Carbohydrates :

 Carbohydrates or saccharides are

polyhydric or polyhydroxy alcohols (OH)
with potentially active carbonyl groups,
which may either be aldehyde((H-C=O) or
keto (C=O) groups.
 They are made up of not less than 3
carbon atoms.
Biochemical importance of
carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates provide energy to body ,
particularly through glucose,a simple sugar that
is copmonent of starch & ingredient of many
basic foods.
 They contain soluble & insoluble elements,
insoluble part is known as fibre that regulate
bowel movments,regulates the rate of
consumption of blood glucose & also helps to
remove excess cholesterol from body.
 Glucose provides an immediate source of
energy,as human brain can only utilise glucose
as source of energy.
 Energy storage (glycogen & starch)
 Carbohydrate derivatives include DNA,RNA,
cofactors,glycoprotiens & glycolipids
Classifiction :
 Free aldehyde or keto groups have reducing
properties i;e they either take away O2 or
donate H2 to the compounds they react with ,
observed by colour change during the reaction.
 Those sugars which have atleast one free
aldehyde or keto group in their structure are
known asreducing sugars.
 Those sugars which do not have any active
groups are known asnon reducing sugars.
 Aldehyde group is always present at carbon
no:1 & keto group is always present at carbon
no : 2.
Monosaccharides:

 They are classified accd. to no. of Carbon

atom present.
 They are the simplest sugars.
 They can not be hydrolysed further.
 They may be aldose(aldo- sugar ).
 They may be ketose(keto- sugar ).
 All of the monosaccharides are reducing
sugars.
Function & significance of
important monosaccharides:
 Glyceraldehyde :
 It is used as a refrence sugar because of
two reasons i;e. all sugars are derived
from it & all D and L forms of sugar are
refferd to it.
 In the D form hydroxyl group is on right
side & in L form it is on left.
 Dihydroxyacetone :
 It is produced & utilised in the breakdown of
glucose through glycolysis to produce energy.
 It is also produced from glycerol during triglyceride
degradation.
 Erythrose , Erythrulose:
 They are produced during glucose breakdown
through hexose monophosphate pathway & can be
converted to glucose.
 Ribose :
 Distributed widely in nature.
 In the body it is produced during H.M.P shunt.
 Ribose is a component of nucleic acid
RNA(ribonucleic acid).
 Deoxyribose is a component of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
 Ribulose,xylose,xylulose:
 They are produced through H.M.P shunt & can be
converted to glucose.
Glucose (grape sugar) :
 Also called dextrose due to dextrorotation.
 It is the main sugar of human body.
 The most common source of glucose issucrose
(the table sugar).
 It is the first line of nutrition for the production of
energy through glycolysis & citric acid cycle.
 It needs insulin for its entry into the cell therfore
proper care should be taken in giving to diabetics.
 Among carbohydrates brain utilizes only glucose
for its energy requirments,so its very important to
maintain normal glucose level,as its deficiency
may result in brain damage & hypoglycemic coma.
 Normal blood glucose level is
 fasting= 80-100 mg%
 random= 100-120mg%
 Upon reduction glucose form alcohol i:e.
sorbitol
 Upon oxidation glucose form sugar acids i:
e.gluconic acid (aldonic acid ), glucuronic
acid (uronic acid).
 Normally there is no glucose in urine but
in certain diseases it does appear.
 Galactose :
 Present in milk sugar i;e. galactose .
 Utilized in the development of brain tissue
e;g. cerebrosides & gangliosides.
 It is an epimer of glucose.
 Mannose :
 It is converted into glucose.
 Reduction of mannose produces an
alcohol e;g. mannitol,which is used in the
treatment of cerebral edema.
 Fructose :
 It is also called levulose due to levorotation.
 It is the sweetest of all sugars.
 The most common source of fructose is
sucrose (the table sugar).
 Pure honey is made up of fructose only.
Fructose is converted to glucose in the liver.
 It does not need insulin for its entry into the
cell therefore even diabetics can take honey.
Fructose :
Disaccharides ;

 On hydrolysis produce two

monosaccharides residues.
 Sucrose is a non reducing disaccharide,
and the remaining two disaccharides are
reducing.
 Maltose(fruit sugar) : glucose + glucose
 Lactose (milk sugar): glucose + glactose
 Sucrose(cane sugar): glucose + fructose
Maltose :
 Also called as fruit sugar.
 On hydrolysis it yields two molecules of glucose.
 The two molecules of glucose are attached to one
another through glycosidic linkage between C no. 1
of one glucose molecule & C no.4 of other termed
as alpha 1,4 linkage.
 The aldehyde group of glucose is present at
carbon no.1 therefore aldehyde group of other
glucose is left free which has the reducing property,
a reducing sugar.
that is why maltose is called
 maltose is also produced in body by the action of
salivary & pancreatic amylase on starch.
 Maltose is hydrolysed by maltase to produced two
molecules of glucose.
Lactose :
also called “milk sugar”
 On hydrolysis it yields one molecule of
glucose & one molecule of galactose,which
are linked through beta 1-4 glycosidic bond ,
that’s why it is also a reducing sugar.
 Enzyme lactase that is present in intestinal
lumen,hydrolysis lactose into constituent
monosaccharides.
 Lactose can be fermented by bacteria into
lactic acid.
A Haworth projection is a common way of writing a
structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of
monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional
perspective. Organic chemistry and especially
biochemistry are the areas of chemistry that use the
Haworth projection the most.
Sucrose :
also known as “cane sugar”
 On hydrolysis it yields one molecule of
glucose & one molecule of fructose.
 The two molecules are linked through
alpha 1,2 glycosidic linkage.
 The potentially active groups i;e. aldehyde
group on C no.1 of glucose & keto group
of fructose at C no.2 are engaged in
making glycosidic bond. Therefore there
is no active group left free resulting in
loss of reducing property.thats why
sucrose is a non reducing disaccharide.
Phenomenon of inversion :

