Sambola, Leslie Jane D.

1023 ETHICS
2nd Year/ AB Political Science
Ma'am Cleotilde Prima

What is Ethics?

The term Ethics can be defined as moral principles or values that govern the conduct of
an individual or group.

Ethics are standards of behavior that make up an individual’s or society’s code of

conduct. The word, Ethics comes from the Greek terms Ethos and Ethikos, which relate
to character, custom, and habit respectively.Ethics is a part of Philosophy that is mainly
concerned with “Defending, Systematising, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior“.

●​ Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles.

These principles are often divided into three categories:

●​ what we should do?

●​ what we should not do?
●​ what we ought to do?

For example:

It would be unethical for a lawyer to lie on the witness stand in court because lawyers
have an ethical obligation, to tell the truth under oath.

On the other hand, a doctor who tells his patient that he has a terminal illness when he
does not is being unethical. It would be unethical for the doctor to break this news if it
were true but he can only hurt his patient if it’s false.

The argument could also be made that it is unethical for the doctor to withhold any
information about his prognosis from his patient even if there is no cure for their
disease.

Types of Ethics:
Ethics is a branch of philosophy, there are many types of ethics based on different
approaches and situation. Let’s understand these types briefly:
1. Normative Ethics
One way of understanding ethics is by looking at the norms, or rules, in society.
Normative Ethics looks at what the right and wrong things to do are in a specific
situation.

These two words can be contrasted with other aspects of ethics such as Meta-Ethics
which looks at how people come up with morality and ought beliefs.

The three main types of normative ethical systems are Utilitarianism, Kantianism, and
Virtue Theory.

●​ Normative ethics can be defined as the study of ethical action, typically based on
what is morally right and wrong.

●​ Normative ethics is more practical as it applies to basic human behavior and

actions. There are mainly three theories that come under normative ethics.
Deontological, Teleological (Consequential), Virtue.

For Example; is it wrong to kill a person to save many lives?

Prescriptive Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of

right and wrong action (behavior). It also includes arriving at moral standards that
guide to act right or wrong. It is an ideal litmus test of identify behavior.

2. Applied Ethics
An example of applied ethics would be the ethics of recycling. This can be applied to our
personal lives by ensuring we recycle as much as possible and teaching our children to
do the same.

●​ Applied ethics can be defined as a branch of moral philosophy that attempts to

apply ethical principles and moral theories to real-life moral issues.

●​ The most practical branch of ethics.

●​ Deals with ethical questions specific to practical fields.
●​ Includes bioethics, legal ethics, business ethics, medical ethics, etc.

For Example; Is it ethical to allow euthanasia? Other examples are Capital

punishment, Animal Rights, and War between two countries.
 ●​ Applied ethics refers to the discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical
theory to real-life situations. For example, abortion is a major issue and it is an
applied ethical topic since it consists of a specific type of controversial behavior.

●​ It also applies to more global issues, such as the impact that deforestation has on
endangered species’ habitats, which would cause a loss in biodiversity.

3. Meta-Ethics
Meta-ethics asks the question of what it means to do ethics?. In other words,
meta-ethics questions how we can justify ethical judgments, or how we can prove that
one ethical theory is better than another.

For example, if I claim that utilitarianism is a good moral system, then meta-ethics
would ask: How do you know?
The answer lies in the realm of normative ethics and something is morally wrong
because society does not agree with it.

●​ Meta-ethics can be defined as a branch of ethics that is concerned with the study
of the nature of ethics. It analyzes the meaning when we use words like good, bad,
right, and wrong.

●​ Meta-Ethics is more about philosophy in nature as it deals with the nature of

ethics and morality.
●​ Meta-ethics investigates where our moral and ethical principles come from and
what is the meaning behind using them.

For Example: “What is meant by a wrong action?” Another example is, when we say,
‘abortion is good’, or ‘abortion is bad’?

4. Virtue Ethics
Ethics are about the virtues that a person should adopt to be a good person. Virtue
ethics often focus on what we should do and not do in various situations, rather than on
right and wrong.

