University of Gondar

Department of Electrical Engineering

Power System Protection and Control (ECEg5151)

CHAPTER FIVE

Automatic Generation and Voltage Control

February 18, 2025

 Outlines
• Introduction
• Reason for constant frequency
• Various modelling used in LFC
 Generator model
 Load model
 Turbine model
 Governor model
• AGC in single area
• AGC in two area
• AVR Modelling

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February 18, 2025
 Active and Reactive Power control
• The objective of the control strategy is to generate and deliver power in an
interconnected system:-
– Economically
– Reliably
– By maintaining voltage and frequency in permissible limits (stability).
• Real and reactive powers are controlled separately.
– Active power control is closely related to frequency control .
– Reactive power control is closely related to voltage control.
• The load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the real power and frequency.
• The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive power and
voltage magnitude.

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Basic Generator Control loops Schematic diagram of LFC
and AVR of a synchronous Generator

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 Control Area
All generators in an knit electric area constitute a coherent group so
that all the generators speed up and slow down together maintaining
their relative power angles. Such an area is called control area.

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 LFC
• In a power system the load demand is continuously changing.
• In accordance with it the power input has also to vary.
• If the input - output balance is not maintained a change in
frequency will occur.
• The change in frequency is sensed when the rotor angle is changed.
• The error signals are transformed in to real power command signal,
which is sent to prime mover to call for an increment in the torque.
• The prime mover then brings change in the generator output by an
amount which will change the values of with in the specified
tolerance.
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 Necessity of Maintaining Frequency Constant
 The blades of the water turbine is designed to operate at a particular
speed and the frequency variations will cause change in the speed.
This will lead to excessive vibration and cause damage to the turbine
blades
 Most of the AC motors require constant frequency supply in order to
maintain constant speed.
 In industry, frequency affects the continuous operation of the process.
 To maintain a synchronous operation of various units in the power
system.
 Frequency is also responsible in affecting amount of power
transmitted through interconnected lines.
 For synchronization purpose, this helps to have stable system. 7
 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is the name given to a
control system having three major objectives:

1. Hold system frequency at a specified value.

2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between

control areas.

3. To maintain each unit's generation at the most economic value.

• Automatic Generation Control has more advantages, such as:
– Increase Generation Ability by connecting two or more areas
together.
– Improve ability of load variation recovery.
– More efficient for detecting and fixing power faults.
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 Various Modeling used in LFC/AGC
In the analysis of AGC we have to determine four elements of AGC.
 Speed Governor
 Turbine
 Generator
 Load
Generator model
Applying the swing equation of a synchronous machine.

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Cont.…

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Load Model

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Generator and load block diagram

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Prime Mover Model

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Speed Governing system

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 Speed Governing system
• Fly-ball speed governor: It is a purely mechanical, speed-sensitive
device coupled directly to and builds directly on the prime movers
to adjust the control valve opening via linkage mechanism.
• It senses a speed deviation or a power change command and
converts it into appropriate valve action.
• Hence, this is treated as the heart of the system, which controls
the change in speed(frequency).
• As the speed increases, the fly balls move outwards and the point
B on linkage mechanism moves upwards.
• The reverse will happen if the speed decreases.
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 Speed Governing system
 Hydraulic amplifier: It is nothing but a single-state hydraulic
servomotor interposed between the governor and valve.

 It consists of a pilot valve and the main piston.

 With this arrangement, hydraulic amplification is obtained by

converting the movement of low-power pilot valve into
movement of high-power level main piston.

 In hydraulic amplification, a large mechanical force is necessary

so that the steam valve could be opened or closed against high-
pressure inlet steam.
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 Speed Governing system
• Speed changer: It provides a steady-state power output setting for
the turbines.

• Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions.

• This gives rise to higher steady-state power output.

• The reverse will happen if the speed changer moves upward.

• Linkage mechanism: These are linked for transforming the fly-

balls moment to the turbine valve (steam valve) through a
hydraulic amplifier.

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 Speed Governing system
 ABC is a rigid link pivoted at point B and CDE is another rigid
pivoted link at point D.

 Link DE provides feedback from the steam valve moment.

 The speed-governing system is basically called the primary control

loop in the LFC.

 If the control valve position is indicated by x , a small upward

movement of point E decreases the steam flow by a considerable
amount.

 It is measured in terms of valve power ΔP .

 This flow decrement gets translated into decrement in turbine power

output ΔP. 19
Governor Model

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Cont..

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 Cont..
• By combining the above block diagrams, the complete
block diagram of the LFC of an isolated power station
is shown below:

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 Cont..
• The closed-loop transfer function relating the load change
Δ𝑃𝐿(i/p) to frequency deviation ΔΩ(o/p) is:

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Example

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 AGC in a Single area system
• With the LFC loop, a change in the system load will result in
steady-state frequency deviation, depending on the governor speed
regulation.

• In order to reduce the frequency deviation to zero, we must provide

a reset action.

• The reset action can be achieved by introducing an integral

controller to act the load reference setting to change the speed set
point.

• The integral controller gain 𝐾𝐼 must be adjusted for satisfactory

transient response.
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AGC in isolated power system

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 Cont..
• The closed-loop transfer function of the above control system with
an input −Δ𝑃𝐿 and o/p ΔΩ becomes:

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 AGC in the multi area system
• The AGC of a multi area system can be realized by studying the
AGC for a two–area system.
• Consider two areas represented by an equivalent generating unit
interconnected by a lossless tie line with reactance 𝑋𝑡𝑖𝑒.
• Each area is represented by a voltage source behind an equivalent
reactance.
• The real power transferred over the tie line is given by:

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 Cont.
• For a small deviation in the tie-line flow Δ𝑃12:

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 Cont.
• A block diagram representation for the two-area system with LFC
containing the primary control loop is shown below.

