What is a Microcontroller?

A Microcontroller is a programmable digital processor with necessary peripherals. Both microcontrollers and microprocessors are
complex sequential digital circuits meant to carry out job according to the program / instructions. Sometimes analog input/output
interface makes a part of microcontroller circuit of mixed mode(both analog and digital nature).
A microcontroller can be compared to a Swiss knife with multiple functions incorporated in the same IC

Microcontrollers Vs Microprocessors
1. A microprocessor requires an external memory for program/data storage. Instruction execution requires movement of data
from the external memory to the microprocessor or vice versa. Usually, microprocessors have good computing power and
they have higher clock speed to facilitate faster computation.
2. A microcontroller has required on-chip memory with associated peripherals. A microcontroller can be thought of a
microprocessor with inbuilt peripherals.
3. A microcontroller does not require much additional interfacing ICs for operation and it functions as a stand alone system.
The operation of a microcontroller is multipurpose, just like a Swiss knife.
4. Microcontrollers are also called embedded controllers. A microcontroller clock speed is limited only to a few tens of MHz.
Microcontrollers are numerous and many of them are application specific.

Development/Classification of microcontrollers (Invisible)

Microcontrollers have gone through a silent evolution (invisible). The evolution can be rightly termed as silent as the impact or
application of a microcontroller is not well known to a common user, although microcontroller technology has undergone significant
change since early 1970's. Development of some popular microcontrollers is given as follows.
Intel 4004 4 bit (2300 PMOS trans, 108 kHz) 1971
Intel 8048 8 bit 1976
Intel 8031 8 bit (ROM-less) .
Intel 8051 8 bit (Mask ROM) 1980
Microchip PIC16C64 8 bit 1985
Motorola 68HC11 8 bit (on chip ADC) .
Intel 80C196 16 bit 1982
Atmel AT89C51 8 bit (Flash memory) .
Microchip PIC 16F877 8 bit (Flash memory + ADC) .
Development of microprocessors (Visible)
Microprocessors have undergone significant evolution over the past four decades. This development is clearly perceptible to a
common user, especially, in terms of phenomenal growth in capabilities of personal computers. Development of some of
the microprocessors can be given as follows.
Intel 4004 4 bit (2300 PMOS transistors) 1971
Intel 8080 8 bit (NMOS)
1974
8085 8 bit
Intel 8088 16 bit
1978
8086 16 bit
Intel 80186 16 bit
1982
80286 16 bit
Intel 80386 32 bit (275000 transistors) 1985
Intel 80486 SX 32 bit
1989
DX 32 bit (built in floating point unit)
Intel 80586 I
1993
MMX
1997
Celeron II 64 bit
1999
III
2000
IV
Z-80 (Zilog) 8 bit 1976
Motorola Power PC 601 32-bit 1993
602
603 1995
We use more number of microcontrollers compared to microprocessors. Microprocessors are primarily used for computational
purpose, whereas microcontrollers find wide application in devices needing real time processing / control.
Applications of microcontrollers are numerous. Starting from domestic applications such as in washing machines, TVs, air
conditioners, microcontrollers are used in automobiles, process control industries , cell phones, electrical drives, robotics and in
space applications.
Microcontroller Chips
Broad Classification of different microcontroller chips could be as follows:

 Embedded (Self -Contained) 8 - bit Microcontroller

 16 to 32 Microcontrollers
 Digital Signal Processors

Features of Modern Microcontrollers

 Built-in Monitor Program
 Built-in Program Memory
 Interrupts
 Analog I/O
 Serial I/O
 Facility to Interface External Memory
 Timers

Internal Structure of a Microcontroller

Fig. 2.1 Internal Structure of a Microcontroller

At times, a microcontroller can have external memory also (if there is no internal memory or extra memory interface is required).
Early microcontrollers were manufactured using bipolar or NMOS technologies. Most modern microcontrollers are manufactured
with CMOS technology, which leads to reduction in size and power loss. Current drawn by the IC is also reduced considerably from
10mA to a few micro Amperes in sleep mode(for a microcontroller running typically at a clock speed of 20MHz).
Harvard vs. Princeton Architecture
Many years ago, in the late 1940's, the US Government asked Harvard and Princeton universities to come up with a computer
architecture to be used in computing distances of Naval artillery shell for defense applications. Princeton suggested computer
architecture with a single memory interface. It is also known as Von Neumann architecture after the name of the chief scientist of the
project in Princeton University John Von Neumann (1903 - 1957 Born in Budapest, Hungary).

