
Container ships Entire load is carried in lorry sized containers, known
Tankers as containerization.
Transport of fluids, especially liquefied petroleum
gas and liquefied natural gas.
Refrigerated ships vegetable oils
Transport of perishable andsuch
items wine.as vegetables,
Roll-on/roll-off fruits, fishof
Transport and dairy products.
vehicles, together with their loads, that
ships
Coastal trading can
Usedbefor
driven onbetween
trade and off places
the ship.
that are close
vessels
Ferries together.
Used for mainly for the movement of foot passengers,
sometimes with their cars, mainly
Cruise ships Used for islands.
between pleasure voyages where the facilities on the
Ocean liner ship
Usedare a crucial part
to transport of the
people fromtrip.
one port to another.

Ocean currents and their effects

• These are surface movements of water due to friction between water
which can be warm or cold
• Warm ocean currents keep the nearby coastal areas warm in winter
• Cold ocean currents reduce the amount of rain which limits farming but
increase fishing
• They are economically beneficial as they provide nutrients to oceanic
plants which are eaten by fishes, hence increasing fish production

Bycatch: Unwanted fish caught by mistake

Over-fishing
Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish from a body of water at
a rate that the species cannot replenish in time

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Causes Consequences
▪ Modern fishing techniques • Loss of jobs of fishermen
▪ Fish is in demand as a healthy food • Loss of food for locals
followed by an increase in • Large number of fishes is lost.
population This prevents commercial fish
▪ Many communities depend upon farming
fishing as a source of income

Sustainable fishing
▪ Fisting should be banned during breeding season (closed seasons)
▪ Restricted areas where no fishing can take place to allow breeding
▪ Use small net sizes
▪ Large mesh sizes
▪ Use squared mesh shape
▪ Patrol boats
▪ Use pole and line methods
▪ Use radar FAD

Distribution of major ocean currents :

1. Surface currents: movement of the surface water of the sea in a
constant direction mainly due to wind.
2. Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind nearly
always blows in a particular area.
3. Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anticlockwise as
the winds blow from the south-east and force the western Australian,
Benguela, and Peruvian current northwards.
4. Cold currents: come from the poles.
5. Warm currents: come from the tropics or either side of the equator.

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Distribution of major marine fish populations :

1. Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where water is
shallow, allowing light to penetrate with plentiful oxygen than further
below.
2. Herbivorous fish rely on primary producers, mainly green algae called
phytoplankton. Carnivorous fish eat the herbivorous ones or other
carnivores.
3. Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which
requires light, water and carbon dioxide (CO2).
4. Water is abundant in the oceans and CO2 dissolves in the water from
the atmosphere, therefore light is likely to be the limiting factor for
photosynthesis.
▪Limiting factor: of all the factors that might affect a process, that
one is in shortest supply.
▪Most ocean water has absorbed all the sunlight by a depth of only
200m which is called the euphotic zone, below which photosynthesis will
not take place.
▪ Not all areas with continental shelves have significant fisheries
because they also need mineral nutrients (nitrogen and sulphur) to make
proteins.
5. The most important fisheries of the world are where the current
system stirs up decaying material from the seabed, which is rich in
nutrients.
6. Upwelling: areas where minerals at the ocean floor are brought up to
the surface by
currents.
7. Overfishing: when the number of fish that is caught is greater than
the rate at which the fish reproduce, leading to a fall in fish numbers in
an area.

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8. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): the change in the prevailing

winds that leads to change in the pattern of currents in the oceans of the
South Pacific.
▪ El Niño leads to warm nutrient-poor water comes into the region from
the equator.
▪ Results in no upwelling of the cold, nutrient rich water that supports
the anchovy fishery so no nutrients mean phytoplankton don’t grow, so
there’s less food for fish.

Causes of overfishing of marine fish species:

1. Demand for fish as food increase due to increasing world population.
2. Much bigger boats are used which can work a long way from a port for
many weeks.
3. Finding fish easily by using SONAR and detailed weather data.
4. Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area, often half
of which is discarded as bycatch (animals caught by fishers that are not
the intended target of their fishing effort).
Marine pollution:
Causes Consequences
▪ Flow of nutrients from farming ▪ Due to nutrients, algae lower O2
▪ Sediments from soil erosion and level in water
mining ▪ Sediments block water flow
▪ Pathogenic organisms in sewage ▪ Pathogenic organisms contaminate
and livestock waste sea food and spread diseases
▪ Litter from ships and industries ▪ Litter makes beaches unsightly and
▪ Oil from land ,transport systems, gets stuck in fishing net
industries, ships and oil tankers ▪ Oil kills organisms
▪ Radioactive waste from Nuclear ▪ Radioactive waste causes cancers
power station ▪ Toxic waste pollutes marine life
▪ Toxic wastes from farming

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Chapter 6
Plate tectonics

Constructive/Divergent Plate boundary:

▪ Two plates move apart from each other.

