(Physics)

INDEX

𝟏
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

𝟏
1. Electric Field on Axial Line of an Electric Dipole

𝟐
2. Electric Field on Equatorial Line of Dipole

𝟐
3. Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field

𝟐−𝟑
4. Electric Field Due to a Line Charge

𝟑
5. Electric Field Due to Infinite Charged Plane Sheet

𝟒
6. Electric Field Due to Charged Spherical Shell
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Electric Dipole

𝟒
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole, when Placed in
8.

𝟒−𝟓
Uniform Electric Field
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor

𝟓
Capacitance of Capacitor, when a Dielectric Slab
10.

𝟓
Completely Fills the Space Between Plates

𝟕
11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

𝟕
12. Drift Velocity

𝟖
13. Relation between Drift Velocity and Electric Current

𝟖
14. Electric Current and Current Density

𝟖−𝟗
15. Cells in Series

𝟗
16. Cells in Parallel

𝟏𝟎
17. Wheat Stone Bridge

𝟏𝟏
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform Magnetic Field
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop

𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐
Force between two infinitely Long Parallel Current
20.

𝟏𝟐
Carrying Conductors

𝟏𝟑
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic Field

𝟏𝟑
22. Self-Induction (of a Long Solenoid )

𝟏𝟒
23. Mutual Induction (of Two Long Solenoids)

𝟏𝟒
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C.

𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔
25. Root Mean Square(rms) or Virtual Value of A.C.

𝟏𝟔
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit

𝟏𝟕
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit

𝟏𝟕
28. Mirror Formula (for Concave spherical mirror)

𝟏𝟖
29. Linear Magnification(for Concave spherical mirror)

𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟗
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface

𝟏𝟗
31. Lens Maker's Formula
32. Refraction through a Prism

𝟐𝟎
33.a Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D) 20

Compound Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D). 𝟐𝟏

33.b Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at

𝟐𝟏
34.a infinity).

𝟐𝟏
34.b Compound Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity).
35. Astronomical Telescope (Image is formed at infinity).

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics)

𝟐𝟑
𝟐𝟑
36. Laws of Reflection on the basis Wave Theory
37. Laws Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory

𝟐𝟓
38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference 24

𝟐𝟓
39. Distance of Closest Approach

𝟐𝟔
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom

𝟐𝟔
41. Nuclear Density

𝟐𝟔
42. Mass Defect
43. Binding Energy

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
1. Electric Field on Axial line of an Electric Then, resultant electric field at point P is given by
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q, separated by a distance 2a and placed in free
space.

The electric field E at point P due to the dipole will

be the resultant of the electric fields E A (due to −q
at point A ) and E B (due to +q at the B) i.e. E = E A+ E B
E = E A+ E B Let ∠MPN = ∠PBN = θ .

Also, |E B| >|E A|. Also ∠NPL = ∠PAB = θ

E = ((E B) − (E A) ) (𝑖) So, E = E A + E B = (EA cos θ + EB cos θ)(−i)

or E = 1 ⋅ q − 1 ⋅ q E = E A + E B = (2EA cos θ)(−i)

⃗
4πε 0 (r − a) 2
4πε 0 (r + a) 2 1 q 2a ⋅ × 4πε0 (r 2 + a 2) (r 2 +
= a2)1/2 (−𝑖)
= 1 ⋅q (r + a) 2 − (r − a) 2
4πε 0 (r 2 − a2 ) 2 1 q(2a) E= ⋅ 4πε0 (r 2 +
or a2)3/2 (−𝑖)
1 q(4ra)
E= ⋅ (𝑖)
4πε0 (r 2 − a2)2 Now P = q(2a)(𝑖) , So,
1 P
∴ E= ⋅ (−𝑖)
Now, P = q(2a)(𝑖), then. 4πε0 (r 2 + a 2)3/2
1 2Pr In vector notation,
∴E= ⋅ (𝑖)
4π ε0 (r − a2)2
1 4πε0 ⋅ P (r 2 + a
2
E =− 2)3/2

In vector notation,
For dipole is of small length, a << r; then in
1 2P r
E= ⋅ equation a2 can be neglected as compared to r2 .
4 π ε0 (r 2 − a2)2
Therefore, 𝐄⃗ = − ⋅ 𝐫𝟑
𝟏 𝐏⃗
For dipole is of small length, a << r; 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
Therefore,

𝟏 𝟐𝐏⃗ 𝐫
3. Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field
⃗
𝐄 ⋅ [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟑
= Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric
field E making an angle θ with the direction of the
2. Electric Field on Equatorial line of
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟐𝟎]
field.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q separated by a distance 2a.

APNI KAKSHA 1
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Φ = E × curved surface area of cylinder
or Φ = E × 2πrl … (i)
According to Gauss' theorem, we have
q
Φ= … (ii)
ε0
Now, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
q = λl
Force on charge −q at A = −qE
λl
& force on charge +q at B = qE ∴ Φ=
ε0
So, F net = F +q + F −q = 0 From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Also both forces are equal and opposite and will λl 𝟏 𝛌
E × 2πrl = or 𝐄 = ⋅
produce torque on dipole ε0 𝟐𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
τ = either force × perpendicular distance
between the two forces
= qE(AN) = qE(2asin θ) = q(2a)Esin θ
5. Electric Field due to infinite Charged
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖]
τ = pEsin θ or τ = pEsin θ
Plane sheet.
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive
Here, P = q(2a), (electric dipole moment) charge having a uniform surface charge density σ on
Also since the dipole rotates in clockwise (−𝑘)
both sides of the sheet.
direction so, The Gaussian surface will be a cylinder as shown in
In vector form 𝛕⃗ = 𝐩⃗ × 𝐄⃗ figure.
4. Electric Field Due to line charge If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] electric flux crossing through the gaussian surface,
A thin infinitely long straight line charge having a
uniform linear charge density λ placed along YY ′ .
The Gaussian surface for line charge will be
cylindrical and from symmetry all the flux will pass
from curve surface area.
,Let
thenE electric
is the magnitude
flux through
of electric
the Gaussian
field atsurface
point is P
given by
Φ = E × area of the end faces (circular caps) of the
cylinder or Φ = E × 2 A …… (i)
According to Gauss' theorem, we have Φ = q ε
r = radius of cylinder 0

l = length of cylinder Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

q = σA ∴ Φ = σA ……(ii) ε0
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
𝛔𝐀 𝛔
𝐄×𝟐𝐀= 𝐨𝐫 𝐄 =
𝛆𝟎 𝟐𝛆𝟎

APNI KAKSHA 2
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
dϕ = Ed S
Therefore, total electric flux through the
Thus, we find that the magnitude of the electric field at

gaussian surface is given by

a point due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is
independent of its distance from the sheet of charge.

