FOCUS

ISSN: 1982-8918

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN SPORTS: A

REVOLUTIONARY TECHNOLOGY THAT MUST
BE HANDLED WITH CARE
INTELIGÊNCIA ARTIFICIAL NO ESPORTE: UMA TECNOLOGIA
REVOLUCIONÁRIA QUE DEVE SER MANUSEADA COM CUIDADO +

INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL EN EL DEPORTE: UNA TECNOLOGÍA

REVOLUCIONARIA QUE DEBE MANEJARSE CON CUIDADO +

https://doi.org/10.22456/1982-8918.143278

Alberto Carrio Sampedro* <[email protected]>

__________
* Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Barcelona, Spain.

Abstract: Artificial Intelligence (AI) has developed very quickly in sport. Today, it has
infiltrated all areas of sport, and its uses and applications continue to grow. This is
understandable, considering the potential of AI applications in the sports industry,
from improving the game, to engaging fans, to generating huge revenues through
talent identification and recruitment. But AI also has a less attractive face, which can Received on: Sep. 19, 2024
undermine the values of sport and even challenge its human nature. In this paper, I Approved on: Oct. 15, 2024
Published in: Nov, 12, 2024
will briefly present both sides of the discussion around AI in sport, looking first at its
potential benefits and then at the ethical challenges that this technology poses for
the governance of sport. In between the pros and cons of AI in sport, I also offer a
brief reflection on the question of sport as an essential human activity that AI is now This is an article published
seriously challenging. in open access under
the Creative Commons
Keywords: Sport. Ethics. Artificial intelligence. Sport technology. Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)

Movimento, v. 30, e30054, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22456/1982-8918.143278

ISSN: 1982-8918
Alberto Carrio Sampedro

1 INTRODUCTION

The debut of micro-chipped balls in the FIFA World Cup 2022 was an incredible
innovation that, with the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI), allowed for the collection
of several data points and semi-automated offside control. This technology has the
potential to revolutionise the sport, as it had with the innovation of Hawk-eye technology
leveraging AI cameras in Tokyo 2020, and the Omega™ magic-eye camera in 1948
giving the opportunity for the first photo-finish.
Sports have always profited from technological developments. In fact, it would
be difficult to conceive of modern sports and the constant improvement of world records
without referring to technological advancements at all levels. In this sense, sports can
be viewed as a fascinating crossroads of human endeavour. On the one hand, athletes
strive to go faster, higher, and stronger as the original Olympic motto urged: Citius,
Altius, Fortius. On the other hand, scientific and technological advancements are now
routinely applied to sports. In recent years, one such advance is the emergence and
rapid development of AI in sports, as well as in other fields. While this technology
is impressive, it is also somewhat intimidating, as it has enormous potential and is
already transforming sports in many ways.
The sports industry has openly embraced AI because of its many applications
in various aspects of sport, including training, refereeing, predicting and recovering
from injuries and its potential for fan engagement. This article aims to provide a short
introduction to some of the many valuable opportunities that AI offers to sport. But
it also aims to draw attention to something less appealing, but equally important,
namely the serious ethical concerns that these applications raise. Indeed, it can be
affirmed that for every positive application, there is also a hidden side that needs to
be carefully addressed in order to ensure the safe use of AI in sport.
With this in mind, the article will proceed as follows. Section 2 provides a brief
introduction to AI and how it has evolved over the last few years. Section 3 presents
various applications of AI in sports, distinguishing between main sporting activities
and related activities. Section 4 offers a brief reflection on the impact of AI on sports
and its potential effects on our understanding of sports as a human activity. Section
5 addresses some of the main ethical concerns that AI raises regarding athletes’
privacy, autonomy, health, and wellbeing. The article concludes with a section that
aims to address the importance and relevance of human oversight and control of
AI in sport. Utilising the vast array of possibilities that AI offers to sport presents an
opportunity to embed ethics in technology by bringing together scientists and ethicists
to ensure that this technology is safe, human-centred, and sustainable.