▪ Magma from the mantle rises to the
surface to fill the gap between moving
plates
▪ Lava pours out and cools to form rocks
and volcanoes
▪ Rift valleys are also formed

Destructive (convergent) plate boundary:

▪ Two plates move towards each other

▪ One plate (oceanic) sinks down below
the other and is destroyed when
collided with the other.
▪ The sediments formed are compressed
and folded to form mountain ranges.
▪ Friction during the collision of the plates makes the rock melt
which produces magma which in turn produces volcanoes
▪ Earthquakes also occur
▪ If 2 continental plates, folds occur

Conservative plate boundary:

▪ Two plates move against each other

▪ They can be in the same direction but
different speeds
▪ The frictional movement against each
creates pressure and upon their pressure, it
releases earthquakes

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Earthquakes and volcanoes

▪ Earthquakes occur mostly at destructive plate boundary
▪ Volcanoes occur at both constructive and destructive plate boundary
when magma rises to the surface
▪ Volcanoes release ashes, pyroclastic flow, volcanic bomb and lahars
Impact of Earthquakes and volcanoes:
▪ Rocks and lava can kill people and animals
▪ Poisonous gases are released
▪ Shockwaves of earthquakes destroy buildings and infrastucture which
causes damage to the economy
▪ Heat can melt in ice caps, causing floods
▪ Electricity and gas supplies damaged
▪ Economic loss

Flood:
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.
Causes Effects
▪ Continuous raining ▪ Deforestation
▪ Plants can no longer hold ▪ Loss of human and animal life
moisture of more rain ▪ Water logging
▪ Infiltration decreases as spaces ▪ Crops ruined
▪ Houses and infrastructure
between soils are full and run-
destroyed
off increases
▪ Problems of moving between
places
▪ Food shortages
▪ Diseases can spread

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Drought:
Causes Consequences
▪ A long period of dry weather ▪ Crops die (die back of trees)
caused by change in wind patterns ▪ Risk of soil erosion
▪ Air pressure remains high so air ▪ Starvation and malnutrition
▪ Dry wells
sinks instead of rising. Hence
▪ Livestock lose conditions due to
precipitation is low as no water
shortage of grazing
vapors reach high altitude

Water pollution: Contamination of water bodies

Causes Consequences
▪ Agricultural reasons such as ▪ Fertilizers wash away into the
surplus fertilizers and pesticides rivers and give rise to
▪ Domestic waste from homes- eutrophication and pesticides
garbage contain toxic materials that are
▪ Industrial waste from factories harmful to human health
▪ Nuclear waste ▪ Domestic waste pollutes water with
different biological and chemical
wastes leading to diseases such as
diarrhea
▪ Radioactive isotopes cause mutation
in human cells

El Nino and its effects:

ENSO is a single climate phenomenon, it has three states, or phases, it can be

in. The two opposite phases, “El Niño” and “La Niña,” require certain changes
in both the ocean and the atmosphere because ENSO is a coupled climate
phenomenon. “Neutral” is in the middle of the continuum.

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1. El Niño: A warming of the ocean surface, or above-average sea surface

temperatures, in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Over
Indonesia, rainfall tends to become reduced while rainfall increases
over the tropical Pacific Ocean. The low-level surface winds, which
normally blow from east to west along the equator (“easterly winds”),
instead weaken or, in some cases, start blowing the other direction
(from west to east or “westerly winds”).
2. La Niña: A cooling of the ocean surface, or below-average sea surface
temperatures, in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.Over
Indonesia, rainfall tends to increase while rainfall decreases over the
central tropical Pacific Ocean.The normal easterly winds along the
equator become even stronger.
3. Neutral: Neither El Niño or La Niña. Often tropical Pacific Sea Surface
Temperatures are generally close to average. However, there are some
instances when the ocean can look like it is in an El Niño or La Niña
state, but the atmosphere is not playing along (or vice versa)