Shell [𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]

6. Electric Field due to charged Spherical (b) When point P lies on the surface of

Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and For this case also we will draw a Gaussian surface of
spherical shell

centre O. Let +q be the charge on the spherical shell. just outside the shell, this will enclose charge q of
shell completely,
For all the three surfaces the Gaussian surface Then according to Gauss' theorem,
will be a sphere. q 1 q
E × 4πR2 = or E = ⋅ ( for r = R)
ε0 4πε0 R2
In a medium of dielectric constant K, the
electric field is given by
𝟏 𝐪
𝐄= ⋅
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐊 𝐑𝟐

When point 𝑷 lies inside the spherical shell

In such a case, the gaussian surface will be
(c)

inside the shell and will not enclose any charge

and hence according to the Gauss' theorem,
(a) When point P lies outside the shell
Let E be the electric field at the point P due to
the charged spherical shell.
Consider a small area element dS⃗⃗ (shown
E × 4πr2 = 0 or 𝐄 = 𝟎 (for r < R )
shaded) around the pointP. ε0

Then, the electric flux through area element d⃗⃗S

is given by dϕ = E ⋅ d⃗⃗S = E ds cos θ
Since dS⃗⃗ is normal to the surface so θ = 0,
dϕ = E dS
Now total Electric flux is ∮Sdϕ = ∮SE dS = E∮S dS
Now, ∮Sd S = surface area of spherical shell of
radius r = 4πr2
∴ Φ = E × 4πr2 … (i)
the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is q,
so according to the Gauss' theorem,
Φ = q … (ii) ε0

From the equations (i) and (ii), we have

q 𝟏 𝐪
E × 4πr2 = or 𝐄 = ⋅ ( for r > R)
ε0 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 3
 ELECTROSTATIC
(Physics) POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Special cases.
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] 1. When point P lies on the axial line of the
AB is a diploe with charge −q and +q. P be any point dipole. θ = 0∘ and cos θ = cos 0∘ = 1.
at a distance r from its center O, where electric Therefore,
potential due to the dipole is to be determined. 1 P Vaxial = ⋅ 4πε0 (r 2 −
a2) … (iii)

∠POB = θ as shown in fig In case a << r, then

Therefore, net potential at point P due to the dipole, 𝟏 𝐩
1 q 1 q 𝐕axial = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ⋅ 𝐫𝟐 … (iv)
V = V1 + V2 =− ⋅ + ⋅
4πε0 PA 4πε0 PB 2. When point P lies on the equatorial line of
1 1 1
or V= ⋅ q[ − ] … (i) the dipole. θ = 90∘ and cos θ = cos 90∘ = 0
4πε0 PB PA
Therefore, the equation (ii) gives 𝐕 = 𝟎 equi … (v)
Draw BN perpendicular to OP and AM
perpendicular to PO.
From right angled ΔAMO, we have 8. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole,
OM OM when Placed in Uniform Electric Field [𝟑
cos θ = = or OM = a cos θ
OA a 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
In case the length of the dipole is very small as
Let the Dipole be kept along a direction making an
compared to distance r, then
angle θ with the direction of an external uniform
PA ≈ PM = PO + OM = r + acos θ
electric field E. The, torque acting on the dipole is
Similarly, PB = r − a cos θ
given by τ = PE sin θ
In the equation (i), substituting for PA and PB, we
then work done is rotating the dipole against natural
have
rotation by dθ
1 1 1
V= ⋅ q[ − ] dW = τ ∗ dθ = PE sinθ dθ
4πε0 r − acos θ r + acos θ
1 r + acos θ − r + acos θ So, Total work done will be
= ⋅ q[ ]
4πε0 r 2 − a2 cos 2 θ θ2
W=∫ PEsin θdθ = PE ∗ |1 − cos θ|θ1
1 2acos θ (r 2 − a2 θ2
= ⋅q⋅ θ1
4πε0 cos 2 θ) or W = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2)
Since q(2a) = P, the electric dipole moment of the
This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of
dipole, the above equation becomes
its potential energy. and so
𝟏 𝐏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 (𝐫𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 W = ΔU = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2)
𝐕= ⋅ … (ii)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛉)
Let θ1 = 90∘ and θ2 = θ. Then,
Uf − Ui = PE(cos 90∘ − cos θ)
or Uf = − PE cos θ

In vector notation, 𝐔 = −𝐏⃗ ⋅ 𝐄⃗

9. Parallel Plate Capacitor
[𝟐/𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
The capacitor shown has two conducting plates
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential

APNI KAKSHA 4
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very
𝑞+ 𝑞−
small as compared to the area of the plates).
Area of plates = A
𝑉𝐴=V Dielectric 𝑉𝐵=0
𝑞+ medium
𝑞−

𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0

Let the space between the two plates of the capacitor

is filled with a dielectric medium of dielectric
constant K.
Here the electric field between the two plates is Then, the electric field between the two plates is
related to the potential gradient as given by
dV E= σ q ε0KA (∵ σ = q
dr (in magnitude) E= = )
ε0 K A
V is potential difference between the two plates. If V is potential difference between the two plates of
E=
V
(For uniform field, dr = d )
dV V the capacitor separated by a distance d,
d
then V = Ed
Or V = Ed … … … (i)
So substituting the value of E, we have
Also Let σ be the surface charge density of the
qd
plates, then the electric field between the two plates V=
ε0KA
is given by
So if C is the capacitance of the parallel plate
E = σ + σ = σ (Sum of fields due to both plates) 2ε0 2ε0 ε
0 capacitor, then
(ε0 is absolute permittivity of the free space.) q q
C= =
In the equation (i), substituting for E, we have V qd
ε0KA
σ q
V= d (σ = ) 𝛆𝟎𝐊𝐀
ε0 A or 𝐂=
qd 𝐝
∴V=
ε0 A
Capacitor [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎]
11. Energy Stored in a Charged
If C is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor,
then, A battery is connected across the two plates of the
𝐪 𝐪 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 capacitor, the work is done (or energy is supplied) by
𝐂= = = … (ii)
𝐕 𝐪𝐝/𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝐝 the battery in charging the capacitor.
The work done in charging a capacitor is stored in
the capacitor in the form of electric energy.
10. Capacitance of Capacitor, when a

Let Capacitance of capacitor = C.

Dielectric Slab completely fills the

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] the small amount of work done by the battery to
Space between Plates

The capacitor shown has two conducting plates store small charge dq is given by
q q
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential d W = Vdq = dq (∵ V = )
C C
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very Therefore, amount of work done in delivering
small as compared to the area of the plates). charge q to the capacitor is given by
Area of plates = A

APNI KAKSHA 5
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

𝑞+ 𝑞− This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the

form of the electric
𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0
1 q2
W=∆ = … (i)
U 2 C
since Ui = 0 so,
1 q2
U= … (i)
2 C
(Substituting for q = C the equation (i) becomes)
V),
V or U = CV2
1
… (ii)
2

In the equation (ii), substituting for C(= V) ,

q
q 2q 2 W = ∫q q dq = 1 ∫ qdq = 1 |q | = 1 q C
C C 2 2C 0 0 0
we have

This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the

U = 2 q V so, 𝐔= = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐪 𝐕
1 𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

form of the electric potential energy. Therefore,

𝟐 𝐂

energy stored in the capacitor,

1q 2
W = ΔU = … (i)
2C
since Ui = 0 so,
1q 2
U= … (i)
2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes

or U = 1 CV2 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
2

In the equation (ii), substituting for C (=

q),V
we have
U= q V so,
1
2

𝐔= = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕𝟐 = 𝐪𝐕
𝟏𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝐂 𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 6
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Therefore the, above equation becomes
υ⃗d = 0 + a τ = a τ
12. Drift Velocity
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
(Using the equation (iii), we have)
The velocity gained by any electron before the
𝐞𝐄⃗
successive collision is called Drift Velocity. Let u⃗1 , 𝛖⃗⃗𝐝⃗ =− 𝛕
𝐦
u⃗2 , u⃗3 , … . . , u⃗n are random thermal velocities of n
electrons in a conductor, then their average thermal
13. Relation between Drift Velocity

velocity i.e. [𝟏/𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]

and Electric Current

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1 + ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 2 + ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 3 + ⋯ . ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ n =0
u Let, length of conductor = L & area of cross-section
u u n +u … (i)
= A. then, volume = A L
Let n be the number of free electrons per unit
volume, n =N/V
So, total charge on all the free electrons
= q = Ne = n AL e … (i)
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the length
of the conductor
l
Since charge on an electron is −e, each free electron t= … (ii)
υd
in the conductor experiences a force
Also we know, I = q
F = −eE … (ii)
t