2 A VERY SHORT INTRODUCTION TO AI

Despite the increasing popularity of AI systems in the last few years, the
history of AI dates back to the beginnings of the 20th century. By the middle of 20th
century, the term AI was coined for the first time following early research on the topic
during the 1950s and 1960s. In fact, one turning point for AI history is the publication
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Artificial Intelligence in sports: a revolutionary technology that must be handled with care

of Alan Turing’s paper “Computing, Machinery and Intelligence”, which explored the
possibility of a machine’s ability to think. The well-known Turing Test or “the imitation
game” as Turing called it (Turing, 1950) was probably the first serious evidence for
the hypothesis that machines think (Moor, 1976). The period after the 1950s is usually
seen as a long period of decadence and lack of interest caused by a failure to realise
the promising future that some researchers had foreseen. The truth is that this period
is not a decadent period at all, but a time of objections to and discussions about
Turing’s imitation game (Copeland, 2000). This period, usually called the Winter of AI,
was followed by improvements in technology and the resurgence of machine learning
during the last decade of the previous century and the early years of the current one.
(Coeckelbergh, 2020, p. 67 ff).
Despite the growing presence of AI, there is no standard definition of it.
The European AI strategy defines AI as “systems that display intelligent behaviour
by analysing their environment and taking action – with some degree of autonomy
– to achieve specific goals” (European Commission, 2018, p. 1). The European
Commission’s High-Level Expert Group on AI (HLEG) in its last update defines AI as:
Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are software (and possibly also hardware)
systems designed by humans that, given a complex goal, act in the physical
or digital dimension by perceiving their environment through data acquisition,
interpreting the collected structured or unstructured data, reasoning on
the knowledge, or processing the information, derived from this data and
deciding the best action(s) to take to achieve the given goal. AI systems
can either use symbolic rules or learn a numeric model, and they can also
adapt their behaviour by analysing how the environment is affected by their
previous actions. (European Commission, 2019, p. 6).

The “AI Watch: Defining Artificial Intelligence” report considers the HLEG
definition as being the best starting point for an operational definition (Samoili et al.,
2020). However, the AI Act, the first-ever proposal for a legal framework for the use of
AI, promoted by the EU Commission (2022), defines AI in a simpler way, as follows:
[…] ‘artificial intelligence system’ (AI system) means a system that is
designed to operate with elements of autonomy and that, based on machine
and/or human-provided data and inputs, infers how to achieve a given set
of objectives using machine learning and/or logic- and knowledge based
approaches, and produces system-generated outputs such as content
(generative AI systems), predictions, recommendations or decisions,
influencing the environments with which the AI system interacts; (Art. 3.1.)1

This is in fact an ongoing definition due to the continuous evolution of AI. In any
case, it is also quite a plausible definition for the purpose of this article.

3 THE ENDLESS USES OF AI IN SPORTS

AI has arrived in sport almost imperceptibly, but its impact is already huge.
Many AI applications have transformed sport and the way it is experienced by athletes,
coaches, referees, fans and many other stakeholders. In fact, there is already a new

1 See: The Articles of the EU Artificial Intelligence Act (25.11.2022). Available at: https://www.artificial-intelligence-
act.com/Artificial_Intelligence_Act_Article_3_(Proposal_25.11.2022).html. Accessed on: Oct. 2024. The AI Act was
passed by the European Parliament on March 13, 2024 while this article was being written. 03

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AI-designed sport that combines rules and movements from different sports, such as
rugby and football. Speedgate, which is the name AI has given to this new sport, is
played by teams of six players who have to kick a ball around a field of three gates.
Whether or not it is attractive to humans, Speedgate is the result of the work of a
neural network that has analysed data from more than 400 popular sports around
the world. While this is not the biggest impact of AI in sport, Speedgate highlights an
important disruption of AI in sport: the creation by AI of new sports to be played by
humans. In other words, AI is challenging the core idea that sport is fundamentally
a human activity (Suits, 2005; Parry, 2018). So perhaps from now on we should
also refer to sports as non-human inventions to be played by humans. And also the
possibility of new forms of sport being played by non-humans or between humans and
non-humans.
In any case, the current impact of AI in sport can be seen and categorised
in many different ways. According to Deloitte (2021), AI is impacting Olympics
sports in four important areas, namely, a) AI in play, b) the consumption of AI, c) the
management of AI, and d) AI monetization. Others, like Brady, Tuyls and Omidshafiei
(2021), categorise AI applications in sports depending on its uses. Accordingly, they
distinguish between two major categories of AI in sports, namely, a) AI in the game,
which includes fan engagement, media coverage and so on, and b) AI around the
game, which is divided into different stages, such as pre-match, in-match and post-
match uses or applications of AI.
These categorizations, as happens with many others, are not mutually
consistent. For instance, AI in play, according to Deloitte’s categorization, refers to the
uses of AI for improving athletes’ training, coaching, preventing injuries and refereeing
assistance. These uses, according to Brady, Tuyls and Omidshafiei (2021), fall into
the “around the game” category. In any case, it is not the categories themselves that
matter, but the different areas and fields in which AI is having a big impact on sports.
The following section proposes a typology of the different uses and purposes
of AI in sport, based on whether it is used in the primary sporting activities or in other
activities that are related, but not central to sport. The former include the basic areas
of sport, such as training, coaching, medical care, etc., while the latter relate to other
activities that are linked to sport but are not strictly sport activities, such as sport
governance or the sport industry.