Conditions for cyclones:

• Temperature of oceans at least 27oc.
• Ocean depth 60m or more.
• Location between 5o and 20o north and south equator
In northern hemisphere (August - October)
In southern hemisphere ( March – May)

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How it occurs?
Water quickly evaporates from warm water surfaces, vapour moves
faster.
Warm water spirals upwards and condenses forming rainy clouds.
Latent heat of evaporation gives energy for the cyclone to move.
Cyclones create wind speed up to 150 km
Low pressure is created down causing air to be sucked down forming
cone shape
Formation of eye of the cyclone(clearest part)
Rainy and sunny intervals occur

Causes and occurrence of climatic hazards

▪ These are storms formed when the sea water is at its hottest
▪ Air above the sea surface heats up and warm moist air starts to rise
▪ A huge swirl of clouds forms around which speeds increases
▪ Rainfall from clouds begin to occur after that

Impacts of tropical cyclones:

▪ Loss of life
▪ Injuries
▪ Destroys infrastructure
▪ Economic losses
▪ Electricity lines, gas lines and telephone lines are damaged
▪ Disruption of water supply leads to diseases
▪ Farming economy is ruined

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Management of Natural hazards:

▪ Signs of volcanoes should be seen.

▪ People should move away from the predicted area
▪ Better quality buildings to prevent collapse (pyramidal shape, reinforced
concrete bases, rubber shock absorbers, controlled weights on roofs)
▪ Increase awareness
▪ Factories should be located far from houses
▪ Evacuation plans
▪ Rescue teams (supply food, water and medicines)
▪ Prediction, monitoring and forecasting
▪ Warnings via sms, radios, TV
▪ Providing shelters

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Chapter 7
Composition and energy source:

▪ Nitrogen-78%
▪ Oxygen-21%
▪ Carbon Dioxide-0.04%
▪ Argon-0.96%
Energy Source:
▪ Sun is the source of all energy on the planet
▪ Sunlight is a radiation that enters the atmosphere of the earth
▪ Some of it is absorbed by gases and surface and some of it is reflected
▪ The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the earth that is
available as heat is known as insulation
▪ Rates of insulation vary, it is highest at the equator and lowest at the
poles

Causes, effects of atmospheric pollution

Causes Effects

▪ Burning fossil fuels in power ▪ Effects include reduced visibility

stations and exhaust fumes from and poor air quality
transport system ▪ Formation of acid rain which
▪ Waste burnt from industries
increases acidity in crops and lakes
▪ Bare soil in agricultural areas
▪ Health problems such as asthma
picked up and carried by wind
▪ Use of CFCS and Halon ▪ Depletion of ozone layer so
▪ Deforestation increased radiation reaches surface
and more chance of skin cancer
▪ Trapping more heat, leading to
global warming , rising sea levels
and temperature
▪ Less precipitation will cause less
food production

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Acid Rain:
Rainfall made so acidic by atmospheric pollution that
it causes environmental harm, chiefly to forests and
lakes

Causes Effects
▪ Increased acidity in atmosphere ▪ Destruction of forests and
that comes from Sulphur habitat
dioxide and oxides of Nitrogen ▪ Soil erosion
▪ Trees lose leaves and become
▪ Vehicles, power stations and
less resistant to droughts
industries are sources
▪ Increased acidity of lakes which
▪ Can be transported from one damages marine life
place to another via winds ▪ Crop destruction

Ozone layer:
The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of
Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of
the Sun's ultraviolet radiation

Damage to ozone layer

Causes Effects
▪ Caused by release of CFCs and ▪ Increased UV rays entering
Halons in atmosphere surface which causes skin cancer
▪ Source is use of chemicals and other diseases
▪ Increased greenhouse gases gives
containing them e.g. Hair sprays
birth to more pollution
▪ Chlorine destroys the layer by
converting ozone into O2

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sGlobal Warming

Causes Effects
▪ Increased in concentration of ▪ Increase in temperatures of
Greenhouse gases earth leading to ice caps melting-
▪ These gases include CO2 by Antarctica
burning of fossils fuels, wood and ▪ Rising sea levels which causes
deforestation floods and tsunamis
▪ Methane due to deforestation and ▪ This will lead to famines and
decomposition of chemicals droughts and start “Water Wars”
▪ CFCS from different chemicals ▪ Crop failures will cause food
▪ Oxides of Nitrogen from shortages
transport systems, burning of ▪ Changes in habitat and many
fuels and use of fertilizers species will go extinct
▪ Extreme weather events
▪ Populated areas will no longer be
able to be livable