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 AVR
• It is known that Voltage (V) of a power supply system must be maintained
at a constant value.

• Other wise the performance of any motor/machinery will drop considerably.

• When any new load is given to an un-regulated AC Generator, the V drop is

more substantial.

• Close control of generator voltage is required to prevent such dips in

Voltage.

• This control is achieved by an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR).

• The real need of the AVR is to deal with the voltage dip following the
sudden connection of extra load and to restore the rated Voltage without
undue overshooting and regeneration(i.e. voltage hunting).
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Reasons To Keep The Voltage At Constant Level
 In induction motor loads, variations in the voltage will affect and
change the torque.

 Lighting loads like fluorescent and incandescent lamps are

sensitive to the changes in the voltage level.

 If the voltage variation is very large than a prescribed value then

the performance of the equipment will get affected and the life
span of the equipment may be reduced.

 The picture of the television set will start rolling due to the
voltage being below a specified level.

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 Introduction To Excitation System
• The basic function of an excitation system is to provide necessary
direct current to the field winding of the synchronous generator.
• The excitation system must be able to automatically adjust the
field current to maintain the required terminal voltage.
• The DC field current is obtained from a separate source called an
exciter.

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 Introduction To Exciter
• It is necessary to provide constancy of the alternator terminal
voltage during normal small and slow changes in the load.

• For this purpose the alternators are provided with Automatic

Voltage Regulator (AVR).

• The exciter is the main component in the AVR loop.

• It delivers DC power to the alternator field. It must have

adequate power capacity (in the low MW range for large
alternator) and sufficient speed of response (rise time less than
0.1 sec.)

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 Main Components
• In older power plants, the exciter consisted of a DC generator
driven by the main shaft.

• This arrangement requires the transfer of DC power to the

synchronous generator field via slip rings and brushes.

• Modern exciters tend to be of either brushless or static design.

• In this arrangement, the exciter consists of an inverted three

phase alternator which has its three phase armature on the
rotor and its field on the stator.

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 Cont.
 The AVR senses output voltage and alter the field current to
maintain the output voltage at set value.
 Excitation voltage can be set by the hand trimmer.
 The VOLTAGE SENSING unit transforms down, and rectifies
voltage.
 This signal is compared with the set value at the COMPARATOR .
 The 'error' signal from the Comparator is used to control the
excitation current through ERROR AMP. and CONTROLLER.

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 Modelling of AVR
 Four basic parts of AVR

 Exciter Modelling

 Synchronous generator Modelling

 Exciter stabilization Modelling

 Sensor modelling

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 Cont..

• The transfer equation that relates the generator terminal voltage Vt(s)
to the reference voltage Vref(s) is :

• The amplifier comes first in the AVR system to amplify the error
signal.

• Then the error signals alter the exciter and consequently the generator.

• The sensor sense the voltage output and send it to the transducer and
the transducer send in the signal after comparing it to the amplifier.

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 Summery
• The main problems of control in the large power system are:

 Active Power.

 Reactive Power.

• Active power control is closely related to frequency control.

• The frequency has an inverse relationship with the load that is

changing continually.

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• High load (Air conditions, machines)  High pressure on

system  Decreasing in frequency of the load (< 50 + 0.05Hz)

 System is unstable.

To return the value of load frequency to its normal:

• More mechanical power to turbine  More electrical power

 Frequency of the load will increase to its normal value 
System is stable.

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Example2. A 100 MVA synchronous generator operates on full load at
frequency of 50Hz. The load is suddenly reduced to 50 MW. Due to time lag
in governor system, the steam valve begins to close after 0.4 seconds.
Determine the change in frequency that occurs in this time.

Given H = 5 kW-sec/kVA of generator capacity.

• Solution

• There are two cases

• Case I (full load condition)

• Assume, Pf=1,

• Active power= S*Pf

• Active power=100MVA*1=100MW
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• And

1
• 𝐾𝐸 = ∗ 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Where v is speed and it is related with frequency

𝐾𝐸 ∝ 𝑓 2 and we have 𝐻 = 𝐾𝐸/𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

• Then 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐻 ∗ 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 5 ∗ 105 𝑘𝑤𝑠𝑒𝑐.

• 𝐾𝐸 ∝ 𝑓 2 ⇒ 5 ∗ 105 ∝ 502 … … … … … … … . … … … … … … (1)

• 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑞. 𝑖𝑠 50𝐻𝑧

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• Case II (at sudden reduced load=50MW)
• Due to the time delay of governor, we are getting some energy still.
• Excess power four 0.4sec =50MW
• Excess energy =50MW*0.4sec=0.2 ∗ 105 𝑘𝑤𝑠𝑒𝑐
• This excess energy is in the form of KE
• Then total KE=5.2 ∗ 105 𝑘𝑤𝑠𝑒𝑐

• 𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 2 ∝ 5.2 ∗ 105 𝑘𝑤𝑠𝑒𝑐 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 2

• Taking the ratio of equation 1 to 2

• 𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 2 = 2600

• 𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 50.99 𝐻𝑧

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 Thank YOU!

18-Feb-25 47