3.1 AI IN SPORTS MAIN ACTIVITIES

I call “main activities” those that are central to the practice of sport, such as
training to develop physical and mental skills that need to be put into practice in
the context of sport. But also all those activities that help to achieve them, such as
coaching, as the process of learning and improving the tactical and strategic abilities
that lead to success in sport. These primary sports activities are readily linked to others
that, even if they cannot be called strictly primary activities, are necessary to achieve
them, for example sport medicine and psychology – although we should remember
that it is often very difficult and controversial in sports medicine to distinguish between
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Artificial Intelligence in sports: a revolutionary technology that must be handled with care

what is a core activity and what is in fact an enhancement procedure that is might be
used to gain an unfair advantage (Carrio, 2016; Carrio; Perez Triviño, 2017).
In any case, AI serves as an assistive tool to complement human action in
these activities. To assess the impact of AI-powered devices on core sports activities,
let us examine them briefly.

3.1.1 Training and coaching

Improving athletic performance and individual skills is undoubtedly the primary

goal of training and coaching. AI-powered devices have demonstrated their utility
for cultivating human skills and capacities. Indeed, the use of these AI devices for
this purpose is constantly increasing. In this sense it is worth mentioning Intel’s
3D athlete tracking system (3DAT). This technology, almost unknown a few years
ago, has become an essential tool for elite athletes around the world. This AI-driven
technology provides elite athletes and coaches with accurate metrics and analyses to
improve performance (Woodie, 2021). This AI-powered device is particularly effective
at providing a wealth of valuable information about speed, position, body angle,
acceleration and many other data in a matter of seconds, and it is also very easy to
use from mobile phones, tablets and so on.
On the other hand, it is also important to bear in mind that AI technology can
analyse and assess sporting performance without the current biases that coaches
and scouts often have. Ashton Eaton, a two-time Olympic decathlon gold medallist,
promotes the use of this technology, and the USA Surfing Organisation uses it to
analyse and improve surfing performances (Hyperight, 2021). The versatility of this
AI-driven technology makes it a tool suitable for all sports, which is why it is becoming
increasingly popular and even mandatory for all elite athletes.
Along with sports-specific performance, there is evidence that AI can help
improve athletes’ training plans and physiological preparedness. Some studies
highlight the feasibility and potency of AI in assessing performance on weight training
equipment and automatically providing athletes with prompt advice (Novachkov;
Baca, 2013).
For specific coaching goals, AI has been used in a variety of ways. Consider for
example GOLF AI, the smartphone application offering tailored golfing coaching, that
creates action plans, customised advice, personalised drills and metrics to improve
golfing performance. GOLF AI is one example of many applications of AI coaching.
AI’s application to sports performance will likely see rapid improvements as scientists
and academics are consistently developing innovative ways to improve athletic
performance through the use of AI (Dick; Tavakol; Brefeld, 2021; Kholkine et al., 2021;
Martens; Dick; Brefeld, 2021; Olthof et al., 2021). This is particularly challenging in
the case of reinforcement learning technology, because AI can develop individual
programmes tailored to each athlete. So it is not difficult to imagine a near future
where an AI coach prepares the daily training routine based on the data collected from
the athlete’s various devices, such as heart rate, hours of sleep, oxygen consumption,
active muscle recovery and so on.
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However, AI is not only creating new opportunities for software coaching and
training, the integration of software and hardware in robotics is also creating interesting
applications. The Harbin Institute of Technology in China developed a robotic curling
coach that uses an automatic control system, image recognition and AI to help curling
teams improve their performance. This robotic curling coach simulates the curling
throwing process, helping athletes to pre-emptively assess game situations before
competition (Marr, 2022).

