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Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

4. A docstring is another term for a Python variable that holds a string constant.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

5. The keyword while means the same thing as While in Python.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

6. In Python, _MyVar15 is a valid variable name.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 2

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

7. To make your program more secure, use obscure variable names such as xz14dEEa.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

8. The keywords True and False are floating point values.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

9. If you print the string "Hello, it is a very \nice day", there will be two lines of output.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

10. Use the comparison operator != to check if one value is not equal to another value.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 3
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

11. In Python, a variable containing the value 5 will evaluate as true if used with the and logical operator.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

12. The input function returns a numeric value by default.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

13. The print function outputs a newline by default before its arguments are printed.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 4

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

14. Standard functions and Python's library functions check the types of their arguments when the function is
called.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

15. It is good practice to import all names from a module using the * operator.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

16. Indenting code that should be executed when an if statement evaluates as true makes your program easier to
read, but the indentation is not necessary.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

17. The while statement uses the syntax while <Boolean expression>: and is the preferred control statement to
iterate over a definite range of sequences.
a. True
b. False
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 5
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

18. Strings are compared using ASCII ordering.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Strings and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

19. Strings are mutable objects, which means you can replace their contents.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Strings and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

20. You can use the slice operator to obtain a substring from a string.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Strings and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 6
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

21. A literal representation of a list is made using parentheses to enclose items separated by commas.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Built-in Python Collections and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

22. A list mutator is a method used to modify the contents of a list.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Built-in Python Collections and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

23. A tuple is an immutable sequence of items and does not have mutator methods.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Built-in Python Collections and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

24. The expression primes = (2, 3, 5, 7, 11) creates a list named primes.
a. True
b. False
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 7
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Built-in Python Collections and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

25. A dictionary object contains zero or more entries where each entry associates a unique key with a value.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Built-in Python Collections and their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

26. What is the name of the function that contains the starting point of program execution?
a. start
b. main
c. begin
d. enter
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

27. To create an end-of-line comment, which symbol do you use to begin the comment?
a. #
b. *
c. /
d. @
ANSWER: a

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 8

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

28. What can you use a docstring for?

a. to hold the name of a document file
b. to create a large string variable
c. to hold data of type string
d. to create a multiline comment
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

29. Which of the following is true about Python keywords?

a. they can begin with a number, letter, or hyphen
b. they are case sensitive
c. they are written in uppercase
d. they can be a maximum of 6 characters long
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

30. Which statement is true about Python syntax?

a. a code block must begin with a left brace
b. each code statement must end with a semicolon
c. white space is ignored
d. blocks of code are indicated by indentation

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Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

31. What keywords does Python use for Boolean values?

a. Yes, No
b. On, Off
c. True, False
d. Set, Unset
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

32. What symbol is used to insert a tab in a string?

a. \t
b. [TAB]
c. /t
d. @tab
ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

33. Which comparison operation returns True if variable x is not equal to variable y?
a. x .ne. y
b. x neq y
c. x <> y

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 10

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

d. x != y
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

34. Assume x is equal to 5 and y is equal to 0. Which comparison operation returns True?
a. x == y or y
b. y < 5 and y
c. (x > y) and x
d. x > 0 and None
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Basic Program Elements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

35. With what character does the print function terminate its output by default?
a. newline
b. null
c. period
d. space
ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

36. What keyword is used to make a multiway if statement?

a. else
b. elif

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 11

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

c. then
d. elseif
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 9/2/2018 6:05 PM

37. Which statement allows a programmer to run a module as a standalone program or import it from the shell?
a. do _module(main)
b. while main != _module
c. if self == "main()":
d. if __name__ == "__main__":
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

38. What is the output of the following code?

sum = 0
value = 3
while value <= 5:
sum += value
value += 1
print(sum)

a. 15
b. 10
c. 12
d. 18
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Control Statements

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 12

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

39. What is the output of the following code?

sum = 0
for value in range(1,4):
sum += value
print(sum)

a. 5
b. 10
c. 4
d. 6
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

40. What is the output of the following code?

sum = 0
for value in range(1,4):
if value == 2:
sum = sum**2
sum += value
print(sum)

a. 6
b. 12
c. 8
d. 16
ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Difficult
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 13
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

41. What are the values of variables x, y, and z after the following code is run?

y = 0
z = 0
for x in range(5,7):
if y > z:
z, y = y, z
y = y + x;

a. x == 7, y == 11, z == 6
b. x == 6, y == 6, z == 5
c. x = 6, y == 5, z == 6
d. x == 7, y == 12, z == 5
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Difficult
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

42. What is the value of z after the following code is run?

y = 0
z = 0
for x in range(5,8):
z = max(x, y)
y = y + x

a. 18
b. 11
c. 7
d. 13
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Difficult
REFERENCES: Control Statements
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 14
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

43. What is the value of string1 after the following statement is executed?

string1 = "hello"[:3] + "python"[0]

a. lpython
b. llo
c. help
d. lop
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Strings and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

44. What is the last line of the output when the following code is executed?

x = 2
for exp in range (5):
print ("%2d.0" % x**exp)

a. 8.0
b. 16
c. 32
d. 16.0
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Strings and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

45. What is the value of newList after the following code is executed?

newList = ["George", "John", "Thomas", "James"]

newList.pop()
newList.append("Andrew")

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 15

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

a. ["George", "John", "Thomas", "James", "Andrew"]
b. ["George", "John", "Thomas", "Andrew"]
c. ["Andrew", "John", "Thomas", "James"]
d. ["Andrew", "George", "John", "Thomas", "James"]
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Built-In Python Collections and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

46. Which of the following statements creates a tuple containing four items?
a. t = [1: 2: 3: 4]
b. t = {1, 2, 3, 4}
c. t = <1; 2; 3; 4>
d. t = (1, 2, 3, 4)
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Built-In Python Collections and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

47. What is the last line of output of the following code?

pres = {1:"Washington", 16:"Lincoln", 35: "Kennedy", 40:"Reagan"}

for nth in pres:
print("%2d:" % nth,pres[nth])

a. 35: Kennedy
b. 40: Reagan
c. 03: Kennedy
d. 04: Reagan
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Built-In Python Collections and Their Operations
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 16
Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

48. Which of the following correctly defines a function named myFunc?

a. def myFunc():
b. func myfunc:
c. myfunc()#
d. int myFunc:
ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Creating New Functions
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

49. How do you describe a function that calls itself?

a. self_calling function
b. iterative function
c. derivative function
d. recursive function
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Easy
REFERENCES: Creating New Functions
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

50. Select the answer that should be used to replace the missing code in the following statements.

myList = list()
fileObj = open("myfile.dat", "rb")
while True:
try:
item = pickle.load(fileObj)
myList.append(item)
<missing code>
fileObj.close()

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 17

Name: Class: Date:

Chapter 01: Basic Python Programming

break
print(myList)

a. if EOF:
b. elif Error:
c. except EOFError:
d. else while TRUE:
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Catching Exceptions
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:29 PM

51. In a class definition, what type of method uses the values of the object's instance variables without changing
them?
a. constructor
b. accessor
c. instance
d. mutator
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
DIFFICULTY: Moderate
REFERENCES: Creating New Classes
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
HAS VARIABLES: False
DATE CREATED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM
DATE MODIFIED: 7/17/2018 3:25 PM

Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 18

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their entrenched camp in front of Bayonne. Wellington’s
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ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF.—Philip II, of Spain, assisted by the
British, defeated the French here, August 10th, 1557.
ST. SEBASTIAN, BATTLE OF.—The fortified works, through which
ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English Auxiliary
Legion, under General Evans, after very hard fighting. The British
naval squadron off the place, lent, under Lord John Hay, very great
aid to the victors. Fought, May 5th, 1836. Again, on the 1st of
October, same year, a vigorous assault was made on the lines of
General De Lacy Evan by the Carlists. Both sides fought with great
bravery, but the Carlists were repulsed after suffering severely. The
Anglo-Spanish loss was 376 men, and thirty-seven officers killed and
wounded. The General was also wounded.
ST. SEBASTIAN, SIEGE OF.—By the British and Allied armies, under
Wellington. After a short siege, during which it sustained a heavy
bombardment, and by which the whole town was nearly laid in ruins,
it was stormed by General Graham, and taken, August 31st, 1803.
The loss was almost all on the British side in the storming—the
Spaniards losing few.
ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF CAPE.—Between the Spanish and British
fleets off this Cape. The latter was commanded by Admiral Sir John
Jarvis, who took four line of battle ships, and damaged considerably
the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14th, 1797. His own fleet
consisted of 15 sail of the line only—whilst the enemy’s fleet was 27
sail, 7 of which carried from 112 to 130 guns each.
ST. VINCENT, CAPE.—Admiral Rooke, with 20 men of war, and the
Turkish fleet, under his convoy, was attacked by Admiral Tourville
with a force vastly superior to his own, when 12 English and Dutch
men of war, and 80 merchant men were taken or destroyed by the
French, June 16th, 1693. Here, also, Admiral Rodney destroyed
several Spanish ships, January 16th, 1780.
 SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF.—Fought July 22nd, 1812.—“Lord
Wellington had fought the battle of Talavera in less than three
months after he had marched out of Lisbon, and in only three
months and six days after his landing in Portugal. He had seen some
kind of action and enterprise to be absolutely necessary. It was
demanded by England; it was expected by Spain and Portugal.
Hence he first drove the French out of Oporto and out of the
Portuguese dominions, and then, in conjunction with a Spanish
army, marched upon Madrid, and fought a battle with the French.
But these three months sufficed to show him, how utterly
valueless was the aid proffered him by the Spaniards. They left him
without provisions; they furnished him with no means of transport;
and when they placed an army by his side, that army could do
nothing but run away, and spread alarm and consternation on every
side. Hence, so soon as he fully understood the real condition of
affairs, he wrote home to the British government in these plain
terms:
“Spain has proved untrue to her alliance because she is untrue to
herself;” “and until some great change shall be effected in the
conduct of the military resources of Spain, and in the state of her
armies, no British army can attempt safely to co-operate with
Spanish troops in the territories of Spain.”
Having arrived at this conclusion, Lord Wellington soon withdrew
his army from Spain, retired into Portugal, and began to concert
measures for the effectual defence of that kingdom. At home, party
spirit, as usual, led to injustice. The opposition in the British
parliament questioned the whole of his conduct of the past
campaign. Sir W. Napier tells us, that “his merits, they said, were
nought; his actions silly, presumptuous, and rash; his campaign one
deserving not reward but punishment. Yet he had delivered Portugal,
cleared Galicia and Estramadura, and forced 100,000 French
veterans to abandon the offensive and concentrate about Madrid!”
 He now calmly submitted to the British government his views of
the defence of Portugal. He assigned to Marshal Beresford the
organization of the Portuguese army; he required only 13,000 British
troops to be permanently maintained; and with this force he
expected to be able to defend Portugal, at least until Spain should
be thoroughly subdued by the French; so as to allow of the
concentration of their whole force on the work of subjugating
Portugal.
The wisdom and expediency of this employment of English troops
and English revenues in foreign war, was abundantly evident. For,
when the Continent should have been wholly conquered by
Napoleon, he would then, as he plainly declared, attempt the
invasion of England. Hence, to keep his armies employed in the
Peninsula, was the way plainly pointed out by common sense, as
likely to postpone or wholly avert a French invasion of the British
islands. To defend Portugal, therefore, was Wellington’s first object;
for Portugal had become a sort of outwork of England.
The Spanish government, meanwhile, with equal imbecility and
self-sufficiency, chose to rush into inevitable defeat. They had
starved the English army; which, in a whole month, got only ten
days’ bread; and which lost 1000 horses from mere want of
provender; and had thus forced Lord Wellington to retire into
Portugal. They now choose, with an army of 50,000 men, to give
battle to the French at Ocana; where, on the 12th of November, they
sustained such a total defeat, that ten days after the battle not a
single battalion kept the field. No fewer than 20,000 of the
Spaniards laid down their arms, and the rest were utterly scattered
and dispersed.
At the opening of 1810, Napoleon resolved to complete the
conquest of the Peninsula. He augmented his armies in Spain to
360,000 men. One army, consisting of 65,000 men, under the
command of Soult, was charged with the subjugation of Andalusia;
and another, of 80,000 men, under Massena, was to move to the
west, and reduce Portugal. Now, therefore, must Wellington’s plans
for the defence of Portugal be brought to the test.
The actual force of Massena’s army in May, 1810, is shown by
French returns given by Sir W. Napier, to have been 86,847 men.
On the 1st of June the French commander invested Ciudad
Rodrigo, which capitulated on the 11th of July. Almeida surrendered
on the 26th of August, and thus the road to Lisbon was opened to
the French army. Wellington would gladly have fought a battle to
save these fortresses; but if he engaged 80,000 French, with 32,000
English and Portuguese, and did not signally defeat them; what
would then have become of Portugal? Still, when on Portuguese
ground, and engaged in the defence of Portugal, he thought it right,
on September 27th, to make one stand at Busaco; where he inflicted
on the French a loss of 4500 men, at a cost, to his own army, of only
1300. Massena then began even to think of retreating into Spain;
when a peasant informed him of a mountain-pass by which he might
carry his army into a position from which he could threaten
Wellington’s left. This compelled the English General again to make a
retrograde movement; and on the 15th of October the whole British
and Portuguese army was collected within the lines of Torres Vedras.
These now famous lines, which Wellington had long been silently
constructing, were so little thought of either in England or in France,
that military instructions were actually given in England commencing
thus: “As it is probable the army will embark in September.” And the
French commander on his part, found his way suddenly stopped by
an insurmountable obstacle, of the existence of which he had never
before heard.
Lord Wellington had observed that on the land side (and the
French had no force upon the water) Lisbon could be completely
defended by a series of entrenchments properly manned. Silently,
therefore, during many months past, he had been at work on these
lines. They were now complete, mounting 600 guns and when
manned by 50,000 men they might have defied Napoleon himself at
the head of one of his largest armies.
Massena, astonished, employed several days in examining these
lines on every side, but at no point could he find an attack to be
feasible. One or two attempts were made, in which his troops were
roughly handled, and one of his Generals killed. At last, altogether
perplexed, he sent off General Foy to Paris to ask of Napoleon what
was to be done. But Napoleon himself had no remedy to prescribe,