 Sucrose show phenomenon of inversion

hence known as “invert sugar”.
 Sucrose isdextrorotatory it turns the plane
polarised light to right,because it contain
glucose (dextrorotatory) & fructose in its
furanose form (dextrorotatory).
 When sucrase is added into sucrose solution,
the sucrose gets hydrolised into glu & fruc
but fructose changes its form from furanose
to pyranose,which is very strong levorotatory
& turns the plane polarized light to left
 Thus sucrose as a disaccharide is
dextrorotatory but when it is hydrolized it
becomes levorotatory the change in
rotation of polarised light from right to
left is known as “phenomenon of
inversion “
Oligosaccharides :

 On hydrolysis they yield 3 to 10

monosaccharide units.
 Oligosaccharides have important role in
cell recognition & cell binding i;e.
glycolipids have role in immune response.
Polysaccharides :

 On hydrolysis yield more than 10

monosaccharides.
 Forms structural elements of cells.
 All of the polysaccharides are non
reducing sugars.
 Polysaccharides are of two main types :
 homopolysaccharides
 heteropolysaccharides
Homopolysaccharide :
 On hydrolysis yield only one type of monosaccharide
units.
 Animal source: glycogen
 Plant source : starch,dextrin,dextran,cellulose
 Significance :
 Glycogen
 Mainly present in liver & muscles ,where it acts
as storage polysaccharide for glucose.
 It is also known as animal starch.
 Structure of glycogen is branched like a tree,
each branch contain less than 10 glucose
residue.
 Glycogen has both alpha 1,4 & alpha 1,6
glycosidic linkages,therefore it needs two
enzymes phosphorylase which breaks alpha 1,4
bond & debranching enzyme which release
alpha 1,6 bondto release glucose from glycogen.
 Liver glycogen maintains blood glucose
level during fasting,muscle glycogen only
provides energy to muscles,no other
function.
Starch :
 It is the main form of ingested
carbohydrates.
 It is of two types
 amylose: straight chain
 amylopectin : branched,tree like
 each branch having
more than 12 glucose residue.
 Starch is hydrolysed by amylase (salivary &
pancreatic)
 Both of these enzymes hydrolysed starch
into maltose,maltotriose & dextrins.
Dextrins :

 They are intermediate product of

hydrolysis of starch.
 They have sweet taste.
 Examples :
 amylodextrins,erythrodextrins &
achrodextrins
Dextrans :

 They are highly viscous polysaccharides.

 They are used in the treatment of shock.
Cellulose :
humans cannot digest cellulose because
they lack the enzyme cellulase.
it provides bulk to food & stimulates the
intestinal peristalisis thus prevents
constipation.
Heteropolysaccharides :

 On hydrolysis yields different types of

monosaccharides units.
 They include :
mucopolysaccharides
mucilages
hemicellulose
 Mucopolysaccharides :

 They are heteropolysacchrides of animal

origin.
 They combine with protiens to form
mucoprotiens & mucins.
 They are acid containing carbohydrates e;
g. hyalouronic acid , chondroiton sulfate,
heparin,blood group polysaccharides &
serum mucoids.
Significance ;
 Hylouronic acid :
 It is present in skin in high concentrations.
 Acts as an intercellular cementing agent
thus prevents the penetration of bacteria
& other microbes in skin.
 It is present in synovial fluid thus helps in
lubrication of joints.
 It is present in viterous humor of eye.
 It is hydrolysed by enzyme hylouronidase.
 Many bacteria posses hylouronidase to
cause infection.
 Clinically hylouronidase is added in skin
ointments to allow effective penetration.
 Chondroiton sulfate :
 Found in ground substance especially
cartilages in combinition with protiens.
 Heparin :
 Natural anticoagulant found in liver,
spleen,lungs,thymus & blood.
 Blood group polysaccharides :
 They are present in RBCs,gastric mucin,
saliva & other body secretions.
 They act as antigens and responsibles for
different blood groups e;g. A,B,O & Rh
Factor.
Assymetric carbon atom :

 It is a carbon atom to which four different

chemical groups are attached.
 and it rotates the plane polarised light to
either left or right.
 Examples:
 the open chain formula of glucose
molecule contain 4 assymetric carbon
atoms I;e. carbon no. 2,3,4 & 5.
 The closed ring formula of glucose i;e.
hemiacetal ring contain 5 assymetric
carbon atoms 1,2,3,4 & 5.
Isomers :

 Compounds having same chemical

formula are called isomers but structural
configration differs…
Stereoisomers :

 They are the monosaccharides which have same

chemical formula but differ in the position of
hydroxyl group on one or more of their
assymetric carbons.
 The number of possible stereoisomers of a
compound depends upon the no. of asymmetric
carbon atoms & is equal to
 2n , where n=no. of assymetric carbon atoms.
 Open chain glucose has 24= 16 isomers
 Closed chain glucose has 25=32 isomers
Epimers :

 They are the stereoisomers that differ in

the position of hydroxyl group at only one
assymetric carbon.
 Example: D-glucose & D-galactose are
epimers that differ at carbon no. 4.
Enantiomers :

 They are the stereoisomers that are

mirror images of eachother.
D & L sugars :

 The configuration of the assymetric

carbon atom farthest from the aldehyde
or keto group( withrefrence to D or L
glyceraldehyde) determines wether a
monosaccharide belongs to D or L sugar.
 In D form hydroxyl group is on right side,
in L form it is on right side.
Optical isomers :

 Isomers having the property of rotating the

polarised light into right or left direction are
called optical isomers.