3.1.2 Refereeing

The impact of AI in sport can also be readily witnessed in refereeing. In the

2022 FIFA World Cup, AI aided referees in offside decisions via the semi-automated
offside technology (SAOT) system. Via a combination of AI and limb/ball-tracking
data, SOAT superseded video-assisted technology (VAR) by providing precise and
timely offside rulings to aid the referee (FIFA, 2023). The FIFA website claims that this
allows for faster and more accurate decisions available for video match officials (FIFA,
2022). In tennis, there have been instances of officials being replaced by a technology
that is better at judging when balls have been hit “in” or “out”. In the US Open, line
judges were reported to have been reduced from 400 to 130 and replaced by “hawk-
eye live”, a live system with 12 cameras around the court that automatically judges
balls hit on the tennis court (Agency, 2021).
In gymnastics, the introduction of AI systems to identify the relevant movements
and score the complete performance of the athletes has proven their accuracy and
usefulness in eliminating human error. Even if the scoring done by AI systems is
checked by the judges, it could be considered as an automated scoring since in most
cases this scoring is validated by the human judges.
Indeed, the increasing use of AI in refereeing has opened the door to an
interesting debate. Bad calls and lack of integrity in refereeing have been a problem in
sports governance for many years. Many academics have highlighted the importance
of having bad calls overturned as a right of sport stakeholders (Russell, 1997; Bordner,
2015), particularly athletes, clubs, sponsors and so on. But now that technology is
able to create automated refereeing in most sports, the debate has shifted to the
appropriateness of automated decision making and its implications for sport.

3.1.3 Health

Health is crucial for sport, but sport and health do not always go together. In
fact, while physical exercise is good for health, professional and elite sports pose
a challenge and, in most cases, a serious threat to the health of athletes. AI has
proven its value in improving the health of athletes by providing accurate information
on various parameters of athletes’ health and appropriate feedback in real time. As
this article is being written, the Barça Innovation Hub announces its alliance with
Made of Genes, a company that specialises in using AI, data science and biological

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information, such as DNA tests, blood analysis, etc., to recommend individual health
improvements and to optimise performance2.
On the other hand, injuries are probably the best expression of the threat to
health posed by the physical demands of sport. Certainly, injuries are not only the
biggest problem for the success of an athlete’s career but also a major concern for
coaches, clubs and sponsors. Professional footballers accrue between 2.48 and
9.40 injuries per 1,000 hours of exertion, with roughly 33% being attributable to
overuse injuries (Pfirrmann et al., 2016). AI is an effective tool for injury prevention.
For example, Machine Learning can inform athletes when to train and when they
are at risk of jeopardising their career from an injury (Fiscutean, 2021), as illustrated
in a study that utilised Machine Learning and GPS training data to create an injury
forecaster (Rossi et al., 2018).
At the 2022 Winter Olympics, some US figure skaters used 4D Motion, a system
that tracks fatigue from multiple jumps in practice, to estimate the stresses on particular
parts of the body (Niiler, 2022). Yang and Xu (2022) proposed a basketball injury
early warning method grounded in a neural network model to provide forewarning of
basketball sports injuries. But AI is also very helpful once the injury has occurred. AI is
useful in identifying the location of the injury and also in giving advice on how to care
for it. In a study comparing the accuracy of human readers and convoluted neural
networks (CNN) to detect anterior-cruciate ligament (ACL) tears, the CNN detected
ACL tears with comparable accuracy to human readers (Minamoto et al., 2022). Such
AI is particularly useful for non-experts in diagnosing injuries, something that athletes
without access to expert medical services can utilise. A pilot study investigating the
predictability of post-concussion symptom recovery found that AI can be effective in
making clinical predictions (Fleck et al., 2021). Athletes in sports with a high-risk for
concussion such as boxing, rugby, and American football, can utilise predictions of
post-concussion recovery for a safe return to competition.

3.2 AI IN SPORT RELATED ACTIVITIES TO SPORT

The increasing use of AI in sports also provides many benefits for activities
around sports. In fact the sports industry is a strong supporter of AI in sport because
of the new opportunities it brings. This is particularly important in the field of fan
engagement. Indeed, AI is also revolutionising how sports teams engage with their
fans. Football clubs have collected, analysed, and interpreted data to create bespoke
and interactive fan experiences via augmented and virtual reality, personalised
content and chatbots. At Taiwan’s National Intercollegiate Athletic Games (NIAG),
5G networks with multi-access edge computing and AI-based in-game sports data
analytics were utilised to enhance fan engagement. AI has the potential to transform
fan engagement because it can enhance the experience of fans all around the world,
helping them feel more connected, irrespective of the distance between them and the
sports event.