If m is mass of the electron, then acceleration is

given by
eE F
a= =−
… (iii)
m m
So final velocity attained after drifting for τ
1(relaxation time)
υ⃗1 ⃗ + a τ ′= u1 1 Using the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Similarly velocities acquired by the other electrons I = n Ale or I = n Aυ 𝑒 … (iii)
l/υ d
d
in the conductor will be
eE
υ⃗1 = u1⃗⃗ + a τ2, υ3⃗⃗ = u3⃗⃗ + a τ3, ….υ n ⃗ =u n ⃗ + aτ n Also υ d = τ
m
Le υ⃗d is the average drift velocity of all
So, 𝐈 = 𝐄 … (v)
𝐧 𝟐𝛕
electrons. So,
𝐀𝐞
𝐦

υ1⃗⃗ + υ2⃗⃗ + υ3⃗⃗ + ⋯ . +υ

υ⃗d = n⃗n [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
14. Electric Current and Current Density

(u1⃗⃗ + a τ1) + (u2⃗⃗ + a τ2) + (u3⃗⃗ + a τ3) + ⋯ . +(u n ⃗ + a ) Current density ( j ) is a vector
=τn
n If the current flowing through the conductor is
Now, τ 1 + τ 2 + τ 3 +⋯ . +τ n uniform over its cross section, then current may be
n
defined as
is called average relaxation time and is denoted by τ.
I=j⋅A, …(i)

u1⃗⃗ + u2⃗⃗ + u3⃗⃗ + ⋯ . . +u Where A = area vector representing the area of

n⃗n =0 cross-section.

APNI KAKSHA 7
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
For non-uniform cross-section, the current through and 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 … (iv)
a small area d⃗⃗A⃗ is given by If the series combination of the two cells provides
dI = j ⋅ d⃗⃗A⃗ the current I through an external resistance R, then
Hence, the current through the whole cross-section E
I=
of the conductor is given by R+r
I = ∫ j ⋅ d⃗⃗A⃗ … (ii) Substituting for E and r, we have
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐑 +
If current density j is normal to the cross-sectional 𝐈=
(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐)
area i.e. if jˆ is parallel to A , then
I = jA
16. Cells in Parallel
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Putting I = n Aυd𝑒
𝐣 = 𝐧𝛖𝐝𝐞 … (iii)
When cells are of different e.m.f and
internal resistances.

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗] Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1
15. Cells in Series

and r2 of cells . In parallel combination terminal

potential V is constant across two cells (between A &
When cells are of different EMF’s. &

Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1

internal resistances.
B) that provides a current I.
and r2 of cells . In series I = Constant
If I1 and I2 are the currents due to the two cells, then
Then, the terminal potential difference across the
first cell,
I = I1 + I2 … (i)

V1 = E1 − Ir1
Similarly, the terminal potential difference across
the second cell,
V2 = E2 − Ir2
If V is the potential difference between the points A
and B, then For 1st cell
V = V1 + V2 = (E1 − Ir1) + (E2 − Ir2) V = E1 − I1r1
or V = (E1 + E2) − I(r1 + r2) … (i) E1 −V or I1 = r1
Let E be the battery with internal resistance r that E2 − V I2 = r2

can replace both E1 and E2 which withdraws same For 2nd cell
current I between A & B then,

Substituting for I1 and I2 in eq (i), we have

E1 −V E2 −V
I= +
V = E − Ir … (ii) r1 r2
E 1 E2 1 1
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we have or I = ( + ) − V( + )
r1 r2 r 1 r2
𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 … (iii)

APNI KAKSHA 8
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
E1r2 + E2r1 r1r2
or V=( ) − I(r1 + r2 ) … (ii)
r1 + r2
Let E is effective e.m.f. and r, the effective internal Now, potential difference across P, Q, R, X are
resistance of the parallel combination of the two VA − VB = I1P … (i)
cells [ Fig.], VD − VC = I1Q … (ii)
VA − VD = I2R … (iii)
VD − VC = I2X … (iv)
then it follows that When the bridge is in balanced state, VB = VD.

V = E − Ir … (iii) So, putting values

VA − VB = I2R … (v)
Comparing the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
VB − VC = I2X … (vi)
𝐄𝟏𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄𝟐𝐫𝟏
𝐄= … (iv) From the equations (i) and (v), we have
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟏𝐫𝟐 I1P = I2R … (vii)
and 𝐫= … (v)
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 From the equations (ii) and (vi), we have
I1Q = I2X
Dividing the equation (vii) by (viii), we have
𝐏𝐑
17. Wheat Stone Bridge
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] =
𝐐𝐗
P, Q, R and X are 4 resistances. A galvanometer G
and a tapping key K1 (called galvanometer key) are
connected between points B and D.

Also Battery E is connected between A & C

Let I = current in the main circuit.
I1 = Current through resistance P & Q
I − I1 = I2 (say) R = Current through resistance
& X.
For balanced wheat stone bridge, points B and D are
at the same potential & Ig = 0
Let VA, VB, VC and VD be electric potentials of points
A, B, C and D respectively.

APNI KAKSHA 9
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
(ii) υn = υsin θ (Component of velocity
perpendicular to B)
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a

Force experienced by charged particle mυ n 𝐦𝛖𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 So, r= =

Uniform Magnetic Field

Bq 𝐁𝐪 … (v)
𝐅 = 𝐪(𝐯⃗ × 𝐁⃗ ) … (i)
The period of the circular path is given by
⃗F is always perpendicular to v , so force will act as
centripetal force. T= 2πr = 2π × mυsin θ or T = 2πm
υn υsin θ Bq Bq
(a) When 𝛖⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐁⃗ .
The force F on the charged particle acts as the
centripetal force and makes it to move along a
circular path.
m = mass of the charged particle &
r = radius of the circular path, then

The charged particle moves along circular path in

XY-plane due to the velocity component υn, it also
advances linearly helical path.

| q(υ × B )| = mυ 2
⃗ ⃗
r
Since υ & B are at right angles to each other, so
|q(υ × B )| = Bqυ
mυ2 or Bqυ = r 𝐦𝛖 𝐫 = … (ii) 𝐁𝐪

The period of circular motion of the charged particle is

Now, Pitch = the distance travelled by the charged
given by
2πr 2π mυ 𝟐𝛑𝐦 particle, along the direction of magnetic field in a time
T= = × or 𝐓 = … (iii) it completes one revolution.
υ υ Bq 𝐁𝐪
Also angular frequency of the charged particle pitch of the helical path = υB × T
2π 2π 𝐁𝐪 2πm
ω= = or 𝛚 = … (iv) = υcos θ × Bq
T 2πm 𝐦
Bq 2πmυcos θ or pitch of the helical path … (vi)=
(b) When 𝛖⃗ and 𝐁⃗ are inclined to each other. Bq
The charged particle is moving with velocity υ
⃗ inside the uniform magnetic field B making an 19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a
angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field. Loop [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]

