Understanding Fluids

 Definition of fluids.

o Fluids include both liquids and gases.

o Anything that can flow is considered a fluid.

 Atomic composition of fluids.

o Atoms in fluids are arranged randomly.

o Unlike solids, which have a proper structure.

Properties of Fluids

 Fluids cannot withstand shear stress.

o When shear stress is applied, fluids start to flow.

o Solids can bear shear stress, but fluids cannot.

Differences Between Liquids and Gases

 Liquids are incompressible.

o Liquids cannot be compressed, regardless of applied pressure.

 Gases can be compressed.

o Gases have a tendency to occupy maximum volume and can be compressed easily.

Thrust and Pressure

 Thrust in liquids.

o Thrust is the force exerted by liquids on any body.

o This force acts perpendicular to the surface of the body.

 Definition of pressure.

o Pressure is the force per unit area.

o Measured in Newton per square meter.

Pascal's Law

 Explanation of Pascal's Law.

o Pressure exerted by a liquid in a container acts equally in all directions.

o Important for understanding hydraulic systems.

 Applications of Pascal's Law.

o Used in hydraulic lifts and brakes.

o Demonstrates the practical significance of fluid mechanics.

 "As per Pascal's Law, the pressure in a liquid at a point is equal to the pressure at any other point within the
same liquid."

o Pressure is consistent throughout the liquid.

o Application in hydraulic systems.

 Hydraulic brakes operate using a disc mechanism.

o A wheel and a disc are interconnected.

o Stopping one will stop the other.

 Brake pads are used to halt the disc.

o Fluid pressure is applied to the brake pads.

o "The liquid exerts pressure to stop the wheel."

Master Cylinder and Pressure

 The master cylinder contains a piston that compresses the brake fluid.

o This fluid travels through brake lines.

o Pressure is applied equally to all wheels regardless of distance.

 "There will be equal pressure at every point, whether near or far."

Hydraulic Lift System

 A hydraulic lift uses fluid to elevate objects.

o The area of the piston impacts the force applied.

o A larger area results in a greater lift with less force.

 "Pressure is exerted equally in all directions in a liquid."

Hydrostatic Pressure

 Hydrostatic pressure is influenced by the height of the liquid column.

o Pressure increases with depth in the liquid.

o Depends on liquid density and gravitational pull.

 "The pressure at any point in a fluid is determined by the height of the liquid column above it.

Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Principles

 Water in containers will fill to the same height when pressure is equal.

o "When height is equal, pressure will also be equal."

 Hydrostatic paradox implies pressure is independent of container shape.

o Pressure depends on the height of the fluid column.

Concepts of Pressure

 Pressure is exerted by liquid columns.

o The formula for pressure includes factors like depth and density.

 Gravity affects fluid pressure.

o Fluid pressure must be equal at all points at the same depth.

Equilibrium in Fluids

 Equilibrium occurs when net forces on a body are zero.

 The weight of the liquid cylinder is a key factor.

o Weight can be expressed as mass times gravity.

Types of Pressure Measurements

 Absolute pressure refers to total pressure including atmospheric pressure.

o "Absolute pressure is the actual pressure."

 Gauge pressure measures pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

o It indicates how much pressure is above or below atmospheric pressure.

Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure

 A barometer measures atmospheric pressure.

o It utilizes mercury in a tube to gauge pressure.

 Atmospheric pressure is a result of gases in the atmosphere.

o The unit of pressure often used is bar.

Mercury Behavior

 Mercury expands and contracts simultaneously.

o "Every particle of mercury moves forward together."

o No particle sticks to any surface during movement.

 Mercury's reading is not affected by sticking to the glass.

o Vaporization occurs in water at normal temperature.

o Mercury behaves differently under atmospheric pressure conditions.

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure

 To measure atmospheric pressure, a container filled with mercury is used.

o A glass tube is filled with mercury and inverted.

 When inverted, mercury moves down, creating a vacuum.

o A vacuum indicates low pressure.

 The height of mercury indicates atmospheric pressure.

o "From this height, we can understand the pressure we are measuring."

Understanding Pressure

 Pressure at sea level is considered standard.

o Sea level is set at zero for measurements.

 High altitude areas, like Uttarakhand, have different pressure values.

o "The height measured affects the pressure value."

Units of Pressure

 Common units for pressure include Newton per square meter and Pascal.
 o Newton per square meter is equivalent to Pascal.

 Normal atmospheric pressure can also be represented in centimeters of mercury.

o "1 atm is equal to 760 mm of Hg."