Strategies to deal with Atmospheric pollution

▪ Catalytic converters fitted in cars to reduce air pollution
▪ Petrol and diesel should be replaced by natural gases

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▪ Add limestone in polluted lakes to increase pH value

▪ Limestone should be used to convert Sulphur Dioxide into Calcium
Sulphate before it leaves from chimney and oxides of nitrogen should be
reduced by using ammonia
▪ A reduction is the use of CFCs
▪ Increased planting of trees
▪ Reduced use of fossil fuels
▪ Use alternative sources of energy like HEP

Temperature Inversion:

Atmospheric temperatures generally drop as altitude increases above the

Earth's surface, as many of us have experienced. But during a phenomenon
known as temperature inversion, the opposite occurs.
Temperature inversions describe layers in the atmosphere where the
air temperature increases with height. Typically, air temperatures decrease
with height above the Earth's surface, but inversions occur when the air near
the ground cools more quickly than the air above it.

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Chapter 8
World population growth
▪ Birth rates are the number of births per
1000 people
▪ Death rates are the number of deaths
per 1000 people
▪ Natural increase is the difference
between number of births and number of
deaths in a population in a time period of
a year
▪ A demographic transition model is a line graph showing relationship
between birth and death rates of a country over time

Population Structure:

▪ Population structure is made up by age and

gender of a country’s population which is
shown on a population Pyramid
▪ Middle aged (15-64) are the working
population
▪ The young (0-14) and the old (above 64)
are dependent
▪ Higher fertility rates increase birth rates Increased medical facilities
increase life expectancies and decreases infant death rates

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Expanding pyramids:
Makes more pressure on the government to provide more schools and
teachers.
Increasing aging people:
More hospitals and health care is required.
Less taxes are paid
Lower income
Migration:

▪ Movement of people from one place to another

▪ Push factors are the dislikes that people think about their place
▪ Pull factors are the attractions of the place they are moving into
Voluntary migration is done for work, joining relative or for retirement
such as moving to other countries
▪ Forced migration after a war or a natural disaster such as movement to
camps
▪ Rural to urban migration and high rates of natural increase leads to
urbanization
Pushing factors Pull factors
▪ Poverty ▪ Better job opportunities
▪ Pressure on land ▪ Work in factories and shops
▪ Drought and famine ▪ Reliable food supplies
▪ Lack of services ▪ Educational and medical facilities
▪ Remoteness ▪ Better roads and infrastructure
▪ Natural hazards ▪ Living beside families

Problems of migration and population increase

▪ Most people remain unemployed
▪ They have to pay for essential services
▪ Dirty water supplies
▪ Spread of diseases
▪ Rivers and seas are polluted
▪ Population growth leads to soil damage due to over cultivation and
overgrazing

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▪ Overused water resources

▪ Natural vegetation is cleared for farming so loss of habitats

Strategies for sustainable population growth:

▪ Provision of family planning programs

▪ Using contraceptions and sterilisation
▪ Natalists policies (pronatalist & antinatalist)
▪ More educational facilities
▪ Late marriages
▪ Migration to cities
▪ Education of women to focus on career
▪ Equal distribution of income

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Chapter 9
Ecosystem

▪ Populations: The total of all individuals of the same species in a certain

habitat.
▪ Community: The total number of all species in a habitat
▪ Habitat is the place where organism live
▪ All these organisms are biotic-living elements
▪ Abiotic (non-living) elements include climate, soil and atmospheric
components
▪ Ecosystem: interaction between all the communities and non-living
factors.
▪ Niche is the role of the organism in the ecosystem
▪ Trophic level: Position of the living organism in the food chain

Relationship of living organism:

▪ Competition of for food

▪ Predation between animals
▪ Pollination by animals or insects
▪ Seed dispersion by animals and birds and this reduces competition for
light and water between members of the same species
▪ In vegetation succession, plant species improve the environment for
living to survive
▪ For food supply, small birds are eaten by large birds; zebras eat grasses
which are eaten by Lions

Food chains:

