CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124

COURSE MODULE SYLABUS OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY FOR YEAR 1

SEMESTER II FOLLOWED BY COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE NOTES ON EACH
OF THE 8 GIVEN SUB MODULES
S/n LEARNING AREAS
1 Carpentry and joinery tools and equipment
 Hand tools.
 Power hand tools.
 Wood working machines.
2 Timber workshop:
 Production unit for joinery work.
 Simple carpentry and joinery workshop layout.

3 Timber and timber joints:

 Timber selection.
 Car case preparation and construction.
 Timber joints for joinery construction
 Hardware for securing wood joint joints
3 Timber floors:
 Introduction.
 Single timber ground floor.
 Single timber upper floor
4 Roofs:
 Single timber flat roof.
 Single timber pitch roof
5 Frames and shutters
 Door
 Door frames
 Window
 Window frames, fixing sash hanging
6 Formwork and temporary support:
 Introduction
 Cast in-situ concrete formwork
 precast concrete formwork
 shores/ temporary support
 Dead shores
 Raking shore
 Flying shores
 Scaffolding
 Arch formwork
 Reinforced concrete stair formwork

7 Construction of timber stairs:

 Flight of stairs, etc.
 Construction of step, etc
 Construction of stairs

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
8 Timber finishes and decorations:
 Internal fixing
 Wood polishing and painting

SUB MODULE 1: CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

CARPENTRY
This is a skill or a profession or a trade and a craft in which the primary work
performed are:
 Cutting
 Shaping
 Installation of building material and making furniture
Others are:
 Building construction
 Ship construction
 Timber bridge construction
 Form work construction
A carpenter
This is a professional skilled individual that makes an object/article out of wood
or timber material. These items may include.
 Cupboards
 Chairs
 Tables
 Shelves & etc.
Joinery
This is the methods or techniques used to connect pieces of timber together to
form an article / object i.e. furniture
The roles of a carpenter
 Prepare the layout of the project
 To estimate the cost of timber material and other height, width, length and
other areas that requires timber fittings
 Does timber material selection
 Interpret the blue print
 Fixing of material such as wood, plastic, fiber glass or dry wall.
 Repair and maintain tools and equipment and used them appropriately
 To install cabinet molding
 Remodel home and business
 Make formwork for concrete
 Erect scaffolding system
 Construct ceiling structure
 Make furniture repair
 Install window, doors etc.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Hand tools and electric power hand tools
Hand tools
Introduction
Carpentry hand tools have been used for hundreds
of years and, in many cases, their basic design has
changed very little. They can be divided into three
categories:
 hand (manual)
 power (electrical and battery)
 Pneumatic (compressed air).
These days, carpenters tend to use power and pneumatic tools, because they’re
faster and require less physical effort. However, having a selection of hand tools
available and knowing how to use them is important as there may be
Occasions when a power source (electricity or compressed air) is not available, or
a job has a particular detail that requires the use of a hand tool.
In this section, we’ll look at the main types of hand tools you’ll be using for your
carpentry tasks. In addition to what’s covered in this guide, your lecturer will
take you through hand tools training in the workshop.
Types of hand tools
Hand tools can be divided into categories, each with a specific function or
purpose. In this section, you’ll look at tools in the following categories:
 measuring and marking out
 saws
 impelling
 planes
 chisels
 shaping
 boring
 holding and supporting
 setting out
 Leveling.
Measuring tools
The first step in almost every carpentry project is being able to correctly transfer
measurements from working drawings or plans onto the materials being used.
There are many measuring devices available and the appropriate tool will depend
on the type of work being carried out.
Measuring and marking out are generally carried out at the same time; however,
we’ll look at them separately for now as the tools used for each are quite
specific.
Retractable tape measure
Retractable tape measures have
a built in coil spring which
automatically retracts the blade

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
into the casing when it’s released.
They’re used mostly by site carpenters but can also be useful on larger joinery
projects. There are a variety of sizes available but the most common is 5-7.5 m.
Windup tape measure
Windup tape measures are used for measuring long distances, e.g. when setting
out buildings.
Their blades can be made of steel, plastic or linen and they are available in a
variety of sizes (20–100 m). Wind‑up tapes are retracted manually.
Steel rule
Steel rules are used mostly in joinery workshops, rather than on building sites,
but are useful for a range of carpentry work. They are generally available in
lengths from 150 mm to 1 m.