2 See: BARÇA innovation hub...2024. Available at: https://barcelonahealthhub.com/en/news/barca-innovation-hub-

invests-in-made-of-genes-to-develop-a-cutting-edge-biogenetic-study-with-a-gender-focus/. Accessed on: Sept.
2024. 07

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For sports betting, AI is used to analyse vast amounts of data to ensure more
accurate, adaptable and consistent sports betting predictions. The company AI Sports
Prediction claims its products have as high as 87% predictive outcomes, whilst
most human experts have a prediction accuracy of between 60%-65%3. In a study
predicting match outcomes of the Indian Premier League (IPL), Machine Learning
Algorithms were used to predict the outcome of IPL cricket matches with 88.10%
accuracy (Srikantaiah et al., 2021). In theory, such AI can instil confidence in the
bettor, as they have an improved chance of victory with AI than without.
The use of AI in sports betting poses many ethical concerns, however. Evidence
shows that AI has been used to personalise promotions and predict consumer habits
to maintain addictive gambling behaviour4. Without necessary safeguards regarding
the use of AI in sports betting systems, sports consumers are likely to be subject to
betting-inducing behaviour. That is particularly worrying when considering that it is
mainly young people and even minors who are primarily involved in on-line sports
betting. On the other hand, the link between betting and corruption or organised crime
groups exacerbates the danger of betting-inducing AI use in sports. Steps should be
taken to ensure that AI use in betting does not create more problems than it solves.
It is possible that certain restrictions on AI and data use in promoting betting may be
necessary, given its relation to organised crime and corruption.

4 ONE MORE TECHNOLOGY IN SPORTS OR MUCH MORE THAN ONE

TECHNOLOGY MORE?

The emergence of chatbots has raised many questions and doubts about AI
uses and applications. These concerns are not surprising. Generative AI, as a subfield
of AI, has become the most popular AI tool. Chat GPT from Open AI™ has reached
100 million users and Midjourney™ has reached 14.5 million in a few months, while
other AI generative tools are also reaching a large audience. The text-video generator
Sora from Open AI™ has once again surprised us all with its incredible video images,
which are often indistinguishable from real video recordings. In any case, generative
AI as a subfield of AI in processing and generating natural languages and images,
is a vivid example of how AI systems are able to perform functions that traditionally
require human intelligence, such as decision making, experiential learning and many
other fields. The possibilities that it opens up to the sport industry are almost limitless.
Indeed, sports have always benefited from technological developments, and
there is no doubt that AI offers many opportunities in all areas of sport. The question
is therefore not whether AI is important for sport, but how it can be managed in
order to take advantage of all these opportunities without putting at risk the main
characteristics and values of sport. Consider for example the basic assumption that
sport is mainly a human activity (Suits, 2005; Kretchmar, 2005; Parry, 2018; Devine,

3 See: IA Sports Prediction. Available at: https://sportsprediction.ai/. Accessed on: Sep.. 1, 2024.
4 See: BUSBY, Matta. Revealed: how bookies use AI to keep gamblers hooked. The Guardian, Apr. 30, 2018.
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/30/bookies-using-ai-to-keep-gamblers-hooked-
insiders-say. Accessed on: Sep.. 1, 2024. 08

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2022). Certainly, few people, if any, doubt that sports are a human activity. In fact,
Mares and Novotny (2022, p. 6) in their review of Parry’s account of sport affirm that
“an uncontroversial part of Parry’s definition is that sport is a human, rule-governed
enterprise that involves physical skills.” But is it really uncontroversial that sport is a
human activity?
The indisputability of this characterisation depends in part on what we mean
by “human activity”. Indeed, there are some examples of sport that challenge this
account. But apart from that, and more in line with the aim of this article, it is important
to clarify whether, when some traditional human activities in sport are performed by
machines, this implies a loss of the human element and, consequently, a change
in the definition of sport. The current paradigmatic example is refereeing. There is
no doubt that referees are an important part of the game. So important, in fact, that
referees are responsible for interpreting and applying the rules of the game. In other
words, when played, the game is what the referees say it is. But what would happen
if this unpredictable human factor disappears? Can machines replace the human
interpretation of the rules? Or would this be better described as automated rules
applying? These are not speculative questions but practical ones. In fact, FIFA has
repeatedly talked about replacing referees with machines. Would that mean that sport
is no longer a human activity, at least as far as the interpretation and application of the
rules is concerned?
Perhaps a more futuristic example is the one of bionic and cyborg athletes,
although perhaps not so far from the present practice of sport, since both bionic and
cyborg athletes are already present in sports. They raise important questions regarding
the impact of AI on the increasing automation of sports, and thus on the traditional
concept of sports. The philosophy of sport needs to address these questions, but also
the many ethical questions that need to be considered. In the following, I will try to
mention some of them, without claiming to be exhaustive.