Open Tube Manometer

 An open tube manometer is a device to measure gas pressure.

o It consists of a tube containing liquid.

 When gas expands, it exerts pressure on the liquid.

o The liquid's height changes based on the gas pressure.

 Equal heights indicate equal pressure in connected columns.

o "The pressure at this height will be equal to the pressure in the gas.

Force of Buoyancy

 When an object is submerged in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force.

o This upward force is known as the buoyant force.

o The buoyant force acts in the opposite direction to the weight of the object.

 The concept of buoyancy applies to all liquids.

 The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the submerged object.

Archimedes' Principle

 Archimedes stated that an object submerged in a liquid experiences an upward force equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced.

o Example: If a person weighing 80 kg is submerged, the weight of the displaced water equals 80 kg.

 The principle applies regardless of whether the object is fully or partially submerged.

Laws of Floating

 The buoyant force is responsible for whether an object floats or sinks.

o If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force, it will sink.

o If the buoyant force is greater, the object will float.

 Density plays a crucial role in determining whether an object will float or sink.

Density Considerations

 A denser object will sink in water.

o Example: A steel hammer will sink because its density is greater than that of water.

 An object can float if its overall density is less than that of water by increasing its volume.

o Example: A ship made of steel floats because its overall density is less than that of water.

Body Density and Swimming

 When the body becomes buoyant, its volume increases.

o This results in decreased density, making it easier to swim in water.

o Seawater has a higher density than river water.

Viscosity

 Viscosity refers to the thickness or stickiness of a liquid.

o Liquids can be classified as non-viscous (low viscosity) or viscous (high viscosity).

 Honey is an example of a viscous fluid, while water is considered a non-viscous fluid.

 Viscosity is affected by the relative motion between layers in a liquid.

o More layers result in higher viscosity due to increased friction.

Forces and Motion

 The velocity of liquid varies with height; higher layers tend to move faster.

o This change is characterized by velocity gradients.

 The coefficient of viscosity depends on the area and velocity gradient.

o Larger areas result in greater opposing forces.

Stokes' Law

 Stokes' Law relates to the force exerted on a sphere moving through a viscous fluid.

o The force depends on the radius of the sphere, the fluid's viscosity, and the sphere's velocity.

 The motion of a spherical object in liquid is opposed by viscous forces.

 The balance of forces determines the terminal velocity of falling objects.

Terminal Velocity

 Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity reached by a falling object.

o It occurs when the downward force of weight is balanced by upward drag forces.

 At terminal velocity, the object travels at a constant speed.

o This concept applies to various mediums, including fluids like water and air.

Terminal Velocity

 The formula for weight is ( W = mg ).

o Mass is calculated using volume and density.

o Volume of a sphere is ( \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3 ).

 Thrust equals the weight of the liquid displaced.

o A larger body will experience more thrust due to its larger volume.

o A smaller body will experience less thrust as it has a smaller volume.

 Terminal velocity occurs when upward forces equal downward forces.

o In ideal fluid, there are two types of flow: streamline flow and turbulent flow.

Streamline Flow

 Streamline flow refers to a flow where particles follow the path of previous particles.
 o Each particle follows the path of the one before it.

 The velocity of each particle in streamline flow is constant at a given point.

o Velocity can vary in different areas of the flow due to changes in area.

 Streamlines never intersect.

o If they did, it would imply two velocities at the same point, which is impossible.

Turbulent Flow

 Turbulent flow is characterized by disturbances and random motion of particles.

o An example is water in a waterfall.

 In turbulent flow, particles can move in any direction randomly.

o Unlike streamline flow, there is no orderly pattern in turbulent flow.

 Laminar flow is a form of smooth flow where layers of liquid slide over each other.

o It is disciplined and occurs at low velocities compared to turbulent flow.

Velocity Profile

 The velocity of particles is highest at the access point of a pipe.

o As distance from the access point increases, velocity decreases.

 The liquid profile is described as a parabolic profile.

o It illustrates how the velocity of particles changes with respect to distance from the axis.

Critical Velocity

 Critical velocity signifies the transition point between laminar and turbulent flow.

o Laminar flow occurs at lower velocities; turbulent flow occurs after a specific velocity threshold.

 The critical velocity is influenced by factors such as:

o Diameter of the tube

o Density of the liquid

o Coefficient of viscosity

Reynolds Number

 The Reynolds number is a parameter indicating the flow type.

o Values from 0 to 2000 indicate laminar flow.

o Values above 4000 indicate turbulent flow.