The velocity υ of the charged particle can be resolved Consider a circular loop of radius a, centre O and
into the following two components: carrying a current I as shown.
(i) υB = υcos θ (Component of velocity along B) (No
contribution in force)
APNI KAKSHA 10
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
𝐁 = 𝛍 𝟎 ⋅ 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈𝐚 𝟐
𝟒𝛑 (𝐚 𝟐 + 𝟐 ) 𝟑/𝟐
𝐱
Special cases.
1. Magnetic field at the center of the loop. (x=0)
𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈
𝐁= ⋅
𝟒𝛑 𝐚
20. Force between two infinitely Long Parallel
Current Carrying Conductors
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
Consider two infinitely long conductors X1Y1 and X2Y2
placed parallel to each other at a distance r apart with
Let P be the point on the axis of the loop at a distance
I1 and I2 current flowing through them in the same
OP = x from its centre O, Let AB = dl be small current
direction.
element of the loop.
Also ∠BCP (or ∠ACP ) is equal to 90∘ . Let B1& B2 be magnetic fields of wire 1 & 2 so,

According to Biot Savart's law, the magnetic field due B1 = µ0 4 ⋅ 2Ir1 , B2 = µ0 4 ⋅ 2Ir2
π π
to the current element AB at point P is given by The wire 1 will experience Magnetic force due to field
I dl⃗ × r
d⃗⃗B⃗ = µ0 ⋅ , of wire 2 & Vice versa
4π r3
**L is the length of wires on which F is calculated
The angle between dl⃗ and r is 90∘ , the magnitude of dB⃗⃗
So, F⃗⃗ 1,2 = I1(L × B2 ⃗ ) = µ0 ⋅ 2I2 × I1 × L (−𝑖)
is given by 4π r

µ0 Idl (Force on wire 1 due to magnetic field of wire 2)

dB = ⋅ … (i)
4π r2
Another element A′ B′ = dl located just opposite to the
element AB. dB⃗⃗′ . = Mag Field due to the current
element A′ B ′ .
If ∠OPC = ∠OPC ′ = θ, then ∠ZPL = ∠Z ′ PM = θ.
On resolving the cos θ components gets cancelled out
and only sin θ gets added so,
µ0 Idl
B =∮ dBsin θ = ∮ ⋅ sin θ
4π r2
µ0 𝐈
= ⋅ sin θ∮ dl
4π r2 𝐅 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏𝐈𝟐
or ⃗ 𝟏,𝟐 = ⋅ (−𝒊̂) … (i)
∮ dl = 2πa 𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
µ0 𝐈 μ0 2π𝐈a
sin θ∴µB0 2π𝐈a
= 4π a⋅ r2 sin θ (2πa) = Also F⃗2,1 ⃗ = I2(L × B⃗1 ) = µ0 ⋅ 2I1 × I2 × L (𝑖̂) 4π
4π ⋅ r2 r
(Force on wire 2 due to magnetic field of wire 1)
µ0 2π𝐈a2 ∴B= ⋅ × = ⋅ 4π r2 r 4π r3 µ
0 2π𝐈a2 ∴ B = 4π ⋅ (a2 + x2)3/2
𝐅 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏𝐈𝟐
or ⃗ 𝟐,𝟏 = ⋅ (𝒊̂)
𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
This shows that Force per unit length on both wires is
Also for ‘N’ turns equal and opposite.
APNI KAKSHA 11
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a F
(−i) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ) × |B
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 3 = (Ia)B(1)
I(AB =⃗ BIa(−i)
| sin 90 ∘F
Magnetic Field [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗] ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ) × |B⃗ ||sin 90 ∘ (i) = (Ia)B(1) = B I a (î)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 4 = I(CD
A rectangular coil ABCD with side a & b , carrying a
So, F =loop F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + F 4 = 0.
current I is suspended in a uniform magnetic field B
acting in the plane of the paper from left to right.
F 1, F 2, F 3 and F 4 be the forces acting on arms DA, BC,
AB and CD of the coil respectively in the magnetic
field.
Here AB = a , BC = b, CD = a , DA = b
Also 𝜽 is the angle between Normal to plane and
magnetic field.
It follows that the force on arm DA, As the two forces⃗F 3 & F 4 have different lines of action,
F⃗1 = I(DA⃗⃗ ) × B , they constitute a torque, whose magnitude is given by
F⃗1 = I(DA⃗⃗ ) × |B | sin(90∘ + θ) j = BIbcos θ (j)
Similarly,
F⃗ 2 = I(BC⃗⃗ ) × B, 𝛕 = either force × 𝐊𝐃,
F⃗ 2 = I(BC⃗⃗ ) × |B | sin(90∘ − θ) (−j) τ = BaI × bsinθ

= IbBcos θ (−j) τ = BIAsinθ (Area = A = a× b)

Also, IA⃗ = M⃗ = the magnetic dipole moment of the
current loop. Therefore,
τ = M B sinθ
𝛕⃗ = 𝐌⃗⃗ × 𝐁⃗
Note : If the coil has N turns, then
𝛕 = 𝐍 BIA 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

APNI KAKSHA 12
(Physics) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
L
= Lengths of both solenoids S1 and S2, such that the
The phenomenon, according to which an opposing solenoid S2 surrounds the solenoid S1 completely
22. Self-Induction

induced e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of

change in current or magnetic flux linked with the ,nn12 = number of turns per unit length of the
coil itself, is called self-induction. solenoids S1 and S2 respectively.
it is also called back e.m.f .

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]

Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid

Let L = Length of coil,

A = Area of cross section,
n = number of turns per unit length = N/L
I = current passing through solenoid (coil)
Then, magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by
B = μ0nI
ϕ21 ∝ I1
The magnetic (self) flux passing through each turn or ϕ21 = M21I1, … (i) ( M21 is the coefficient of mutual
of the coil = B × area of each turn = μ0nI × A Total induction of S2 due to S1)
magnetic flux linked with the solenoid, Also, B1 = μ0n1I1 (mag field produced inside the
solenoid S1 due to I1
So, total magnetic flux linked with the solenoidS2,
ϕ21 = B1 A × n2L = μ0n1I1 × A × n2L
= μ0n1n2 AI1L (ii)
On comparing(i)& (ii) M21 = μ0n1n2 AL
Similarly
ϕ12 ∝ I2 or ϕ12 = M12I2 , … (iii)
• = Magnetic flux linked with one turn × total (M1,2 is the coefficient of mutual induction of S1 due
number of turns to S2)
Now, total number of turns in the solenoid = nL Also, B2 = μ0n2I2 (mag field produced inside the
∴ ϕ = μ0nIA × nL or ϕ = μ0n2LA I If L is the … (i) solenoid S1 due to I1
self-inductance of the solenoid, then ϕ = L I … Therefore, total magnetic flux linked with the
(ii) solenoid S1,
On comparing ϕ12 = B2 A × n1L = μ0n2I2 × A × n1L
𝛍𝟎𝐍𝟐𝐀 or ϕ12 = μ0n1n2 AI2L … (iv)
𝐋= … (iii)
𝐋 on comparing (iii) & (iv) M12 = μ0n1n2 AL
Therefore,
The phenomenon according to which an opposing 𝐌𝟐𝟏 = 𝐌𝟏𝟐 = 𝐌 (say)
23. Mutual Induction

e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of change in Hence, coefficient of mutual induction between the
current or magnetic flux linked with a neighboring two long solenoids,
coil is called mutual induction. 𝐌 = 𝛍𝟎𝐧𝟏𝐧𝟐 𝐀l

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]

Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoids

. Let I1 & I2 be the current flowing in given

coils(solenoids).