and hence, after remaining before the lines for one whole month,
until utter starvation menaced his army, the French Marshal
commenced a retreat. He first retired to Santaren, where he
remained until the following March. He then finally retreated out of
Portugal, having lost, in the short space of seven months, not fewer
than 45,000 men, chiefly by exposure, disease, and starvation. Lord
Wellington followed him, and at once invested Almeida. Massena
ventured on an engagement at Fuentes d’Onore, but failed, and
Almeida capitulated to the English on the 12th of May, 1811.
This campaign had greatly raised the hopes and the confidence of
England, and had placed the character of her General on an
unassailable elevation. Portugal had been defeated, and a French
Marshal with a noble army had been driven back in defeat. Lord
Wellington now, therefore, resolved to begin offensive operations in
Spain, and he sat down before Badajoz. But Napoleon had at last
awakened to the real character of this great struggle. He resolved
that Badajoz should not be lost. He therefore earnestly and
strenuously increased his forces in Spain, until, in September, 1811,
they again amounted to 368,000 men. Soult and Marmont received
their orders, and approached Badajoz with 60,000 men. Lord
Wellington retired, but in July he threatened Ciudad Rodrigo, when
again the two French Marshals marched to its relief with a greatly
superior army. And now, as the winter approached, both armies
went into cantonments, and the campaign of 1811 ended.
But with January, 1812, commenced that career of triumph which
only ended at Waterloo. In 1810, Wellington had saved Portugal; in
1811, he had threatened and disquieted the French armies in their
possession of Spain; but the opening year was not to close until that
possession was very seriously endangered.
Silently, all November and December, Wellington’s preparations
were going on. Soult imagined that he was about to renew the siege
of Badajoz, but suddenly, in the earliest days of January, a bridge
was thrown over the Agueda, and the English army crossed the river
and invested Ciudad Rodrigo. The siege commenced on the 8th, and
on the 19th the place was stormed and carried. It had cost the
French a siege of six weeks to take it from the Spaniards two years
before. On hearing of its capture in twelve days, Marmont wrote to
Napoleon, saying, “On the 16th, the English batteries opened their
fire: on the 19th the place was taken by storm, and fell into the
power of the enemy. There is something so incomprehensible in all
this, that until I know more I refrain from any observation.”
Badajoz, a far stronger place, was next invested, on the 17th of
March, and on the 6th of April it was taken by storm. And here, too,
General Lery, a French engineer, expressed his astonishment, writing
thus: “I think the capture of Badajoz a very extraordinary event, and
I should be at a loss to account for it in any manner consistent with
probability.” These two great strongholds, the border-fortresses, had
now been taken, and the way was thus opened into the heart of
Spain. All Europe saw with astonishment that a little English army,
seldom amounting—even with the aid of the Portuguese,—to more
than 40,000 men, could counteract the efforts of the best armies of
France, led by Napoleon’s most trusted Generals.
After these exploits, Wellington gave his army some rest until the
harvest should grow up, and provisions be more easily obtained. But
in May he sent General Hill to storm the forts at Almarez on the
Tagus, when the French works, with all their artillery and stores, fell
into the hands of the English, who lost only 180 men. By this able
manœuvre the two armies of Marmont and Soult were separated.
 On the 13th of June, the rains having ceased, and the field
magazines being completed, Wellington passed the Agueda, and on
the 17th be entered Salamanca, the people shouting, singing, and
weeping for joy. The forts, however, were still held by French
garrisons, and were not taken until the 27th.
On the 8th of July, Marmont, the French General now opposed to
Wellington, received a reinforcement of 6000 men, and both he and
Wellington began to prepare for a battle. On the 15th and 16th,
Marmont, who had previously made several deceptive movements,
concentrated his beautiful and gallant army between Toro and the
Hornija rivers. Then began a series of manœuvres, continued for
several successive days, until, on the 20th, the two armies were in
sight, marching on parallel heights within musket-shot of each other
in the most perfect array. The strength of each army amounted to
from 45,000 to 48,000 men; but of Wellington’s force a considerable
portion consisted of Portuguese troops.
In two or three days more, Marmont would have been joined by
two other French corps, augmenting his force by nearly 20,000 men.
But then he apprehended the arrival of either King Joseph, or
Jourdan, the senior Marshal then in Spain, either of whom would
have superseded him in the command. His object, therefore, was
either to force the English to retreat from Salamanca, or else to fight
a battle, and if possible gain a victory, before either of his superiors
in command could arrive.
On the 22nd of July, some change of position on the part of the
English army gave Marmont the impression that Wellington was
about to retire towards Ciudad Rodrigo. Eager not to let the English
thus escape him, the French General ordered Maucune’s division,
which formed his left, to march forward so as to fall upon the flank
of the British in their expected retreat. They did so; but in so
advancing a chasm intervened between them and the division of
Bonnet, which formed part of the French centre. Word was brought
to Wellington of this movement. “Starting up, he repaired to the high
ground, and observed their movements for some time with stern
contentment. Their left wing was entirely separated from the centre.
The fault was flagrant, and he fixed it with the stroke of a
thunderbolt.” Turning to the Spanish General Alava who stood by his
side, he exclaimed, “Mon cher Alava, Marmont est perdu!”
A few orders issued suddenly from his lips like the incantations of
a wizard, and suddenly the dark mass of troops seemed animated by
some mighty spirit. Rushing down the slope of the mountain, they
entered the great basin. And now, after long coiling and winding like
angry serpents, the armies suddenly fastened together in deadly
strife.
Marmont saw the country beneath him suddenly covered with
enemies when he was in the act of making a complicated evolution;
and when by the rash advance of his left, his troops were separated
into three parts, each at too great a distance to assist the other. In
this crisis, despatching officer after officer, some to hasten up his
troops from the forest, some to stop the march of his left wing, he
still looked for victory, till he saw Pakenham with his division
penetrate between his left and his centre; then hope died within
him, and he was hurrying in person to the fatal spot, when an
exploding shell stretched him on the field, with two deep wounds in
his side.”
This naturally augmented the confusion of the French; but they
still fought manfully. It was just five o’clock when Pakenham fell on
Maucune, who, little thinking of such an onset, expected to see,
from the summit of a hill he had just gained, the Allies in full retreat.
Still, his gunners stood to their guns, and his cavalry charged; but
both were killed or repulsed; the infantry endeavoured to form a
front, but in the midst of its evolution it was charged and broken.
The British cavalry fell upon the rear, while Leith, with the fifth
division, bore down on the right flank. For awhile, the French
veterans maintained some kind of order, but at last the cavalry broke
them; Thomiere, one of their Generals, was killed, 2000 of the
French threw down their arms, and the whole division was utterly
routed.
 The next portion of the French line, Clausel’s division, while
warmly engaged with the English under Cole and Leith, had to
sustain a charge from 1200 British dragoons. The whole French
division was broken in an instant. Five guns and 2000 prisoners were
taken in a few minutes. The entire of the left wing of the French
army was now only a helpless mob of fugitives. In the centre the
struggle was a more arduous one. The French still held a strong
position on a hill—the Arapiles. Two attacks by the Portuguese and
English were repelled. Beresford, Cole and Leith, were all wounded,
and the English centre for a moment was shaken and in danger. But
Wellington, whose eye was always where the peril was greatest,