▪ Producers are organism that make food on their own such as green
plants

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▪ Primary Consumers are organism that eat the green plants and are also
known as herbivores
▪ These consumers may be eaten by other organisms known as secondary
consumers and carnivores
▪ There may be larger animals present that eat these carnivores known as
tertiary consumers
▪ A carnivore which kills and eats other animals is known as a predator
▪ Energy in the form of nutrients is passed on between organisms
▪ A food chain consists of straight chains
▪ While a food web consists of different food chains interlinked
▪ Each stage in the chain where energy is exchanged is called a trophic
level e.g. Green plants are in the first trophic level
▪ Usually more food chains do not have more than trophic levels because
energy losses occur at each level due to respiration, excretion and
egestion
▪ Energy by green plants is made available by the process of
photosynthesis producing O2 and glucose as products
▪ Respiration is the process by which energy is produced in a living
organism and producing by- products, CO2 and water

N.B.:

Producer = 1st trophic level

1ry consumer = herbivore = 2nd trophic level
2ry consumer = carnivore = 3rd trophic level

Only 10% of energy is transferred between trophic levels.

90% are lost in respiration, movement, excretion, reproduction, not
eaten, not digested, death.

Nutrient cycle:
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▪ Green plants produce food

▪ Consumers eat them
▪ Consumers and producers die and are
decomposed by bacteria and fungi
▪ Decomposed material decays and their
nutrients enter the soil
▪ These nutrients and water are taken by plants again

Carbon cycle:

Carbon is added into the atmosphere

by respiration, CO2 is a waste
product
Through decaying of organic matter
from dead plants and animals,
microorganisms can turn carbon
compounds back to CO2 in the
atmosphere
Through combustion of fuels containing carbon
It is removed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis

Nitrogen Cycle:

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Human activities and their impact on the environment:

Genetic engineering and GM crops:

▪ Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genetic composition

of an organism by modifying its own genes or introducing genes from
different species by transferring its genes
▪ GM crops include Pest-resistant crops that have a pest-killing crop
▪ Herbicide tolerant that is not effected by the adverse effects of
herbicides
▪ Disease resistant that are not affected by viral diseases
Habitat destruction and its effects:

▪ Deforestation
▪ Overgrazing for livestock purposes
▪ Drying wetlands and swamps
▪ Flooding and droughts

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Tourism
Advantages Disadvantages
▪ Increase in foreign exchange
▪ Income varies and number of
▪ Increases employment
tourists fluctuates
▪ Infrastructure is improved for
▪ Many jobs are poorly paid
tourists which is beneficial for
▪ Tourist development replaces
locals
farming and fishing and takes over
▪ Migration is reduced
their place
▪ Greater awareness of wildlife and
▪ Local/cultural traditions are
landmarks
destroyed
▪ Improves economy
▪ Destruction of habitats
▪ Establishes ties between countries
▪ Pollution

Strategies for conservation:

▪ Set up gene banks to preserve a wide range of plants

▪ Create biosphere reserves for conservation of ecosystems, development
of areas for ecologically sustainable use and to provide support for
research and education for environmental issues
▪ Government should pass out laws to protect areas with natural reserves
such as a national park where hunting and gathering are not allowed
▪ Eco-tourism should be promoted (People should be allowed to visit but
pollute or damage the habitats). This would earn revenue which will be
used for management of ecosystems
▪ Habitat conservation projects should be started such as UNEP that
provides the world community with environmental data and focuses on
freshwater, energy and biodiversity
▪ Ban on hunting, collecting and trading, such that done by cities that
ensure that the world wide trading system of different animals does
not affect their survival

Biomes and their distribution: (Read ONLY)

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A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common

characteristics for the environment they exist in.

Tundra Biome:
▪ Has a very cold climate so no vegetation can grow
▪ Trees will not grow as well because summer is short, winters are very
cold, strong winds blow all year and soils are waterlogged
▪ Low net primary productivity so less number of species
▪ Some trees grow sideways instead of upwards due to vicious winds and
seeds are there are very hard
▪ Species include mosses and lichens

Taiga (coniferous forests)

▪ Conical in shape and have sloping braches

▪ Have needled leaves and thick bark which protects them from cold
▪ Snow slides over them since they have slopes
▪ They are flexible and bend in strong winds
▪ They reduce water loss by transpiration and hence save water

Hot deserts:

▪ The roots of these trees are long so that

they can reach underground water stores.
However their growth is slow
▪ Hot deserts undergo long periods of
drought so plants cannot grow
▪ Branching root system helps some plants to survive such as cactus
▪ Plants have sunken stomata to reduce water loss through transpiration

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Zoo and Captive breeding

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