APNI KAKSHA 13
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C. small amount of heat produced in the resistance R
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] in time dt is given by
Let I = I0sin ωt is current in any circuit R
𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0
R
𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0

dH = I2Rdt = (I0sin ωt)2Rdt = I02Rsin2 ωtdt

The amount of heat produced in the resistance in
Let the small amount of charge that will pass
time T/2 (half time period) can be obtained by
through the circuit in time dt is given by integrating the above equation between the limits t
dq = Idt or dq = I0sin ωtdt = 0 to t = T/2 i.e.
The amount of charge that will pass through the T T
2 2
circuit in time T/2 (half time period of a.c.) is the
H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωtdt = I0 2 R ∫ sin2 ωtdt
total integral value of above equation from t = 0 to 0 0

t = T/2 i.e.
T/2
1 − cos 2ωt
= I0 2R∫ dt
TT22
2
0
q = ∫ I0 sin ωtdt = I 0 ∫ sin ωtdt I0 2R
or H =
0 0 2
cos ωt T/2 I T/2 T/2
= I 0 |− | = − 0 |cos ωt| T/2 = (∫ dt − ∫ cos 2ωtdt) … (i)
ω 0 ω 0
0 0
I0 |cos 2π ⋅ T − cos 2π In the equation (i), substituting the values of the two
=− ⋅ 0|
2π T 2 T
T integrals obtained above, we have
I T I T I0 2R T I0 2R T
= − 0 |cos π − cos 0| = − 0 (−1 − 1) . H= ( − 0) = ⋅ … (ii)
2π 2π 2 2 2 2
I T If Iv is virtual or r.m.s. value of a.c., then by
or q= 0
π
definition,
If Im is mean value of a.c., then by definition
T
T H=I v 2R⋅ … (iii)
q=I m ⋅ 2
2
From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
T I0 2R T I0 2
T I0 T 𝟐𝐈𝟎 I2R ⋅ = ⋅ or I v 2 =
I m⋅ = or 𝐈𝐦 = = 𝟎 ⋅ 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝐈𝟎 v 2 2 2 2
2 π 𝛑
𝐈𝟎
or 𝐈𝐯 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝐈𝟎
25. Root Mean Square (rms) or Virtual Value √𝟐
of A.C. [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Let I = I0sin ωt is current in any circuit
The current through the resistance remains constant
for an infinitesimally small time dt so the
APNI KAKSHA 14
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Also phase angle ϕ From right angled△ OAE, we
have
AE VL − VC IXL − IXC tan ϕ = = = OA
VR IR 𝟏 𝐗𝐋 − 𝐗𝐂 𝛚𝐋 − 𝛚𝐂 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = = 𝐑
𝐑 … (iv)

or

The small amount of electrical energy consumed in

27. Power of an A.C. Circuit

Let E and I be the instantaneous values of e.m.f. and circuit is given by the work done by battery. So,
current in the LCRcircuit; and VL, VC and VR be the d W = EIdt = (E0 sin ωt)I0 sin(ωt + ϕ) dt
instantaneous values of the voltages across inductor = E0I0sin ωt(sin ωtcos ϕ + cos ωtsin ϕ)dt
L, capacitor C and resistor R respectively. = E0I0(sin2 ωtcos ϕ + sin ωtcos ωtsin ϕ)dt … (i)
Then, VL = IXL; VC = IXC and VR = IR Now, cos 2ωt = 1 − 2sin2 ωt 1 Or
Here, XL = ωL and XC = 1/ωC are reactances due to − cos 2ωt sin2 ωt =
inductor and capacitor respectively. Where ω is the 2
angular frequency of given supply. Also, sin 2ωt = 2 sin ωt cos ωt or
sin ωt cos ωt = sin 2ωt
2
In the equation (i), substituting for sin2 ωt and sin ω
tcos ωt, we have
1 − cos 2ωt sin 2ωt dW = E0I0 ( cos ϕ + 2 2 sin ϕ)
dt

= E0I0 (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt 2

The electrical energy consumed in the circuit in time
T (period of a.c.) can be obtained by integrating the
above equation between t = 0 to t = T i.e.

(Pythagoras)
OE = √OA2 +orAE
E 2==√V
√OA
R 2 2++(V
OD
L −2 VC)2
T
E0I0
W=∫ (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt
Substituting the values of VR ′ , VL and VC, we have 2
0

E = √(IR)2 + (IXL − IXC)2 + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt

= I√R2 + (XL − XC)2 E0I0 W= 2 [cos ϕ(T) − cos ϕ(0) + sin ϕ(0)]
E
or I= … (i)
√R2 + (XL − XC)2 or W = E0I0 T cos ϕ
2
Let , I=E … (ii) The average power of the a.c. circuit is given by
W E0I0 T 1 E0I0 P = = = avg cos ϕ × cos ϕ T
Z
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have 2T2
𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗𝐋 − 𝐗𝐂)𝟐 E0 I0
√2 ⋅ √2 cos ϕ
= √R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 … (iii)
The equation (iii) gives impedance of LCR-circuit. 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄𝐯𝐈𝐯 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 … (ii)

APNI KAKSHA 15
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
ϕ = π/2 .
Here cos ϕ = 𝑅 is called the power factor of circuit. Pav = Ev , Iv cos π/2 = Ev Iv (0) = 0
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit,
𝑍
& Ev & Iv are RMS value of voltage and current
Special cases :
(i) circuit having R only. For such a circuit, ϕ = 0. 0
Pav = EvIvcos 0 = EvIv(1) = EvIv
(ii) circuit having L only. For such a circuit,
ϕ = π/2 .
Pav = Ev, Ivcos π/2 = EvIv(0) = 0
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit,
ϕ = −π/2
Pav = EvIvcos(−π/2) = EvIv(0) = 0

APNI KAKSHA 16
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] [𝟐𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
28. Mirror Formula 29. Linear Magnification

The ratio of the size of the image formed by a

Let the points P, F and C be the pole, focus and
For Concave spherical mirror
spherical mirror to the size of the object is called the
centre of curvature of a concave spherical mirror. linear magnification.
AB = Object
𝐈
Now, triangles A ′ B ′ F and ENF are similar. 𝐦= … (i)
𝐎
AB ′ AF ′
∴ ′ = .
NE NF
Fig. shows the formation of the image A′ B ′ of an
Magnification produced by a concave mirror

object AB by a concave spherical mirror. Since the

triangles ABP and A ′ B ′ P are similar, we have
′′ ′ A B PA =
AB PA

Applying the new

Cartesian sign
conventions, we have
As aperture of the concave mirror is small, the
′′ A B = −I
points N and P lie very close to each other and
consequently NF ≈ PF. Also, NE = AB. AB = +O
AB ′ ′ AF PA = −u
∴ = ′ PA = −υ
AB PF
′