immediately ordered up Clinton’s division from the rear, and restored
the battle. The ridge of the Arapiles was regained, “And now the
current once more set in for the British. Pakenham continued to
outflank the French left; Foy retired from the ridge of Calveriza, and
the Allied host, righting itself like a gallant ship after a sudden gust,
again bore right onwards, holding its course through blood and
gloom.”
There remained only the division of Foy, which formed the
extreme right of the French line, and still maintained a gallant fight.
It seemed difficult for this General to extricate his division, but he
did it with great dexterity. Just as the darkness fell, he increased his
skirmishers, and brought forward some cavalry, as if for a charge.
But when the English had prepared themselves for a real encounter,
the skirmishers fell back, and the English pursued; but when they
reached the top of the hill, the main body of the French had escaped
into a forest hard by, where darkness gave them safety.
Another failure on the part of a Spaniard, here, again, favoured
the French. The castle of Alba, on the Tormes, was garrisoned by a
Spanish force, under Carlos d’Espana. This, if maintained, would
have stopped the French in their flight by the main road, and have
forced them to take the fords. But d’Espana, without informing
Wellington, had withdrawn the garrison, and left the road open!
“Had the castle of Alba been held,” says Napier, “the French could
never have carried off a third of their army.” But by this piece of
Spanish folly or cowardice, they were permitted to escape.
As it was, their loss was enormous. They went into action with
43,800 infantry and 4000 cavalry. Three weeks after, their General,
Clausel, who succeeded Marmont in the command, wrote to the
Minister of War at Paris, “The army consists of 20,000 infantry, and
1800 horse.” So that, by death or wounds or capture, it had lost
more than half of its numbers. On the part of the Allies, the loss was
3176 British, 2018 Portuguese, and eight Spanish. One General was
killed, and five were among the wounded. Wellington himself was
struck in the thigh by a spent ball, which passed through his holster.
This was one of the last incidents of this great battle; in which the
English leader, to use a French officer’s expression, “defeated 40,000
men in forty minutes.” “Late in the evening of that great day,” says
Sir William Napier, “I saw him behind my regiment, then marching
towards the ford. He was alone; the flush of victory was on his brow,
his eyes were eager and watchful, but his voice was calm and even
gentle. More than the rival of Marlborough,—for he had defeated
greater Generals than Marlborough ever encountered, he seemed
with prescient pride to accept this victory only as an earnest of
future glory.”
The French fled with such celerity, that their headquarters, on the
following night, were at Flores d’Avila, no less than forty miles from
the field of battle! The English army, on the other hand, entered
Madrid on the 12th of August, amidst a scene of the wildest ecstasy.
“No words can express the enthusiasm which prevailed when the
English standards were seen in the distance, and the scarlet
uniforms began to be discerned through the crowd. Amidst a
countless multitude, wrought up to the highest pitch of rapturous
feeling; amidst tears of gratitude and shouts of triumph, the British
army entered the Spanish capital, not as conquerors, but as friends;
not as oppressors, but deliverers.” As for Wellington, “with tears and
every sign of deep emotion, the multitudes crowded round his horse,
hung by his stirrups, touched his clothes, and throwing themselves
on their knees, blessed him aloud.” The intrusive King, with about
12,000 men, had fled out of the city a few days previous.
The Retiro, the largest arsenal which the French possessed in
Spain, still had a garrison of 1700 men. But it surrendered on the
13th, and the British found in it, 180 pieces of cannon, 20,000 stand
of arms, and immense stores of all kinds. Meanwhile, “the French
affairs in every part of the Peninsula now exhibited that general
crash and ruin which so usually follows a great military disaster, and
presages the breaking up of a political power.”
Nor were the mighty results of this great battle limited to Southern
Europe. At the very moment when it took place, Napoleon, at the
head of 450,000, was entering the heart of the Russian empire. The
news of the defeat of his forces in Spain, reached him on the
evening preceding the great battle of Borodino. It doubtless reached
the Emperor Alexander also; and the news must have greatly aided
the Russian Monarch in forming that remarkable resolve, “I am
immovable; and no terms whatever shall induce me to terminate the
war, or to fail in the sacred duty of avenging our country.” And, in a
general order, issued shortly after, General Kutusoff, Alexander’s
chief commander, said, “The hand of God is falling heavily on
Napoleon: Madrid is taken.” Still, when, in October, Wellington, from
the want of battering-artillery, failed in carrying the castle of Burgos,
faction again raised its head in England, and even dared to question
his skill and talent as a General! It was with reference to some of
these attacks that Wellington took the following review of the results
of the year.
“I fear that the public will be disappointed at the results of the last
campaign: and yet it is, in fact, the most important and successful
campaign in which a British army has been engaged for the last
century. We have taken by siege Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and
Salamanca, and the Retiro has surrendered. Since January, this army
has sent to England little short of 20,000 prisoners; and it has taken
and destroyed, or we now possess, little short of 3000 pieces of
cannon.”
 More wonderful achievements, occupying a series of years, never
were wrought out by a British army. Sir William Napier justly traces
the triumph of Salamanca and other victories to the forethought of
Wellington, in having laid such a foundation as he had provided in
Torres Vedras. “This strong post was of his own planning,—he had
chosen it, fortified it, defended it, and now, knowing its full value, he
was availing himself of its advantages. The tree was planted to bear
such fruit as was gathered at Salamanca, and the value of his
combinations must be estimated from the general result. He had
only 60,000 disposable troops, and 100,000 were especially
appointed to watch and control him; yet he passed the frontier,
defeated 45,000 men in a pitched battle, and drove 20,000 others
from Madrid in confusion, without difficulty and without risk. No
General was ever more entitled to the honour of victory.”
SALAMIS, BATTLE OF.—The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this
great battle, October 20th, 480 B.C. Themistocles, the Greek
commander, with only 310 sail defeated the whole fleet of Xerxes,
consisting of 2000 sail. One of the greatest naval engagements in
ancient times.
SALDANHA BAY.—Near the Cape of Good Hope.—Here a Dutch
squadron was captured by Admiral St. George Keith Elphinstone,
without resistance. Five men of war and nine frigates surrendered,
and St. George was in consequence of this bloodless victory, which
was executed with wonderful judgment, created Lord Keith, August
17th, 1796.
SANTA CRUZ.—Here, April 25th, 1657, the renowned Blake totally
destroyed 16 Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and
protected by the castle and the forts on the shore. This was thought,
at that time, one of the greatest feats ever accomplished. The Earl
of Clarendon, speaking of this exploit, says, “It was so miraculous,
that all who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with
what courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it; and the
victors could hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had
done, whilst the surviving Spaniards thought that they were devils
and not men who had destroyed their ships so.” Here also, in an
unsuccessful attack made upon this place by Nelson, several officers
and 141 men were killed, and the brave Admiral lost his right arm,
July 24th, 1797. It is remarkable that Captain Freemantle, the great
friend of Nelson, and a companion of his in most of his great and
brilliant achievements was also wounded in the arm immediately
before Nelson had received his wound in the same limb. The
following laconic note addressed to the lady of Captain Freemantle,
(who was on board with her husband at the time he wrote) has
been preserved, as being the first letter written by the glorious hero
with his left hand:

My Dear Mrs. Freemantle,

Tell me how Tom is? I hope he has saved his
arm. Mine is off; but, thank God, I am as well as I hope he is.
Ever Yours,
HORATIO NELSON.

SARATOGA, BURGOYNE’S SURRENDER AT.—General Burgoyne,

commander of a body of the British Army, after a very severe
engagement with the American Provincials in the American War of
Independence, October 17th, 1777, surrendered to the American
General Gates. No less than 5791 men laid down their arms. This
was the greatest check the British suffered during the war.
SCOPOLO.—On July the 5th, 1808, a desperate action was fought
off the island of Scopolo, between a large Turkish frigate and
corvette, and the Seahorse thirty-eight guns, captain Stewart,
exhibiting the skill and gallantry of the latter against a great disparity
of force, by which his own ship was so well preserved, while that of
his opponent was ruined. The action began at half-past nine in the
evening, the Turks under easy sail, a little off the wind, and
continually endeavouring to board. At ten o’clock, after a quarter of
an hour’s hot fire, the small ship was silenced; the large ship, which
had during this time fallen a little to leeward, and thus been
prevented from assisting her consort, recovered her position; the
action was recommenced; and the resistance of the Turks was so
obstinate, that it was not till a quarter past one she was rendered a
motionless wreck. As they would neither answer nor fire, captain
Stewart, knowing the character of the people, conceived it most
prudent to wait for daylight to send on board her. At daylight,
observing her colours upon the stump of the mizenmast, the
Seahorse poured a broadside into her stern, when she struck. She
was named the Badere Zaffer, of fifty-two guns, with a complement
of 500 men, commanded by captain Scanderli Kichuc Ali, who had
been prevented by his own people from blowing her up. Her loss
was prodigious—165 killed and 195 wounded. The Seahorse had
only five killed and ten wounded.
SEBASTOPOL.—The celebrated city besieged during the Crimean
war. See Bombardment, first and second (final) of Sebastopol; also,
Mamelon, Malakoff and Sortie.
SEDGMOOR, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 5th, 1685, in which the
Duke of Monmouth was completely defeated by the army of James
II of England. The Duke, who was the natural son of Charles II, by
Lucy Walters, one of his mistresses, was made prisoner, and soon
afterwards executed.
SEIDLITZ, BATTLE OF.—Fought, April 10th, 1831, between the
Poles and Russians. The Poles obtained the victory, after a bloody
battle, taking 4000 prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. The
killed and wounded, on both sides, amounted to many thousands.
SEMINCAS, BATTLE OF.—Fought A.D. 938. One of the most bloody
battles ever fought. Between the Moors and Ramirez II, King of
Leon, and the Austrians. More than 80,000 of the infidels were slain,
the dead lying in heaps for miles around.
SEMPACH, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 9th, 1386, between the Swiss
and Leopold, Duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of
valour, gained a great and memorable victory over the Duke, who
was slain. By this battle they gained their independence, which they
possess until this day; and they annually commemorate, with great
solemnity, this victory.
SERGEANT.—The highest non-commissioned officer of a company.
This word enters into the title of different officers, as sergeant-
major, color-sergeant, &c.
SERINGAPATAM, BATTLE OF.—This first battle, called also the
Battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, was
fought May 15th, 1791. The second, in which the redoubts were
stormed, and Tippoo reduced by Lord Cornwallis, fought February
6th, 1792. After this capture peace was signed, and Tippoo agreed
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees, about
£3,000,000, sterling to England, and to give up his two sons as
hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived before
Seringapatam, April 5th, 1799. It was joined by the Bombay army,
April 14th, and the place was stormed and carried by Major General
Baird, May 4th, same year. Tippoo was killed in this engagement.
The following account gives the particulars of the 1st engagement
previous to the capture of Seringapatam.
“On the 27th of March, 1799, at three o’clock p.m., the right wing
(of the British army destined for the capture of Seringapatam)
moved slowly off the ground of encampment, along a heavy sandy
road, impeded in their progress by the ponderous battering-train of
guns, each 42 pounder being drawn majestically along by thirty,
forty, and sometimes fifty bullocks, harnessed four abreast; and
even these numbers were frequently found insufficient to extricate
the wheels of the carriages from the deep sloughs into which they
often sank, even up to the axles, when the aid of elephants was
required; these sagacious animals would wind their trunks or
probosci around the nave and between the spokes of the wheels,
and thus lift gun and carriage from the impending difficulty, whilst
the bullocks were being goaded and whipped with leather thongs.
The ponderous machines were thus drawn forward. It was indeed an
admirable and beautiful sight to observe the sagacity of these huge
creatures; for when one only was brought up to assist, if the weight
was too considerable for its animal strength, a shrill trumpeting
proceeding from its proboscis would instantly proclaim this
deficiency in strength for the object required, when the keeper
would call for another elephant, and then the united power of the
two, simultaneously applying their whole force, would speedily
overcome almost insurmountable difficulties; though, when guns and
carriages were embedded up to the axles of the four wheels, several
of these noble animals have been required to lift the machines bodily
from the tenacious clay into which they had sunk.
Clouds of looties, or irregular predatory horsemen, were on the
right flank of the line, who fired incessantly on the British as they
advanced; and when a stoppage occurred, to extricate the guns,
large bodies of these looties would suddenly dash through the
intervals, cutting down the artillerymen, maiming the bullocks, and
destroying the whole paraphernalia of harness; and this in spite of
all the exertions of skirmishers to keep them at a respectable
distance. The fierce sun was almost intolerable, and many
Europeans fell dead from coups-de-soleil. Only three miles and a half
could be marched from three o’clock until nearly twelve, when the
little mud-walled fort of Malleville was descried, with the gallant 19th
dragoons, drawn up in close column under the walls, to shelter them
from the enemy’s brisk cannonade. At a hill fortress (Amboor),
previous to mounting the Ghauts and entering the Mysore country,
the British army had been joined by about 10,000 of the Nizam’s
troops—a disorderly set of savage, undisciplined barbarians (clothed
in stuffed cotton jackets, covered with steel-chained armour, capable
of resisting a musket-ball), prancing and skirmishing about the
country in every direction, wielding their long lances with uncommon
dexterity, managing their horses with grace and ease, almost to
perfection in the equestrian art—sometimes casting their spears, and
then, at full gallop, bending the body so low under the horse, as to
recover possession of the spear that lay flat on the sand. This
heterogeneous force was certainly an additional strength to the
numerical force of the British, but, in a military point of view, of
dubious advantage to the invading regular army, whose movements
they frequently disconcerted by dashing furiously through the
intervals between the columns on the line of march, and, being
often mistaken for the enemy’s irregular horse, were fired at
accordingly, many of them perishing in this unprofitable manner; and
had any adverse fortune occurred in the campaign, confusion and
defeat must have ensued, as these disorderly masses would
inevitably have incommoded, and rendered all military discipline
abortive. Accordingly, to protect them from absolute annihilation, the
33rd regiment of infantry, under command of the hon. colonel
Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington), was attached to this disorderly
crew, and acted with them during the advance to Seringapatam. The
movements of the whole army was entirely confided to the
management of Colonel Barry Close, a Company’s officer, and
adjutant-general to the forces—a man of extensive capacity, who
had displayed eminent talents in both civil and military departments
during his long residence in India. He was an ornament to his
profession, and, had fortune favoured him, might have proved a
first-rate general. For his amiable and conciliatory disposition, he
was beloved and esteemed by all who enjoyed the advantage of his
society.
During the march, the towns and villages were involved in flames