For example, it might tell us that if you don’t want to steal something, then you
shouldn’t even try it because you know you will fail.

The goal of virtue ethics is to teach people how they can become better people, which
makes them more likely to behave ethically.
Difference between Ethics and Morality

The distinction between ethics and morality is often a source of confusion for many
people. Ethics and morality are closely related, but there is an important distinction
between the two.

At its core, morality is based on beliefs about what is right and wrong in terms of how
people should act and treat each other. Morality can be influenced by religious
teachings, cultural norms, or personal convictions.

In contrast, ethics is a branch of philosophy that examines questions of morality in a

systematic, structured way. It attempts to understand the nature of moral judgments
and determine criteria for evaluating them.

The major difference between Ethics and Morality are:

Ethics
●​ The word Ethics originated from the Greek word ethos. The meaning of ethos is a
character.
●​ Legal guidelines and professional rules govern ethics. The acceptability of ethics
is confined within a particular space and time frame.
●​ Ethics are dependent on the prism of others.​
●​ If the contexts are different, then the ethics could be different. Hence there is
some degree of flexibility in ethics.
●​ Ethics are followed because society has decided it is the right course of action.
●​ A person who follows the ethical principles need not necessarily have strong
moral values, in fact, there are even possibilities that he may not have any
morals.
●​ Ethics is something usually associated in the field of law, medicine or business.
Ethics does not have a religious connotation.

Morality
●​ The word Morals originated from the Latin word Mos. The meaning of Mos is
custom.
●​ When it comes to the acceptability of morality it transcends the norms laid down
by culture.
●​ Morality is seen from the perspective of an individual.
●​ Change in morality depends on the difference in the beliefs of an individual.
●​ Morality is followed because a person believes that it is the right course of action.
 ●​ There could be situations where a moral person violates ethics to uphold his
moral values.
●​ Morality has a religious connotation.

Importance of reason/reasoning in Ethics

Ethical reasoning helps determine and differentiate between right thinking,

decisions, and actions and those that are wrong, hurtful and/or harmful— to others and
to ourselves. Ethics is based on and motivated by facts, values, emotions, beliefs,
emotions, and feelings. Ethical actions are based on conscientious reasoning of facts
based on moral principles and standards.

●​ A major aim of ethical reasoning is to gain a clear focus on problems to facilitate

acting in morally responsible ways.
●​ Individuals are morally responsible for the harmful effects of their actions when
they knowingly and freely acted or caused the act to happen and knew that the act
was morally wrong or hurtful to others andthey knowingly and freely failed to act
or prevent a harmful act, and they knew it would be morally wrong for a person
to do this.

Although there is no universal definition of what sets up a morally wrong act, it is

commonly defined as an act that causes physical or emotional harm to another person
(Weiss, 2014). Two conditions that eliminate a person’s moral responsibility for causing
injury or harm are ignorance and inability (Velasquez, 1998). However, persons who
intentionally prevent themselves from knowing that a harmful action will occur are still
responsible.

●​ Ethical reasoning helps determine and differentiate between right thinking,

decisions, and actions and those that are wrong, hurtful and/or harmful— to
others and to ourselves. Ethics is based on and motivated by facts, values,
emotions, beliefs, emotions, and feelings.

ISSUES, DECISION, JUDGMENT, AND DILEMMA

●​ Moral issue - a situation that calls for moral valuation. Used to refer to those
particular situations that are often the source of considerable and inconclusive
debate (thus, we would often hear topics such as capitalpunishment and
euthanasia as moral “issues”).•
 ●​ Moral Decision - When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the
choice of what act to perform.•Moral Judgment - When a person is an
observer who makes anassessment on the actions or behavior of someone.•

●​ Moral Dilemma - the more complicated situation wherein one is torn

between choosing one of two good or bad choosing between the lesser of two
evils.