 Values between 2000 and 4000 indicate critical flow conditions.

Equation of Continuity

 The equation of continuity states that mass flow rate remains constant in a closed system.

o The mass entering a section of a pipe equals the mass exiting it within the same time frame.

 Area and velocity are inversely proportional.

o If the area decreases, the velocity must increase to maintain the mass flow rate.
Bernoulli's Principle

 Bernoulli's principle relates pressure and velocity in fluid dynamics.

o Pressure and velocity are inversely proportional.

 Higher velocity results in lower pressure, and vice versa.

o Matter flows from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

Lift Explained

 Paper behaves differently based on air pressure.

o "When I blow air from below, it rises up."

o "When air is blown from above, it creates low pressure."

 Lift is caused by differences in pressure.

o Higher pressure below pushes the paper up.

o This is referred to as dynamic lift.

Airplane Wings

 Airplane wings are designed with a curve.

o Curved wings help create lift.

o Air moves faster over the top of the wing, creating lower pressure.

 Air pressure difference allows airplanes to take off.

o "The plane can take off smoothly due to this lift."

Bernoulli's Principle

 Bernoulli's principle relates pressure and velocity.

o "Pressure and velocity are universally proportional."

 Air pumps create high-velocity air.

o High-velocity air creates a low-pressure region, allowing substances to be sprayed.

Fluid Flow and Energy

 In a pipe with varying cross-sections, different energies exist.

o Kinetic energy, pressure energy, and potential energy are considered.

 The sum of these energies remains constant.

o If pressure increases, other energy forms adjust to maintain the constant sum.

Work Done by Fluid

 Work done on the fluid is calculated with negative sign.

o "Work done by fluid is equal to work done on fluid."

 The relationship between force, pressure, and displacement.

o "Force in displacement is equal to pressure times area."

 The concept of net work done.

Bernoulli's Theorem

 Bernoulli's theorem applies to incompressible fluids.

o "This theorem is applicable only for incompressible fluids."

 Explanation of forces between fluid particles.

o Cohesive forces exist between similar molecules.

o Adhesive forces exist between different types of molecules.

 Applications and limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem.

o "This principle is used in various applications but has limitations."

Surface Tension

 Definition of surface tension in liquids.

o "Surface tension is the tendency of liquid to occupy minimum area."

 Effects of surface tension on small objects.

o Mosquitoes can walk on water due to surface tension.

 Shape of liquid drops and its relation to surface area.

o "Water droplets are spherical to cover minimum surface area.

Molecular Range

 Each particle has a specific range.

o This range is referred to as molecular range.

o In solids and liquids, the order of magnitude is in terms of meters.

Surface Tension

 The formula for surface tension is force per length.

o The unit is Newton per meter.

 Surface energy is the extra energy possessed by molecules on the surface compared to those in the interior.

o The formula for surface energy is work done upon the increase in surface area.

Excess Pressure Inside Liquid Drops

 When a liquid drop forms, small water droplets or molecules exert surface tension.

o These molecules exert inward forces.

 Excess pressure is always greater inside the drop compared to the outside.

o This is due to the outward force exerted by the molecules.

Angle of Contact

 The angle of contact varies when a rod is immersed in a fluid.

o Different behaviors are observed based on the fluid (e.g., water, mercury).

 For example, glass inserted in water exhibits specific interactions.

 The force is greater, causing water to cling to the sides of the glass.

o A depression forms in the water, known as the meniscus.

o The meniscus appears concave when viewed from above.

Mercury Behavior

 Mercury does not adhere to glass.

o It prefers to stick to its own molecules.

o This results in a convex meniscus.

Angle of Contact

 The angle of contact is determined by the forces between liquid and solid.

o It varies based on the nature of the materials involved.

 The angle is smaller when cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive forces.

Capillarity Concept

 Capillarity occurs when a liquid rises in a narrow tube.

o It can be observed with materials like thread or cotton wicks.

 This phenomenon is evident in various scenarios, such as ink rising in feathers.

Rise of Liquid in Capillary Tube

 When immersed in liquid, a capillary tube will see liquid rise.

o The height to which the liquid rises is described by the ascent formula.

 Understanding the height involves calculations based on pressure and fluid density.

Conclusion and Further Learning

 The chapter concludes with a summary of the concepts discussed.

o Students are encouraged to practice numerical problems.

 Comments and feedback from viewers are welcomed for improvement.

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