in every direction, and not an atom of food or forage was anywhere
procurable (every officer of the army was provided with three
months’ provision of biscuit, &c., borne on the backs of bullocks in
various numbers, according to the grade of the officer), and every
tank or pool of water was impregnated with the poison of the milk
hedge, large quantities of the branches of which the enemy had
industriously thrown in—so that many horses, bullocks, and even, in
some instances, men, fell victims to the deleterious infusion.
As the head of the British column passed the little fort of
Malleville, the quarter-master-general was observed marking out the
site for encampment on an extensive sandy plain in front of the fort.
The booming of distant heavy ordnance was plainly distinguishable.
The lascars had commenced pitching the tents and marquees for the
reception of the exhausted troops, but were suddenly interrupted in
their occupation by the successive bounding of cannon-balls
amongst them, when they precipitately quitted the dangerous
situation, and fled for protection to the rear of the approaching
troops. The enemy were posted on a commanding eminence about
two miles distant, at the extremity of the sandy plain, supported by
a long range of numerous heavy artillery and strong imposing bodies
of regular cavalry. The English pickets, commanded by Captain
Macpherson, of the 12th foot, pushed on towards the enemy’s left
flank with two 12-pounder galloppers, and the action became brisk
in that quarter—for, having ensconced themselves in a wood, they
were thus secure from the charges of hordes of cavalry surrounding,
whom they saluted with reiterated discharges of grape-shot from the
galloppers. In the interim, whilst this scene was agitating, the right
wing of the British army formed, on the intended ground of
encampment, in contiguous close columns, and in this form
cautiously advanced towards the eminence in front. I now, for the
first time, became acquainted with the whirring, hoarse noise of
cannon-balls—the phitz, phitz, of musket-bullets passing close to the
body—and the ping, ping, of those flying distantly over head:
fortunately, the balls, rockets, &c., were ill-directed, and did little
execution. As the columns approached nearer the enemy’s position,
the heavy guns were withdrawn behind the eminence (Tippoo Saib
fearing nothing so much as the capture of his artillery, which he had
invariably lost in his former battles with lord Cornwallis, in 1782),
and ultimately disappeared! In this short advance, Captain Whitley,
of the grenadiers of the 12th (to which company I was attached),
observing, I presume, the unaccustomed paleness of my
countenance, turned round and offered me a refreshing draught of
brandy and water from the contents of his canteen, or leathern
bottle attached to his side, which I gratefully accepted; for at
eighteen we have not the nerves and stamina of a man of forty
years old. Untried individuals may sarcastically sneer at this apparent
indication of pusillanimity; but never, during all my service, did I
observe soldiers enter on a scene of action with that calm, florid
appearance, denoting a sense of health and security: did man ever
yet exist exempt from the common feelings of human nature? In
point of fact, there is an evident, palpable alteration of feature in
every man, at the commencement of a battle; as it rages, this
marked difference in the lineaments of the countenance disappears,
and the excitement of exertion soon produces the usual effect of
renewed animation, with a spirit of recklessness indifferent to the
consequences of existing danger.
The advancing columns having approached within a few yards of
the summit of the eminence, halted, and deployed into line, and
thus marched on, when having reached the apex of the ascent, the
formidable army of the redoubtable Tippoo Saib appeared drawn up
on the plain below in battle array, with woods on both flanks,
covered with tens of thousands of horsemen: the first indication of a
serious attack proceeded from a body of cavalry, who charging the
light infantry skirmishing front, soon drove them with headlong
speed into the British line, where they rejoined their battalions; this
body of horse, of about 1500, was formed in a compact wedge-like
shape, with the front angle headed by two enormous elephants
(saddled with howdahs, filled with distinguished officers), having
each a huge iron chain dangling from the proboscis, which they
whirled about with great rapidity, a blow from which would have
destroyed half a company of infantry; at the first superficial view
they were mistaken for the Nizam’s troops, but as they rapidly
approached (firing their pistols and carbines, which produced some
trifling effect) towards an interval of a few yards extent between his
majesty’s 12th regiment and a battalion of Sepoys on the right, it
was soon obvious they intended passing through this interval to the
rear of the British line; fortunately, at this momentous crisis, a
detachment of the Company’s native cavalry suddenly galloped from
the rear, and completely filled up the space, when the enemy edged
off, and directed their whole column to the front of the 12th
regiment. General Harris, the commander-in-chief, suddenly
appeared in the rear, vociferating aloud, “Fire, 12th! fire!” To their
eternal credit, coolness, and unexampled discipline, be it recorded,
that although standing with recovered arms, not a shot was fired,
nor even a movement made, that indicated indecision; the men
knew it was not the voice of the colonel, who, however, thus pressed
by the authority of his superior officer, now gave the command
—“Steady, 12th! and wait until these fellows are within ten yards of
you,—then singe the beggars’ whiskers.” This order was implicitly
obeyed. At the word “Fire!” a volley was effectually poured into the
wedge of cavalry, followed by a rapid and well-directed file-firing,
which produced the happiest effect; for on the smoke clearing away,
a complete rampart of men and horses lay extended on the earth, in
front of this invincible old corps! The elephants, maddened, with
pain from their innumerable wounds, were shuffling away with
speed, and swinging the enormous chains to right and left amidst
the retiring cavalry, many of whom were thus destroyed. The
howdahs (from which the leading chiefs had directed the charge)
were dashed to atoms, and several of these brave men’s heads hung
from the backs of the enraged animals; horses rearing, and crushing
the riders to death—other loose and wounded horses scouring the
plain on all sides—the scene was awfully terrific! Just at this eventful
period, two 9-pounder field-pieces replaced the cavalry in the
interval alluded to, at once opening a destructive shower of grape-
shot on the discomfited horsemen, who were attempting to join their
main body stationed in the woods below; these latter, perceiving the
entire defeat of the “Forlorn Hope,” poured forth their tens of
thousands, scouring rapidly over the sandy plain, exposed to the
exterminating effects of the British artillery. The battle now became
general along the whole line—infantry, cavalry, and artillery, all
exerting their utmost efforts of destruction. Unfortunately, a large
body of the Mysorian cavalry outflanked and cut into the rear of the
British line, destroyed crowds of sick men and lascars, who were
considered safe from such indiscriminate and inhuman butchery.
Many of these gallant fellows, although in the last stage of human
debility, crawled out of the doolies (rough palanquins for sick men),
and fought manfully to the last gasp. On the extreme right of the
line, the hon. colonel Wellesley was stationed, with his majesty’s
33rd regiment of foot, surrounded by the Nizam’s cavalry. The
Mysorians at once charged the Nizam’s horse, who as suddenly
scampered off. When the 33rd regiment were first observed by the
enemy, the usual cry of “Feringee bong chute!” (“Rascally English!”)
was uttered, and Tippoo’s cavalry fled in confusion, leaving several
battalions of infantry to receive the dreadful charge of the British
regiment! One hurrah! and the opposing infantry came in contact;
several thousands of the Mysorians were bayonetted, the rest
retiring in dismay, followed by the 19th dragoons, who cut and
slashed without mercy. The right wing of the enemy being thrown
into irretrievable confusion, and all parts of their line wavering, the
battle was soon ended, Tippoo Saib drawing off with all possible
haste. The British line now began to advance from their fighting
position; but so numerous were the dead bodies of men and horses
in front of the 12th regiment, that some difficulty was experienced in
surmounting the obstacle! Two or three horsemen, in the attack of
the wedge of cavalry, cut through the 12th regiment, but were
immediately shot in the rear. To give an idea of the temper,
sharpness, and weight of the swords of these men, who had all
