DUAL NATURE OF MATTER OF RADIATION
Photoelectric Effect
Definition: The photoelectric effect refers to the emission of electrons from a metallic surface
when light (or electromagnetic radiation) is incident on it. This phenomenon was discovered by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during his experiments with spark discharges. Later, Phillip Lenard
observed the ejected electrons flowing through a circuit, thus completing it and creating a
current.
Key Observations:
1. Intensity: For a given frequency, increasing the intensity of light results in an increase in
the number of emitted electrons, thus increasing the photoelectric current. However,
the energy of each electron (its kinetic energy) remains the same, as intensity only
affects the number of photons, not their energy.
2. Frequency: A specific minimum frequency of light, called the threshold frequency (ν₀), is
required to eject electrons. Below this frequency, no electrons are emitted regardless of
the light's intensity. As frequency increases, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons increases.
3. Material Dependence: Different metals have different threshold frequencies. For
example, caesium is one of the most sensitive metals for the photoelectric effect.
Conditions for the Photoelectric Effect:
• The metal must have a low work function (W), which is the minimum energy needed to
eject an electron from the metal's surface.
• The frequency of the incident light must be above the threshold frequency (ν₀).
Applications:
• Photocells: Devices that convert light energy into electrical energy, commonly used in
solar panels, light meters, and photo-detectors.
• Vacuum tubes and light sensors use this phenomenon to detect light and convert it into
electrical signals.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
In 1905, Albert Einstein provided a theoretical explanation for the photoelectric effect based on
the quantum nature of light. According to Einstein, light consists of packets of energy called
photons, each with an energy of E = hν, where h is Planck's constant (6.62 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s) and ν is
the frequency of the light.
The Einstein's Photoelectric Equation: The energy of the incoming photon is used in two ways:
1. To overcome the work function (W) of the metal.
2. The remaining energy is transferred to the emitted electron as kinetic energy (K.E.).
The equation is expressed as:
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑊 + 𝐾. 𝐸.
Where:
• hν is the energy of the incident photon,
• W is the work function of the metal (the minimum energy required to eject an electron),
• K.E. is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
If we express the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron, we have:
𝐾. 𝐸. = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊
Stopping Potential and Einstein’s Equation: When a voltage is applied in the opposite direction
of the emitted electron, it slows down the electron until it is completely stopped. The minimum
voltage required to stop the electron is called the stopping potential (Vₛ), and it is related to the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. This relation is given by:
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
Where e is the electron's charge (1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C).
Thus, the equation becomes:
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑊 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠
Threshold Frequency and Stopping Potential:
• If the frequency of the incident light is less than the threshold frequency, no photoelectrons are
emitted.
• The stopping potential increases with the frequency of the light but remains unchanged with
intensity, as intensity only affects the number of emitted electrons, not their energy.
De Broglie’s Relation
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed a revolutionary idea: if light can exhibit both particle and
wave properties (dual nature), then particles such as electrons might also exhibit wave-like
properties. This concept is known as the wave-particle duality of matter.
De Broglie’s Hypothesis: According to de Broglie, every particle with momentum behaves like a
wave. The wavelength (λ) associated with a particle is related to its momentum (p) by the
following equation:
𝜆 = ℎ\𝑝
Where:
• λ is the wavelength of the particle,
• h is Planck's constant (6.62 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s),
• p is the momentum of the particle (p = mv, where m is mass and v is velocity).
For an electron or any other particle, this means:
𝜆 = ℎ\𝑚𝑣
Where:
• m is the mass of the particle,
• v is the velocity of the particle.
Example – Electron’s De Broglie Wavelength: Consider an electron moving with a velocity of 1 ×
10⁶ m/s. The mass of the electron is 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg. Using de Broglie’s formula:
λ=6.62×10−34\9.11×10−31×1×106
λ≈7.27×10−10m
This wavelength lies in the X-ray range, showing how a particle like an electron, under certain
conditions, can exhibit properties similar to light waves.
Experimental Verification – Davisson and Germer Experiment: In 1927, Davisson and Germer
confirmed the wave nature of electrons by observing electron diffraction patterns when
electrons were directed at a crystal. This experiment provided the first experimental evidence
for the wave-particle duality of matter.
Applications of de Broglie’s Relation:
1. Electron Microscopes: The wave-like behavior of electrons is exploited in electron
microscopes, allowing them to achieve much higher resolution than light microscopes.
2. Quantum Mechanics: The wave nature of particles is fundamental in quantum
mechanics, where particles are described by wavefunctions.
Summary of Formulas:
1. Photoelectric Effect:
o Energy of incident photon: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
o Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electron: 𝐾. 𝐸. = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊
o Stopping potential: 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊
2. Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:
o ℎ𝜈 = 𝑊 + 𝐾. 𝐸
o 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
3. De Broglie’s Relation:
o 𝜆 = ℎ\𝑝 = ℎ\𝑚𝑣