5 ETHICAL QUESTIONS

AI applications are so widespread in sports that many of them go unnoticed. The

extraordinary growth in the use of wearable technology to track athletes’ performance,
heart rates, blood oxygenation and so on is a key indicator of the impact of analytics
in sports. These devices are widely used in both professional and amateur sport.
They are worn by players and referees, but also, and more worryingly, by children.
As previously mentioned, these devices proportionate accurate information and are
really helpful to improve performance, strength endurance, prevent injuries and so
on. But their proliferation also raises some ethical concerns that we cannot ignore.
What would happen if an athlete refused to use a wearable device? Is the purpose of
collecting this data only related to sport? Are athletes informed before their personal
data is collected and stored? What are the purposes for which the data will be used?
How will it be protected from possible violations? Is it possible to obtain consent when
all this data is, by definition, highly sensitive? Several questions remain.

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Beyond the main concerns about data collection and purpose, however, there
are other important concerns about the security and reliability of data and, by extension,
AI systems. Certainly, many problems arise when considering the vast amount of data
that AI requires and the evidence that biased data is used for feeding algorithms that
result in inaccurate and unfair recommendations. Furthermore, AI systems in sport
are also linked to traditional ethical concerns such as autonomy, fairness or athletes’
self-identity and agency (Carrio, 2021). Finally, there are also many ethical concerns
related to the impact that AI systems can have on the health and wellbeing of the
athletes. I shall try to briefly examine each of these concerns in the following sections.

5.1 AUTONOMY

While AI can strengthen an individual’s ability to make decisions by providing

accurate real-time information, it can also have a negative impact on autonomy. Several
applications of AI in sports could potentially undermine an individual’s autonomy and
control over their actions. This is a common concern for athletes, coaches, referees,
and other stakeholders in sports, such as practitioners and recruitment officials.
Undoubtedly, the presence of AI could significantly influence the final decision. Are
coaches free to make a decision by ignoring AI recommendations while their clubs
invest large sums of money in AI-assisted equipment? Do athletes perform better
and more consciously with or without AI assistants or they act in a way that would not
follow without AI assistance?
It is crucial that AI systems are developed and implemented in a manner that
upholds human autonomy. Although AI systems can offer valuable support and useful
suggestions, they must not supersede autonomy, especially that of athletes who are
the primary stakeholders in sports and should have the ultimate decision-making
power concerning their performance, well-being, and career.

5.2 IDENTITY

Closely linked to autonomy issues, AI systems can significantly impact athletes’

perception of their achievements. It is often the case that athletes are dependent
on their coaches, and the same can be said of AI devices. In fact, an increasing
number of amateur athletes are using AI for automated coaching. In professional
sports, the use of AI for monitoring physical and psychological conditions is also on
the rise. Constant monitoring of athletes’ lives can have a negative impact on their
self-perception. AI devices can create a strong dependence and cause individuals
to question their own achievements. Although AI systems can improve performance
through data analysis and personalised training programs, athletes may question the
genuineness of their success (Erler, 2021). Moreover, collecting a large amount of
data on athletic performance, health, and biometrics can negatively affect athletes’
self-identity. They may begin to view themselves as a mere collection of data rather
than autonomous human beings.

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Artificial Intelligence in sports: a revolutionary technology that must be handled with care

5.3 FAIRNESS

Fairness is a crucial ethical concern in sports. In fact, fairness and fair play are
some of the most valuable principles of Olympism and, as such, they are at the basis
of sports rules and governance. The introduction of AI in sports may improve fairness
in various ways. For example, it could provide athletes with limited resources the
opportunity to receive accurate coaching and injury protection that would otherwise
be unattainable. Automated decisions, unlike human decisions, are not context-
dependent. It is alleged that automated refereeing through AI would provide fairer
results, avoid biassed and incorrect calls. However, the use of AI systems can raise
important fairness issues. For example, if AI is used to assess eligibility rules, it may
give some athletes a competitive advantage over others due to data or programming
biases. AI can also negatively affect fairness in sports as it is an expensive and
constantly evolving technology. To avoid creating a divide between high-tech sports,
clubs and countries and those considered second class, it is important to ensure
equal access to the technology and its updates.