drugged themselves with bang (a narcotic herb, resembling opium in
its effects on the human frame), for the attack, I have only to
mention, that the barrel of one of the European’s muskets was
completely severed by one cut from a Moorman’s sabre, the blade of
which was three and a half feet long, half an inch thick at the back,
and four inches broad, weighing fourteen pounds!
It is now only necessary to add, that the victory was in favour of
the British, who with the right wing of their army (about 16,000
men) had engaged the combined forces of the sultan, destroying
several thousands, with the loss only of a few hundreds. No guns
were captured on either side. About six o’clock in the afternoon, the
only indication of the proximity of an enemy was the distant
booming of heavy artillery. The British, on reaching their original
ground of encampment, were congratulated by the left wing of the
army (just encamping, after a tedious hot march) on the success of
the engagement, expressing regret that they had not arrived in time
to participate in the glory of the day.”
SERINGAPATAM, OPENING THE TRENCHES BEFORE.—“On the
morning of the 5th April, 1799, the British army encamped on their
permanent ground for the siege of the celebrated fortress of
Seringapatam; and, after due deliberation, it was decided to open
the trenches, if possible, the same evening. In accordance with this
determination, two separate bodies of troops were ordered to
parade, at six o’clock in the afternoon—one destined to drive the
enemy from the dry bed of a nullah, or narrow river—the other to
take possession of a small wood situated in a line on the right of the
river, and rather nearer the encampment, which had been occupied
the night before by a detachment of flankers under General Baird,
and evacuated, the enemy having silently retreated from it on the
approach of the English. Both these positions were, on the 5th,
strongly occupied by select bodies of Tippoo’s troops. To accomplish
these arduous enterprises, his Majesty’s 12th regiment, with a
proportion of sepoys or native troops, consisting of about 2000
effective men, under the command of lieutenant-colonel Shaw (of
the 12th foot), marched from the British lines at a quarter past six
o’clock, to take possession of the bed of the river; his majesty’s 33rd
regiment of foot, with a detachment of sepoys, amounting, in toto,
to 2000 men, under the command of colonel Wellesley (now the
duke of Wellington), quitted camp about the same time, to occupy
the tope, or wood, on the right of the bed of the river. The two posts
were intended to be carried at or near the same time as possible, for
the mutual protection and security of both detachments—as one
position was almost untenable without the occupation of the other.
The British encampment was situated three miles from
Seringapatam, on a rising ground gradually sloping up from the
fortress, with the exception of partial undulations, which, however,
did not prevent a perfect view of the whole intermediate spaces. The
two posts (nullah and top) were midway between the camp and the
besieged town. Scarcely had these two little columns quitted the
camp, than they were assailed by showers of rockets and blue lights
from every direction in front, which completely illumined the
atmosphere, and exposed the British to the fire of Tippoo’s tiger
sepoys; heavy masses of whom poured death into Shaw’s force, with
the most terrific effect. Still this gallant little body moved slowly on
(as the night was exceedingly dark), although more encumbered
each moment with dead, dying, and wounded: the rockets and
musketry from upwards of 20,000 of the enemy were incessant—no
hail could be thicker; with every blue light came a shower of bullets,
and several rockets passed through the head to the rear of the
column, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations:[2] the
cries of the wounded were quite awful. Not a shot did the British
fire, nor had the men even loaded their pieces; a caution from the
brave old colonel Shaw, that “all must be done with the bayonet,”
needed no repetition to ensure obedience; but scarcely had this
caution been conveyed through the ranks, when a tremendous peal
of musketry was heard on the right flank, in the direction of the
wood, which caused Shaw’s force to halt, as the attack became so
formidable from the front, and both flanks, that it would have been
an useless sacrifice of the men’s lives to stand up; they were
consequently directed to lie down for a few minutes, to avoid the
effects of the enemy’s scorching fire, which now proceeded from a
very few yards’ distance—the brilliant light of their fire-balls or blue
lights exposing Shaw’s column to the full force of their musketry;
and imagining, from the recumbent posture of the British, that the
majority was killed, a large column of the tiger sepoys ventured an
attack with the bayonet, and drove in the battalion of the Company’s
sepoys, who were a few yards in advance on the right, and killing
their major. The command, “Up, 12th and charge!” was no sooner
given, than each man sprang up and advanced to the charge in
silence and compact order. The tiger sepoys stood, until a very few
yards intervened between the combatants, when a general shout of
“Feringee bong chute!” (“the rascally English!”) was uttered, and the
enemy dispersed on all sides in considerable confusion; but, shortly
after, again threw out their blue lights, and recommenced their
murderous file-firing, which once more compelled the British to
resume their prostrate posture. It was now about twelve o’clock at
night, when the solemn trampling of a body of troops was plainly
distinguished, approaching from the right flank in a hasty and rather
tumultuous manner. Once more Shaw’s column were on their feet
and preparing to charge, when a few stragglers from the hon.
colonel Wellesley’s force rushed in, and announced that the
detachment had been repulsed from the wood, and that the
approaching trampling was part of the force coming to join Shaw—
that two companies of the 33rd, with their colonel (Wellesley), were
missing! A few minutes after this report, major Shea (second in
command to Wellesley) joined Shaw’s force with the remains of that
detachment: he stated that colonel Wellesley, with two companies of
the 33rd regiment, had been either taken prisoners or had retreated
to camp! As second in command, he had considered it his duty to
traverse the wood in search of him, which proving unsuccessful, and
the fire from the enemy becoming so exceedingly heavy, had
induced him to lead the remaining troops to colonel Shaw, for the
purpose of obtaining information, and receiving instructions how to
act. Colonel Shaw replied, ironically, “that he had better follow his
colonel to camp”—a hint that was implicitly and immediately
complied with. Indignation here overcame prudence, as Shaw soon
saw the enemy pouring in from all sides, and the stoutest heart in
his force predicted a fatal result, from the united and concentrated
efforts of so numerous an enemy. Large quantities of ammunition
were sent from camp during the night, for the supply of Shaw’s
column, as, from the tremendous firing, it was naturally
apprehended that all their cartridges had been expended; but these
incessant peals of musketry had all proceeded from Tippoo’s troops
(not a single shot had been returned by Shaw’s column). The oldest
soldier in camp declared they had never heard so tremendous a fire:
in fact, it continued for twelve hours without intermission, blue lights
and rockets illuminating the air the whole time—beautiful, though
terrific. It was generally imagined in camp that Shaw and his
detachment must have been inevitably annihilated; but this gallant
old officer only waited the dawn of day, to exhibit one of the most
glorious and impressive spectacles that ever added lustre to the
annals of British military fame! The appearance of Wellesley in camp,
followed by part of two companies of the 33rd regiment, reporting
that the remainder of his detachment had been cut to pieces,
increased the probability of the inevitable destruction of the other
attacking column, and all was anxiety and commiseration, in camp,
for the fate of this devoted little band.
At five o’clock on the morning of the 6th April, the fire of musketry
began to relax; the whole were under arms, and generously anxious
for the safety of the column under Shaw’s command: but scarcely
had the day dawned, than a glorious and exhilarating scene was
displayed: the gallant old 12th, and the sepoys in line with them,
were seen rushing on the entrenched enemy at the point of the
bayonet, and driving them from the bed of the river, in spite of a
heavy cannonade from the fortress of Seringapatam, and the
resistance of the numerous columns opposed to them. Never did
men more heroically perform their duty: the conflict was excessively
murderous and obstinate, as the tiger sepoys were brave, numerous