Since all the distances are to be measured from the (∵ distance of image is measured against incident
pole of the concave mirror, we have ray) Therefore, the above equation becomes
′ ′ A F = PA − PF
−I −υ I υ
AB ′ ′ PA − PF ′ = or =− … (ii)
O −u O u
∴ = … (i)
AB PF From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Also, triangles ABP and A′ B ′ P are similar. 𝐈 𝛖
AB ′ ′ PA 𝐦 = 𝐎 =− … (iii)
∴ = AB PA ′ … (ii) 𝐮

From the equations (i) and (ii), we have

111
Also by Mirror formula

′ PA − PF +=
PA ′
= … (iii) uυf
PF PA
Multiplying by υ , we get
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions, we
υ υ υ + = => υυ=−1
have uυf uf
PA = −u (Object distance) υ υ υ−f = −1 = u f
f
PA ′ = −υ(Image dist. ) and PF = −f (focal length)
In the equation (iii), substituting for PA, PA ′ and PF, So,

we have 𝐟−𝛖
𝐦=
−υ − (−f) −υ υ−f υ υ υ 𝐟
= or = or −1 =
−f −u f u f u
1 1 1 𝟏𝟏𝟏
or f − υ = u or 𝐮 + 𝛖 = 𝐟

The above relation between u, υ and f is called

mirror formula.
APNI KAKSHA 17
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface Since angles β and γ are small, we have
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑] r = tan γ − tan β … (v)
Let us consider a convex spherical refracting surface From right angled triangles ANC and ANI, we have
with AN AN AN AN
tan γ = ≈ and tan β = ≈
µ2 = refractive index of medium 2 & NC PC NI PI
µ1 = Refractive index of medium 1, In the equation (v), substituting for tan β and tan γ

Let P = pole, C = center of curvature and we have

PC = Principal axis of the convex surface. AN AN
r= − … (vi)
PC PI
When object lies in the rarer medium and image
By Snell’s law
formed is real.
µ1sin i = μ2sin r
O = Object. Draw AN as perpendicular and take
Since the angles i and r are also small, the above
angle α, β & γ respectively in triangles.
equation becomes
Let ∠AOP = α; ∠AIP = β and ∠ACP = γ.
In triangle AOC, we have µ1i = μ2r
From the equations (iv) and (vi), substituting the
i = α + γ (exterior angle property) … (i)
values of i and r, we have
AN AN AN AN
µ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( − )
PO PC PC PI
µ1 µ1 µ 2 µ2
or + = −
PO PC PC PI
µ1 µ2 µ2 − μ1
or + = … (vii)
PO PI PC
Since angles α, β and γ will be small. As such, these Applying new cartesian sign conventions:
angles may be replaced by their tan α etc. Therefore, PO = −u (object distance)
equation (i) may be written as i = tan α + tan γ … (ii) PI = +v (image distance)and
PC = +R (Radius of curvature)
From right angled triangles ANO and ANC, we have Therefore, the equation (vii) becomes
tan α = NO and tan γ =
AN AN µ1 µ2 µ2 − μ1 𝛍 𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
+ = or − =
−u +v +R 𝐯 𝐮 𝐑
NC
In the equation (ii), substituting for tan α and tan α,
we have
31. Lens Maker's Formula
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
AN AN
i= + … (iii)
NO NC
NO ≈ PO and NC ≈ PC
Therefore, the equation (iii) becomes
AN AN
i= + … (iv)
PO PC
Now, from triangle ACI, γ = r + β (by exterior angle
property) or r = γ − β

Let us consider a convex lens with refracting surface

with

APNI KAKSHA 18
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
µ2 = refractive index of outer medium &
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
32. Refraction through a Prism
µ1 = Refractive index of lens ,
Suppose that O is a point object placed on the KTS = δ is called the angle of deviation.
principal axis of the lens. The surface XP1Y forms
the real image I1 (assuming that material of the lens
extends beyond the face XP1Y as such). It can be
obtained* that
µ1 µ2 µ2 − μ1
+ = … (i)
P1O P1I1 P1C1
Since the lens is thin, the point P1 lies very close to
the optical centre C of the lens. Therefore, we may
write Since ∠TQO = ∠NQP = i and ∠RQO = r1, we have
P1O ≈ CO; P1I1 ≈ CI1 and P1C1 ≈ CC1 ∠TQR = i − r1
So, + 𝐂𝐈𝟏 = 𝛍𝟐𝐂𝐂
−𝛍𝟏 … (ii)
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐
𝐂𝐎 𝟏 Also,
∠TRO = ∠NSE = e and ∠QRO = r2. Therefore,
∠TRQ = e − r2
The image formed by first refraction will act as

µ2 µ1 µ2 − μ1
virtual object for 2nd surface refraction.
− + = … (iii) in triangle TQR, by exterior angle property
P2I1 P2I P2C2
δ = ∠TQR + ∠TRQ = (i − r1) + (e − r2)
Again P2I1 ≈ CI1, P2I ≈ CI and P2C2 ≈ CC2
or 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐) … (i)
Therefore, eq (iii) may be written as
𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏 In triangle QRO, the sum of the angles is 180∘ .
− + = … (iv)
𝐂𝐈𝟏 𝐂𝐈 𝐂𝐂𝟐 Therefore,
Adding the eq (ii) and (iv), we have r1 + r2 + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (ii)
µ1 µ2 µ2 µ1 µ2 − μ1 µ2 − μ1 In quadrilateral AQOR,
+ − + = +
CO CI1 CI1 CI CC1 CC2
A + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (iii)
µ 1 µ1 1 1
or + = (μ2 − μ1) ( + ) … (v) From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
CO CI CC1 CC2
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: r1 + r2 = A … (iv)
CO = −u (object distance) In the equation (i), substituting for (r1 + r2) we have
CI = +v (Final image distance) 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − 𝐀 … (v)
CC1 = +R1 and CC2 = −R2 (Radii of curvature) Also, when δ = δm; (in minimum deviation
µ1 µ1 1 1 position),
+ = (μ2 − μ1) ( + )
−u +v +R1 −R2 e = i and r2 = r1 = r = A/2 (say)
Dividing both sides of the above equation by μ1, we Also, setting δ = δm and e = i in the equation (v), we
have
have
Since μ2/µ1 = μ, we have
A + δ = i + i or i = (A + δ )/2m m
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − ) … (vi) The refractive index of the material ( aµg or simply
𝐯 𝐮 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Also if u = CF1 = −f1(focal length ), then v = ∞ μ of the prism is given by
Setting the above condition in the equation (vi), we sin i
μ= sin r
have
1 1 1 1 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝐀 + 𝛅𝐦)/𝟐 ∴ 𝛍 =
− = (μ − 1) ( − )
−f1 + ∞ R1 R2 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀/𝟐
𝟏 𝐟 = (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( 𝟏 𝐑𝟏 − ) … (ix)
𝟏 𝐑𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 19
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Now, CA = u and CA ′ = D
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
33. Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass)
Therefore, the equation (ii) becomes
A convex lens of short focal length can be used to D
M= … (iii)
see magnified image of a small object and is called a u
magnifying glass or a simple microscope. u = −u or υ = −D
So, 33.a - Magnifying power- When image is

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) = Therefore, the above equation becomes by lens
Magnifying power of simple microscope formed at D (least distance of distinct

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)

formula
vision=25cm).