Harvard suggested a computer with two different memory interfaces, one for the data / variables and the other for program /
instructions. Although Princeton architecture was accepted for simplicity and ease of implementation, Harvard architecture became
popular later, due to the parallelism of instruction execution.
Princeton Architecture (Single memory interface)

Fig. 2.2 Princeton Architecture

Example : An instruction "Read a data byte from memory and store it in the accumulator" is executed as follows: -

Cycle 1 - Read Instruction

Cycle 2 - Read Data out of RAM and put into Accumulator
Harvard Architecture (Separate Program and Data Memory interfaces)
 Fig. 2.3 Harvard Arcitecture
The same instruction (as shown under Princeton Architecture) would be executed as follows:

Cycle1
-Complete previous instruction
- Read the "Move Data to Accumulator" instruction

Cycle2
- Execute "Move Data to Accumulator" instruction
- Read next instruction

Hence each instruction is effectively executed in one instruction cycle, except for the ones that modify the content of the program
counter. For example, the "jump" (or call) instructions takes 2 cycles. Thus, due to parallelism, Harvard architecture executes more
instructions in a given time compared to Princeton Architecture.

Memory types
In a microcontroller, two types of memory are found. They are, program memory and data memory respectively.

Program memory is also known as 'control store' and 'firm ware'. It is non-volatile i.e, the memory content is not lost when the power
goes off. Non-volatile memory is also called Read Only Memory(ROM). There are various types of ROM.
1. Mask ROM: Some microcontrollers with ROM are programmed while they are still in the factory. This ROM is called Mask
ROM. Since the microcontrollers with Mask ROM are used for specific application, there is no need to reprogram them.
Some times, this type of manufacturing reduces the cost for bulk production.
2. Reprogrammable program memory (or) Erasable PROM (EPROM): Microcontrollers with EPROM were introduced in
late 1970's. These devices are electrically programmable but are erased with UV radiation. The construction of a EPROM
memory cell is somewhat like a MOSFET but with a control and float semiconductor as shown in the figure.
 Fig 3.3 Structure of an EPROM
In the unprogrammed state, the 'float' does not have any charge and the MOSFET is in the OFF state. To program the cell, the
'control' above the 'float' is raised to a high enough potential such that a charge leaks to the float through SiO 2 insulating layer.
Hence a channel is formed between 'Source' and 'Drain' in the silicon substrate and the MOSFET becomes 'ON'. The charge in the
'float' remains for a long time (typically over 30 years). The charge can be removed by exposing the float to UV radiation. For UV
erasable version, the packaging is done in a ceramic enclosure with a glass window.

Fig 3.4 UV erasable version of an EPROM

Usually, these versions of micro controllers are expensive.

3. OTP EPROM: One time programmable (OTP) EPROM based microcontrollers do not have any glass window for UV erasing.
These can be programmed only once. This type of packaging results in microcontroller that have the cost 10% of the
microcontrollers with UV erase facility(i.e., 1/10th cost).
4. EEPROM: (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): This is similar to EPROM but the float charge can be removed electrically.
5. FLASH (EEPROM Memory): FLASH memory was introduced by INTEL in late 1980's.
This memory is similar to EEPROM but the cells in a FLASH memory are bussed so that they can be erased in a few clock cycles.
Hence the reprogramming is faster.
DATA Memory

Data memory can be classified into the following categories

 Bits
 Registers
 Variable RAM
 Program counter stack

Microcontroller can have ability to perform manipulation of individual bits in certain registers(bit manipulation). This is a unique
feature of a microcontroller, not available in a microprocessor.

Eight bits make a byte. Memory bytes are known as file registers.

Registers are some special RAM locations that can be accessed by the processor very easily.

Fig 4.1 Static RAM (SRAM) memory cell

Fig 4.2 SRAM memory cell equivalent

The figure of a single SRAM cell is shown above. This consists of two CMOS inverters connected back to front, so as to form a
latch.

Processor stacks store/save the data in a simple way during program execution. Processor stack is a part of RAM area where the
data is saved in a Last In First Out (LIFO) fashion just like a stack of paper on a table. Data is stored by executing a 'push'
instruction and data is read out using a 'pop' instruction.
I/O Registers:
In addition to the Data memory, some special purpose registers are required that are used in input/output and control operations.
These registers are called I/O registers. These are important for microcontroller peripheral interface and control applications.
Hardware interface registers (I/O Space)
As we already know a microcontroller has some embedded peripherals and I/O devices. The data transfer to these devices takes