and well-disciplined. For some time the result of the attack appeared
most dubious, as a considerable body of French troops persevered in
most gallant style, in leading on Tippoo’s sepoys. The rapid charge
of the 12th regiment, supported by the sepoys composing the force,
excited the admiration of the whole British army. General Harris was
heard to exclaim, “Well done, old 12th! why, they are going to take
Seringapatam!” The occupation of the bed of the nullah being at
length achieved by Shaw’s column, it had scarcely secured itself
under the embankment of the river, from the thundering cannon of
the fortress, when the enemy in the wood (who had opposed and
put Wellesley to flight) opened a destructive fire from several field-
pieces, which completely enfiladed Shaw’s post. A mound of earth
was quickly thrown up on the right flank of the 12th regiment, to
protect them, as much as possible, from this fresh annoyance; but
this precaution could not have prevented the British from being
dislodged from the bed of the river, had not several brigades from
camp been observed advancing to support the position of Shaw’s
post, and to drive the enemy from the wood. The certainty of
speedy support inspired Shaw’s column with renewed ardour, and a
fire was for the first time returned, with a rapidity and effect that
completely disconcerted the enemy, who retired in good order, ever
and anon facing about and firing a volley of musketry.
They were not relieved until the close of the evening of the 6th, as
the enemy’s firing from the fortress of Seringapatam was so
destructive, that Baird’s brigade was compelled to halt and return to
camp; the other brigade, under Wellesley, advanced and took
possession of the wood which the enemy abandoned, and thus
relieved Shaw’s post from an annoying enfilade of cannon and
musketry, from which they suffered for at least an hour and a half
after daybreak, with the greatest constancy and courage. Eleven
officers and 180 rank and file were killed and wounded in this small
force during the night and morning of the 5th and 6th April. About
seven o’clock in the evening of the latter day, the 74th regiment
relieved the 12th, who were right happy to break their fast after
twenty-four hours’ hard fighting and fasting.”
SEVILLE.—Surrendered to the French, February 1st, 1810; taken
by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of
Salamanca, August 27th, 1812, when the French left it, at the
general evacuation of the south of Spain, in consequence of their
signal defeat in that battle.
SHERRIFMUIR, BATTLE OF.—Fought, November 12th, 1715,
between the Royal army, under the Duke of Argyle, and the Scotch
rebel forces, who favored the Pretender, and commanded by the Earl
of Mar. The insurgents were defeated. Fought on the same day in
which the rebel forces were defeated at Preston.
SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF.—Fought, July 21st, 1403, between the
Royal army of Henry IV, and the army of the Nobles, led by Percy,
surnamed Hotspur, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army
consisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most
obstinate and bloody. Henry was seen everywhere in the thickest of
the fight, while his valiant son, who was afterwards the renowned
conqueror of France, fought by his side, though wounded in the face
by an arrow, still kept the field and performed astonishing deeds of
bravery. On the other hand, Hotspur performed prodigies of valour;
2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. Hotspur
was killed by an unknown hand, and his death decided the fortune
of the day.
SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE OF.—In which the Britons were completely
defeated, and Caractacus, their leader, taken prisoner and sent to
Rome; fought A.D. 51.
SIEGES.—Numerous in History; the following are the most
important:—
Acre, 1799, by Bonaparte; siege raised after sixty days, open
trenches.
Algiers, 1816. See this article.
Almeida, August 27th, 1810.
Antwerp, 1576, use of infernal machines; also besieged 1583,
1585, 1706, 1792, and 1814.
Badajoz, March 11th, 1811, but raised June 9th. Taken by
escalade on the night of April 6th, 1812.
Bagdad, 1248.
Bayonne, 1451.
Berwick, 1293. See this article.
Bommel, 1794; the invention of the covert-way used here.
Burgos, September to October, 1812, raised; the French in their
retreat blew up the works, June 13th, 1813.
Calais, 1347; British historians affirm cannon first used here at this
siege. See this article.
 Candia, 1667; the largest cannon then known in Europe, used
here by the Turks.
Carthagena, 1706.
Chalons, 1199.
Cherbourg, 1650.
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706, July, 1810; January, 1812. See this article.
Constantinople, 1453.
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, and 1807. See this article.
Cracow, 1772.
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793.
Frederickshall, 1718, Charles XII killed here.
Gibraltar, 1704, 1799, and 1782; red hot cannon balls used here
to burn the French fleet. See this article.
Ismael, 1790. See this article.
Kars, 1855. See this article.
Londonderry, 1689. See this article.
Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, and 1794.
Mothe, 1634; the French taught by Mr. Muller, an English engineer,
first practised the art of throwing shells.
Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, and 1806.
Orleans, 1428, 1563.
Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, and 1688; first experiment of firing
artillery à-ricochet here, also besieged 1734 and 1795.
 Romorentin, 1356; according to Voltaire, artillery first used here in
sieges.
St. Sebastian, September, 1813.
Salamanca, June, 1812.
Saragossa, oftener spelled Zaragosa,—appended to this article is a
graphic account of the 2nd siege. It was besieged three times, in
1710, 1808, and 1809, the two last were dreadful sieges.
Schweidnitz, 1762 and 1807. Here was the first experiment to
reduce a fortress by springing globes of compression.
Sebastopol, 1854 and 1855. See this article under the heads of
Bombardment of Sebastopol, Mamelon, Quarries, Rifle Pits, Sortie,
&c.
Seville, 1096, 1247, 1248, one of the most memorable sieges
mentioned in Spanish history.
Silistria, 1854. See this article.
Stralsund, 1675, 1713, and 1807; the method of throwing red hot
cannon balls first practiced here with certainty.
Tarifa, December 20th, 1811.
Toulon, 1707 and 1793.
Tournay, 1340, 1312, 1581, 1667, and 1709. During this siege the
best defence ever drawn from countermines was here practised; also
besieged in 1765 and 1794.
Tunis, 1270, 1535.
Valenciennes, May 23rd to July 14th, 1793. See this article.
Warsaw, September 8th, 1831.
Zutphen, 1572 and 1586.
 SILISTRIA, SIEGE OF.—In 1854.—The following is an admirable
account of the siege of this place:
“After the battle of Citate, so bitter a blow to the pretensions of
Russia, the enemy’s Generals found it advisable to change their plan
of operations. Adopting Foktchani as their basis, they accumulated a
large amount of military stores, and finding that the Turks were not
to be tempted into crossing the Danube, calmly awaited
reinforcements. When these had arrived, it was resolved to make a
desperate effort to force the passage of the river. Imperative orders
arrived from St. Petersburg to press the war vigorously, and at any
cost. On the 13th of February they attacked Giurgevo, on the
Wallachian bank of the Danube, with a considerable force, and after
a vigorous resistance, the Turks were forced to evacuate their
position, though not without being able to effect an orderly retreat
across the river, and establish themselves firmly in the opposite town
of Rustchuk. The Russian Generals now resolved on concentrating
their strength, and making an irresistible advance into Bulgaria. With
characteristic promptness, however, Omer Pacha initiated the attack.
Throwing a small column across the Danube at Rahova, he assaulted
and drove back the outposts at Kalarasch with considerable
slaughter; and the Turks, after this dashing feat, retired in security
to Rahova. Another attempt was made by the extreme right of the
Russian line, on the 11th of March, to seize Kalafat; but they were
energetically repulsed by the brave garrison of that renowned town.
Four days later, Prince Gortschakoff made a desperate effort to wrest
from its Ottoman defenders the island in the Danube between
Tukurtai and Oltenitza, which had been so important a position in
the battle at the latter place. The Russians were again driven back,
but some idea of the sanguinary nature of the struggle may be
formed from the fact that 2000 soldiers of the Czar left their bodies
on the disputed ground.
“Five days before this desperate attempt to force the passage of
the river at Oltenitza, General Luders had succeeded in crossing, at
Galatz, into the Dobrudscha. Gortschakoff, defeated as he had been,
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