1 11111
Let ∠A′ CB ′ = β be the angle subtended by the − + = or − = −u −D f u D f
image at the eye. Cut A′ Q equal to AB(object size) D D D D or −1 = or = 1+ u
fuf … (iv)
and join QC Then, ∠A′ CQ ′ = α is the angle
subtended by the object at the eye, when it is placed From the equations (iii) and (iv), we have
at the least distance of distinct vision. 𝐃
𝐌=𝟏+ … (v)
By definition, the magnifying power of the simple 𝐟
microscope is given by
M= β
33.b - Magnifying power (When image is

α
formed at infinity).

u = −f and CA′ = −D
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen

In practice, the angles α and β are small. Therefore, Therefore, the above equation gives
at D only)

the angles α and β can be replaced by their tangents D D

M= = … (vii)
i.e. u f
tan β
M= … (i)
tan α
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
34. Compound Microscope

From the right angled △ CA′ Q,

AQ ′ AB
tan α = = (∵ A Q = AB) ′
CA ′ CA ′
Also, from the right angled △ ABC
AB
tan β =
CA
Substituting for tan α and tan β in the equation
we have
AB/CA CA ′
M= or M = … (ii)
AB/CA CA
′

18
APNI KAKSHA 20
10
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
For a compound microscope two lenses, eyepiece of υe = −D and fe = +fe
focal lenght (fe)and objective of focal lenght (f0) are In the above equation, substituting for υe and fe, we
used to achieve greater magnification then simple have
microscope. First clear image is formed at D D me = 1 +
fe … (iv)

So, putting values in M = mo × me we get

So,
(least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)

𝛖𝐨 𝐃
𝐌 = (𝟏 + ) … (vii)
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) 𝐮𝐨 𝐟𝐞
Magnifying power of Compound microscope

= 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)

Let ∠A′′ C′B ′′ = β be the angle subtended by the
34.b - Magnifying power - When image is
image at the eye. extend A′′ Q equal to AB(object size)
and join QC Then, ∠A′ ′C′Q = α is the angle We know , M = m o ×m e & m0 = υ0 &m e = υe ,
formed at infinity.

subtended by the object at the eye, when it is placed u0 ue

at the least distance of distinct vision. By definition, For image at infinity 𝒖𝒆 = −𝒇𝒆 & 𝝊𝒆 = −𝑫
the magnifying power of the simple microscope is Here fe is the focal length of the eye lens.
given by

seen at D only so 𝜐𝑒 = −𝐷)

(Note: Remember the first clear image is always

𝛖𝐨 𝐃 𝐌 = ×So, 𝐮𝟎
𝐟𝐞 … (ix)
β
M=
α
Since the angles α and β are small, they can be [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
35. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type)

replaced by their tangents i.e.

An astronomical telescope is used to see the
tan β
M= … (i) heavenly objects.
tan α
An astronomical telescope consists of two lens
Also tan α = CA (∵ A Q = AB) ′′
A′′ Q AB
′ ′′ = CA ′ ′′ systems. The lens system facing the object is called
AB ′′ ′′
Also, tan β = objective. It has large aperture and is of large focal
CA ′ ′′
Multiplying and dividing by A′ B ′ , we have length (f0). The other lens system is called eyepiece.
AB ′′ AB ′ AB ′ AB ′′ ′′ It has small aperture and is of short focal length (fe) .
M= ′′ ×′ =′ ×
AB AB ′ AB AB ′ ′
′
Also the first clear image is formed at D (least
Also A B = υo = m0 = magnification of object lens AB
′ ′
distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
uo
( υ o & uo = Image & object dist. from object lens) &
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) =
Magnifying power of refracting telescope

= = m e = magnification of eye lens 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞

A′′ B ′′ υe
A′ B ′ ue
(υe& ue = Image & object distance from eye lens)
So, 𝐌 = 𝐦𝐨 × 𝐦𝐞 … (ii)

34.a - Magnifying power - When image is

Now, for the eye lens, the lens equation may be

formed at D(least distance of distinct vision).

written as
1 1 1 υe υe Thus, ∠A′ CB ′ = α may be considered as the angle
− + = or = 1−
ue υe fe ue fe subtended by object at the eye.
So putting value for me we have, Let ∠A′ C ′ B ′ = β. Then, by definition,
υ ef e… … … …
m e = 1− (iii) β M=
α
Applying the new Cartesian sign conventions:
Since the angles α and β are small,

APNI KAKSHA 21
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
α ≈ tan α and β ≈ tan β
tan β In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β,
∴M= … (i)
tan α we have
′′ AB
From the right angled △ CA′ B ′ , tan α = ′
CA C′ A′
′′ AB and from the right angled ΔC ′ A′ B ′ , tan =
α = ′′ CA B′ /CA′

In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β,

we have
S
A B /C A ′ CA ′
M= = … (ii)
A B /CA ′ CA ′ ′
′′′
′′
Magnifying power - When image is
formed at infinity .
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always

Applying the new cartesian sign conventions:

seen at D only)

CA′ = +fo and C ′ A′ = −fℯ

Substituting for CA′ and C ′ A′ in the equation (ii),
we have
𝐟𝐨
𝐌=−
𝐟𝐞

APNI KAKSHA 22
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
Let ML be a beam of light that refracts to second
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] medium from XY boundary.
36. Laws of Reflection on Wave Theory

Let ML be a beam of light that reflects back from Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is
surface XY. wave front for refracted beam.
Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is Let time taken (t) by light to go from the point P to
wave front for reflected beam. If c is velocity of light, P ′ and in same time let A reaches to A’ after
then time taken (t) by light to go from the point P to refraction.
P ′ and by light to go from A to A’ will be same as ∠LAN = i , ∠N ′ AA′ = r (angle of refraction)
both lie on wave fronts. By using properties of complementary angle
∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r
We have
sin i =AP′ & sin r AP′ ……… (i)
PP′ AA′

=
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =c’t
c = speed of light in air
c’ = speed of light in denser medium
∠LAN = i , ∠NAA′ = r (angle of reflection)
=
c μrefractive
= index of denser medium ……. (ii) so,

By using properties of complementary angle fromc′ equation (i) & (ii)

∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r
= = = =μ
sin i PP′ ct c
We have sin r AA′ c′t c′
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
sin i AP′ & sin r AP′ ……… (i)
PP′ AA′
=𝛍
= = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =ct
Hence, the laws of refraction (Snell’s law ) is proved
putting the values in (i)
on the basis of the wave theory.
ct ct
sin i = & sin r =
AP′ AP′
so, sin i = sin r
or i=r
38. Conditions for Constructive and

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]

Destructive Interference
i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. (laws of reflection ) Let a source of monochromatic light S illuminates
two narrow slits S1 and S2. The two illuminated slits
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏] act as the two coherent sources. At the centre O of
37. Refraction on The Basis of Wave Theory

the screen, the intensity of light is maximum and it

is called central maximum.
Condition for maximum and minimum.
Let the displacements of the waves from the sources
S1 and S2 at point P on the screen at any time t be
given by
y1 = a1sin ωt and y2 =
a2sin(ωt + ϕ),
where ϕ is the constant phase difference between the
two waves.