5.4 ATHLETE WELLBEING

Safety and wellbeing are tightly linked to the bioethical principles of beneficence
and non-maleficence that are also important regarding the increasing use of AI in
sports. However, the rapid growth of AI in sports can also result in negative safety and
wellbeing concerns. For example:
a) Physical and mental health. AI systems are used to monitor physical and
physiological conditions. While the data obtained can be very useful in improving
athletic performance, injury prevention and assessing tactical decisions, there
is also a risk of over-monitorization that can end up compromising not only an
athlete’s privacy, but also their mental health and wellbeing.
b) Technological dependence. Similarly, the increasing use of AI systems creates a
clear dependency that can have a negative impact on athletes’ skills and decision
making. In other words, if athletes, coaches and referees are over-reliant on AI
recommendations, it could hinder creativity, intuition and undermine the importance
of human agency in sports. This situation already happens in refereeing (Mazurova;
Standaert; Penttinen, 2022).
c) Cybersecurity. AI systems rely on data and communicative networks. But
cybersecurity breaches can allow malicious actors to exploit the vulnerabilities of
AI systems, compromising the safety of sports events and the privacy of individual
stakeholders. What is more, data breaches can even put the accuracy of AI
systems used for performance analyses and injury prevention at risk, jeopardising
the health of the athletes and having a negative impact on the reliability of the AI
systems.

Addressing such issues of safety and wellbeing require a strong collaboration

between different stakeholders in sport. Comprehensive risk assessments and safety
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Alberto Carrio Sampedro

protocols are required in sports situations, in collaboration with sports stakeholders

and experts in risk management and assessment.

6 THE MEANING OF HUMAN OVERSIGHT AND CONTROL OF AI IN SPORTS

The integration of AI into sports is as inevitable as in all other fields of human

life, and technological advancements are often to be welcomed in sports. However,
it is well understood that technological advances need to be designed to benefit both
sport and those involved in it. It is important to remember that advances in fields
such as pharmaceuticals and neuroscience have created many new opportunities for
sport, but have also had negative consequences for athletes. Therefore, it is urgent to
establish an ethical framework for the governance of AI in sports, which would enable
sports to benefit from the endless possibilities offered by AI, while safeguarding
athletes, coaches, and referees from potential harm.
The proliferation and increasing popularity of AI systems in sport does not
transform them into ethical systems or imbue them in the spirit of sport and sporting
values. AI systems operate on algorithms that follow the patterns and instructions they
have been trained on. The ethical aspect of AI systems relies on how they have been
created, designed and governed by humans. However, AI systems can also be used
to create new models and algorithms through machine learning and automated model
generation. This is the challenge posed by “AI Autonomy” or “AI self-improvement”.
To address this challenge, it is very important to have strong AI governance systems
with a continuous monitoring of AI systems to detect unintended behaviour and bias
and other ethical concerns. However, incorporating human judgement and decision
making in AI systems through “Human-in-the Loop Approaches” (HILA) is absolutely
necessary to maintain control, validate the outcomes generated by AI systems and
make necessary interventions when ethical concerns arise.
As the use of AI systems in sports and other fields continues to increase,
numerous ethical concerns arise, and I have only highlighted a few of them. However,
there are many more, such as the inherent lack of transparency in this technology,
which leads to problems with responsibility and accountability. It is important to
address these issues as soon as possible. A promising approach is to embed ethics
in technology. Ethicists and AI developers need to collaborate to create a safe and
reliable technology for sports applications that has numerous potential benefits while
also mitigating high-risk possibilities.