A MODEL FOR MORAL DECISION MAKING

1. GATHER THE FACTS

Frequently ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply by clarifying the facts of the case in
question. In those cases that prove to be more difficult, gathering the facts is the
essential first step prior to any ethical analysis and reflection on the case. In analyzing a
case,we want to know the available facts at hand as well as any fact currently not known
but that need to be ascertained. Thus, one isasking not only “What do we know?” but
also “What do we needto know?” in order to make an intelligent ethical decision.

2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES

The ethical issues are stated in terms of competing interests orgoods. It’s these
conflicting interests that actually make for an ethical dilemma. The issues should
be presented in a______versus _________ format in order to reflect the interests
that are colliding in a particular ethical dilemma. For example, inbusiness ethics there is
often a conflict between the right of a firm to make profit and its obligation to the
community. In this case,the obligation pertains to the environment.

3. WHAT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE

In any ethical dilemma, there are certain moral values or principles that are
central to the conflicting positions being taken.It is critical to identify these
principles, and in some cases, to determine whether some principles are to be
weighted more heavily than others. Clearly, biblical principles will be weighed the
most heavily. There may be other principles that speak to the case that come from other
sources. There may be constitutional principles or principles drawn from natural law
that supplements the biblical principles that come into play here. The principles that
came out of your mission and calling are also important to consider.

4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES

Part of the creative thinking involved in resolving an ethical dilemma involves
coming up with various alternative courses of action. Although there will be some
alternatives that you will rule out without much thought, in general the more
alternatives that are listed, the better the chance that your list will include some
high-quality ones. In addition, you may come up with some very creative alternative
that you had not considered before.

5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE PRINCIPLES

At this point, the task is one of eliminating alternatives according to the moral principles
that have a bearing on the case. In many instances, the case will be resolved at
this point, since the principles will eliminate all alternatives except one. In fact, the
purpose of this comparison is to see if there is a clear decision that can be made without
further deliberations. If a clear decision is not forthcoming, then the next part is the
model that must be considered. At the least, some of the alternatives may be
eliminated by this step of comparison.

6. WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES If the principles do not yield a clear decision,

then a consideration of the consequences of the remaining available alternatives is in
order. Both positive and negative consequences are to be considered. They
should be informally weighed, since some positive consequences are more
detrimental than others.

7. MAKE A DECISION Deliberations cannot go on forever. At some point, a

decision must be made. Realize that one common element in ethical
dilemmas is that there are no easy and painless solutions to them.Frequently the
decision that is made is one that involves the least number of problems or negative
consequences, not one that is devoid of them.

Sources of Authority:
Sources of Authority in Ethics

1.​ LAW - the law is enforced by way of a system of sanctions administered through
persons and institutions, which all help in compelling us to obey taking the law to
be the basis of ethics has the benefit of providing us with an objective standard
that is obligatory and applicable to all.

2.​ RELIGION - Many religions provide a set of moral and ethical principles that
guide behavior and decision-making, helping individuals to navigate complex
ethical issues and make choices that align with their values. Ethical and moral
values are principles or beliefs that guide behavior and decision-making

3.​ CULTURE - culture is a key determinant of an individual's ethical ideology,

which affects an individual's inclination to behave ethically. In other words,
culture acts as a guideline in determining whether certain practices are
appropriate and acceptable.
Senses of the Self

SUBJECTIVISM - The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition that the

individual thinking person the subject is at the heart of all moral valuations. She is the
one who is confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to make a
decision or judgment. From this point subjectivism leaps to the more radical claim that
the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong.

“No one can tell me what is right and wrong”

“No one knows my situation better than myself”

“I am entitled to my own opinion”

“It is good if I say that it is good”

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM - It is a theory that describes the underlying dynamic

behind all human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in any
particular way. Instead, it points out that there is already an underlying basis for how
one acts. The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all our actions are geared
toward satisfying these interests.

ETHICAL EGOISM - It is a theory that prescribes that we should make our own ends,
our own interests, as the single overriding concern. We may act in a way that is
beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us. This theory
acknowledges that it is a dog eat dog world out there and given that everyone ought to
put herself at the center One should consider herself as the priority and not allow any
other concerns, such as the welfare of other people, to detract from this pursuit

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