APNI KAKSHA 23
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
So superimposed wave will be For Destructive interference.
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin(ωt + ϕ) From equation (iv) it follows that the intensity of
y = (a1 + a2cos ϕ) sin ωt + a2 sin ϕ cos ωt … (i) light at point P will be minimum, if
Let a1 + a2 cos ϕ = Acos θ … (ii) cos ϕ = −1 or ϕ = π, 3π, 5π, ….
and a2 sin ϕ = Asin θ … (iii) or ϕ = (2n + 1) π,
Then, the equation (i) becomes where n = 0,1,2, …
y = Acos θ sin ωt + Asin θ cos ωt Also, from the equations (vi) and (viii), we have
or y = Asin(ωt + θ) 2π
x = (2n + 1)π
Also Squaring and adding both sides of the λ
𝛌
equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain or 𝐱 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)
𝟐
where n = 0,1,2 … . . n
A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = (a1 + a2cos ϕ)2 + a22sin2 ϕ
2 2 or A2 = a1 + a2 ,
(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) + 2a1a2cos ϕ
or A2 = a21 + a22 + 2a1a2cos ϕ ….. (iv)
For constructive interference the intensity of light
will be maximum so , A=max
So, cos ϕ = 1
𝟐𝛑 𝛟 = 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 𝛌
So , , or 𝐱 = 𝐧𝛌 where

n = 0,1,2,3….. n

22
APNI KAKSHA 24
(Physics) ATOMS
If m and v are mass and orbital velocity of the
The value of the distance of closest approach gives electron, then the centripetal force required by the
39. Distance of Closest Approach

an estimate of the size of the nucleus. electron to move in circular orbit of radius r is given
by F c = mv r … (ii)
2

The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe) between the

electron and the nucleus provides the necessary
centripetal force (Fc) to the electron.
Therefore, from the equations (i) and (ii), we have
mv 2 2 2
r = 14πε ⋅ re2 or mv 2 = 14πε ⋅ r … (iii)
0 e
Consider that an α-particle of mass m possesses 0
According to Bohr's quantization condition, angular
initial velocity u, when it is at a large distance from
momentum of the electron,
the nucleus of an atom having atomic number Z. At
h nh mvr = n or v = 2π 2π
the distance of closest approach, the kinetic energy mr … (iv)
of the α-particle is completely converted into In the equation (iii), putting the value of v, we have
potential energy. Mathematically,
nh 2 1 e2
1 1 2e(Ze) m( ) = ⋅
mu 2 = ⋅ 2πmr 4πε0 r
2 4πε0 r0
𝐧𝟐𝐡𝟐
1 2Ze2 or 𝐫 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ⋅ … (v)
∴ r0 = ⋅ … (i) 𝟒𝛑𝟐𝐦𝐞𝟐
4πε0 1
2 mu 2 Since n = 1,2,3,4 … ,
The equation (i) is the expression for the distance of
closest approach. Energy of the electron in nth orbit of a hydrogen-like
Also

In Geiger-Marsden experiment, α-particles of kinetic atom is given by

energy 5.5 MeV were directed towards the gold 2 2π2Z2me41E n = − (4πε0 ) ⋅
n2h2
nucleus (Z = 79). By calculating the distance of
closest approach r0, an estimate of the size of the where Z is atomic number of the atom.
nucleus can be made. The calculations show that r0 v= nh ( 1 ⋅ 4π 2 me2
)
comes out to be 4 ⋅ 13 × 10−14 m. Thus, size of the 2πm 4πε 0 n2 h2
nucleus is of the order of 10−14 m. 1 2πe2 or v = ⋅ … (vi) 4πε0
nh
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom

Obviously, Ek = 1 mv2
In a hydrogen atom, an electron having charge −e 2
revolves round the nucleus having charge +e in a Using the equation (iii), we have
circular orbit of radius r as shown in Fig. 1e2
Ek = 4πε0 ⋅ 2r
1 (+e)(−e) 1 e2
E p= ⋅ =− ⋅ 4πε0
4πε0 r r
The total energy of electron revolving round the
nucleus in the orbit of radius r is given by
1 e2 2 1 e
E = Ek + p = ⋅ + (− ⋅ )
E 4πε 0 2r 4πε 0 r
The electrostatic force of attraction between the e 2 E=− ⋅1 4πε0
or 2r
nucleus and the electron is given by
1 e×e 1 e2 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝛑𝟐𝐦𝐞𝟒
F e= ⋅ = ⋅ … (i) or 𝐄𝐧 = −( ) ⋅
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r2 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐧𝟐𝐡𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 25
(Physics) NUCLEI
41. Nuclear Density The mass defect can also be expressed in another
Let ρ be the density of the nucleus of an atom, form as explained below:
whose mass number is A. Adding and subtracting the mass of Z electrons i.e.
mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A Zme on the R.H.S. of equation (i), we have
= A a.m.u. = A × 1.660565 × 10−27 kg Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn + Zm e] − mN( ZXA) − Zm e =
If R is the radius of the nucleus, then [Z(m p +m e) + (A − Z)mn] − [mN( ZXA) + Zm e]
1 3
Now, m p +m e = m( 1H1), mass of hydrogen atom
volume of nucleus = 4 πR3 = 4 π (R 0 A3 )
3 3
& mN( ZXA) + Zm e = m( ZXA), mass of the atom
= 4 3 πR0 3
A
ZXA
= 1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15Taking R0 m, we have Therefore,

volume of the nucleus = 4 )3 × Am3π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦( 𝟏 𝐇𝟏 ) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦 𝐧] − 𝐦( 𝐙𝐗𝐀) … (ii)

3
mass of nucleus Density of the nucleus, ρ =
volume of nucleus
43. Binding energy.
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
A × 1 ⋅ 660565 × 10−27 Thus, the binding energy of a nucleus may be
=
4 π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15)3 × A
defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect
3
of the nucleus.
= 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐤𝐠 𝐦−𝟑 (Independent of A)
If Δm is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to
Einstein's massenergy relation, binding energy of
42. Mass Defect
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
the nucleus = Δmc2 (in joule)
The difference between the sum of the masses of the
Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧}
nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of
the nucleus is known as mass defect. It is denoted by − 𝐦𝐍( 𝐙𝐗𝐀 )] × 𝐜𝟐

Δm. Here,
Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the mN( ZXA) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ZXA .
nucleus of an atom ZXA . The nucleus of such an mp = mass of proton ,
atom contains Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons. mn = mass of neutron
Therefore, A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number
mass of the nucleons = Zmp + (A − Z)mn 1amu × 𝑐2=931.5 Mev (All masses are kept in amu)
If mN( ZXA) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ZXA , The mass defect can also be expressed in another
then the mass defect is given by form:

𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧] − 𝐦𝐍( 𝐙𝐗𝐀) … (i) Δm = [Zm( 1H1) + (A − Z)m n] − m( 𝐙XA)

Here, Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦( 𝟏𝐇𝟏) + (𝐀 −

mN( ZXA) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ZXA . 𝐙)𝐦𝐧} 𝐗𝐀)] × 𝐜𝟐− 𝐦( 𝐙

mp = mass of proton , Here m( 1H1) = mass of hydrogen atom

mn = mass of neutron m( ZXA) = mass of the atom ZXA
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number

APNI KAKSHA 26