7 CONCLUSION

Artificial intelligence opens up endless possibilities for sports. The diverse uses
of AI in sports can help improve athletes’ performance, endurance, and wellbeing.
AI is also an important tool to assist coaches in providing accurate information and
advice. In refereeing, AI has already proven its utility in making more accurate calls
and decisions. From talent identification and recruitment to injury prevention to reduce

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Artificial Intelligence in sports: a revolutionary technology that must be handled with care

costs and new forms of fan engagement, the sports industry has many promising
applications for AI.
There is no doubt that sports can benefit in several ways through the
incorporation of AI. For example, AI can attract fans and money for clubs, federations,
and individual athletes. However, as we become more familiar with this technology,
new concerns arise regarding its increasing use. The aim of this article is to balance
the benefits and ethical concerns of AI in sport: the technology brings important
benefits to sport, but it also raises concerns about the privacy and autonomy rights
of athletes, coaches and referees; and threats to the main values of sport, such as
fairness and equality.
It is the responsibility of sport governing bodies to address these ethical
concerns. They must provide sport with an appropriate ethical framework to prevent
the serious harm that AI can cause if used in an uncontrolled way. They are also liable
for the damages that main stakeholders can suffer.
In recent years, we have witnessed the increasing and uncontrolled use of
AI in sport. From now on, we will see many lawsuits and claims of responsibility for
inappropriate uses and applications of this technology. The good news is that most of
these issues can be addressed in a serious and satisfactory way. This is an opportunity
to embed ethics in technology, promoting a safe and human-centred approach that
aligns with the internal and external values that sports have always promoted.

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 RESUMO
ISSN: 1982-8918 RESUMEN

Resumo: A Inteligência Artificial (IA) se desenvolveu muito rapidamente no esporte.

Hoje, ela se infiltrou em todas as áreas esportivas, e seus usos e aplicações
continuam a crescer. Isso é compreensível, considerando o potencial das aplicações
de IA na indústria esportiva, desde a melhoria do jogo, ao engajamento dos fãs,
até a geração de enormes receitas por meio da identificação e recrutamento de
talentos. No entanto, a IA também tem um lado menos atraente, que pode minar os
valores do esporte e até desafiar sua natureza humana. Neste artigo, apresentarei
brevemente ambos os lados da discussão em torno da IA no esporte, começando
por seus potenciais benefícios e depois pelos desafios éticos que essa tecnologia
coloca para a governança esportiva. Entre os prós e contras da IA no esporte,
também ofereço uma breve reflexão sobre a questão do esporte como uma atividade
essencialmente humana que a IA agora está desafiando seriamente.

Palavras-chave: Esporte. Ética. Inteligência artificial. Tecnologia esportiva.

Resumen: La Inteligencia Artificial (IA) se ha desarrollado muy rápidamente en

el deporte. Actualmente está presente en la mayoría de los ámbitos del deporte y
cada día aparecen nuevas aplicaciones. Parece normal que ocurra así si se tiene
en cuenta el potencial de la IA en la industria del deporte, desde la mejora del
juego hasta la captación de aficionados, pasando por la generación de enormes
ingresos a través de la identificación y captación de talentos. Pero la IA también
tiene una cara menos atractiva que puede socavar los valores del deporte e incluso
cuestionar lo que hasta ahora ha constituido un rasgo definitorio, a saber, ser una
actividad propiamente humana. En este artículo presentaré brevemente las dos
caras del debate en torno a la IA en el deporte, analizando primero sus posibles
beneficios y después los retos éticos que esta tecnología plantea para la gobernanza
del deporte. Una vez presentados los aspectos positivos y negativos de la IA en
el deporte, presentaré una breve reflexión en torno a la naturaleza esencialmente
humana del deporte y la importancia de la supervisión humana de esta tecnología
en sus diferentes aplicaciones en el deporte.

Palabras clave: Deporte. Ética. Inteligencia Artificial. Tecnología deportiva.

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 EDITORIAL
ISSN: 1982-8918 NOTES

USE LICENSE
This is an article published in open access (Open Access) under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0), which allows use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, as long as the original work is correctly
cited. More information at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The author declare that there is no conflict of interest in this study.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Alberto Carrio Sampedro: Foundation, Conceptualization, Literature Review, and
Writing (revision and editing).

FUNDING
This study was not supported by funding sources.

HOW TO CITE
CARRIO SAMPEDRO, Alberto. Artificial Intelligence in sports: a revolutionary
technology that must be handled with care. Movimento, v. 30, p.e30054, Jan./Dec.
2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22456/1982-8918.143278

EDITORIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Alberto Reinaldo Reppold Filho*, Alex Branco Fraga*, Elisandro Schultz Wittizorecki*,
Irena Martínková**, Jim Parry**, Mauro Myskiw*, Raquel da Silveira*
*Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Escola de Educação Física, Fisioterapia
e Dança, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
**Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
Republic.

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