Scale rule
Scale rules are used by
carpenters to convert
measurements
between working
(scaled) drawings and the actual dimensions of a
project, without having to resort to any mathematical
calculations.
The scale will depend on the type of drawing being used, but the most common
scales are the following:
 1:500 for large site plans
 1:200 for suburban/residential house blocks
 1:100 for floor plans and elevations
 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 and 1:2 for smaller details.
Folding rule
Folding rules are used mostly in joinery workshops. They can be made from
hardwood or plastic and are generally available in 1 m lengths. Markings are
placed at 1 mm, and numbers are written every 10 mm. These days, folding
rules have been largely replaced by retractable tape measures and steel rules.
Safety – Measuring tools
 The blades on retractable tape measures draw back automatically when
released so you must take care to avoid injury to yourself or damage to the
blade.
 Folding rules should not be flipped open as this can cause injury to other
people or damage to the rule itself.
Care and maintenance – Measuring tools
 Avoid using tape measures in wet or damp conditions. If this is unavoidable,
wipe metal blades with an oily cloth to stop them from rusting.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Don’t leave measuring tapes or rulers exposed for long periods to the direct
rays of the sun, as they may buckle or degrade.
 When using tape measures in dusty or sandy conditions, don’t let debris be
retracted into the case, as this can cause damage to the retraction mechanism.
 Don’t be rough with the blade or the tape housing on retractable tape
measures, and always retract the blade gently. Don’t let it ‘fly’ back in.
Marking out tools
As you measure materials, you mark the cutting
points, lines and angles.
Marking out tools include squares, bevels and
gauges which are used to determine the angles and
straight edges required, and pencils, spurs and
knives that create the actual marks.
Squares and bevels
Squares and bevels are used by carpenters to mark guide lines on timber at an
angle. The square or bevel a carpenter chooses to use usually depends on the
angle required for the cut.
Try square
Try squares are used to mark out lines at 90° to the
face and/or edge of a piece of timber. They consist
of two parts:
 The ‘stock’ which is held against the side of the
timber to position the square
 The ‘blade’ which provides a straight edge to draw the lines.
Try squares are precision tools used mostly in joinery workshops where tasks
require greater accuracy or finer detail.
Note: In carpentry, the term ‘square’ is often used to describe a line that is
at a 90° angle to another surface. If a line or angle is described as ‘out of
square’, it means that it is not exactly 90°.
MITRE square
Mitre squares are similar to try squares in that they have
a stock and a blade; however, the blade on a mitre
square projects from both sides of the stock to form
angles of 45° and 135°, allowing a carpenter to mark out
lines on timber at these angles.
Mitre squares are used mostly in joinery workshops.
Try/MITRE square
Mostly used in joinery workshops, this square is a combination of the try square
and the mitre square. While this tool can be used to mark out an accurate line at
90° to the face/edge of a piece of timber, the top inside corner of the stock is cut
to an angle of 45 ° for marking out lines at that angle. As the stock on the
try/mitre square is slightly shorter in length (due to the 45° angle), you must

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
take care to hold the stock firmly against the timber to avoid unintended
movement.
Combination square
Combination squares are used mostly for site carpentry
and are very versatile.
They can be used as a square or mitre square and have
additional features such as a scribing spur and a spirit
level that allow them to be used for a number of other
functions.
Sliding bevel
Sliding bevels are used to set out lines at any angle other
than 90°. They have a stock with an adjustable blade
which is set to the required angle and then locked with a thumb lever.
Sliding bevels are used in both joinery workshops and site carpentry.
Operating tips – Squares and bevels
 Hold the stock firmly against the face/edge of the timber.
 Move the blade to the required position and draw or score a line along the
outside edge of the blade.
 It’s essential that you hold the stock firmly against the face/edge of the timber
when you’re marking lines to avoid moving the blade and creating lines that
are ‘out of square’.
 For greater accuracy, draw lines along the outside edge of the blade whenever
possible.
 Draw lines slowly, and in a smooth, continuous stroke. Don’t apply too much
pressure to the pencil/pen.
Safety – Squares and bevels
 Squares and sliding bevels are generally considered to be low risk tools.
However, you should take care with sharp edges, corners and ends –
particularly with steel tools.
Care and maintenance – Squares and bevels
 Don’t drop squares. They’re precision tools that can be easily damaged.
 Store them out of rain or damp conditions, as steel components can become
rusty.
 Maintain the steel blade by rubbing it with an oily rag to prevent rusting.
 Check squares regularly for accuracy.
Gauge
Gauges are used to scribe (scratch) lines along the length and/or width of
timber. There are three types of gauges that you’ll use in carpentry, and each
has been designed for a specific purpose.
Marking gauge
Marking gauges are used to scribe a single line along
the grain of the timber parallel to the edge. They

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consist of a stock, a beam and a spur (a pointed steel pin that creates the mark
on the timber).
Marking gauges are commonly used in both joinery workshops and site
carpentry.
Mortise gauge
Mortise gauges are similar
to marking gauges but they
have two spurs instead of one. The distance between the double spurs can be
adjusted to produce parallel gauge lines along the grain of the timber.
Mortise gauges are used in joinery workshops to mark out mortise and tenon
joints (a common 90° joint used for corners and framing), hence the name.
Cutting gauge
Cutting gauges are different from other gauges in that
they’re designed to scribe a parallel line across the
grain of the timber. They have a knife edge rather than
a spur to allow the fibers in the grain to be severed.
Cutting gauges can be used to mark out dovetail joints.
Operation
Operating tips – Gauges
 Hold the gauge with your index finger pressing firmly against the stock.
 Lay the beam on the timber and roll the stock forward so that the spur meets
the timber at a slight angle.
 Push the stock away from you, ensuring that it is held firmly against the
timber.
 If you don’t hold the stock firmly against the timber, the spur can follow the
grain. This will result in a wavy line. You can avoid this by pushing sideways
with one hand while holding the end of the gauge between the finger and
thumb of your other hand.
 Avoid digging the spur too deeply into the timber. You can produce a much
straighter line if you scribe the timber lightly several times rather than making
one deep scribe.
Safety – Gauges
 Gauges are generally considered to be low‑risk tools; however, you should
take care with sharp knife edges or the points of the spurs.
Care and maintenance – Gauges
 Don’t drop gauges. Spurs can be damaged and they need to be sharp to
produce quality work.
 Maintain gauges by rubbing the beam with an oily rag to allow the stock to
move freely.
Knives, scribes and pencils
There are a variety of other tools you can use to mark, scribe or cut lines on
timber to provide yourself with an accurate guideline to follow. These are an
essential part of any carpenter’s toolkit.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Marking knife
Used mostly in joinery, marking knives are for cutting
lines across the grain of timber.
They can be very accurate when sharpened correctly
(on one side only) but you must take care as lines
cannot be easily erased if you make a mistake.
Utility knife
Utility knives are multi‑purpose and have a retractable blade.
In carpentry, these knives are used mostly for cutting
plasterboard.
Scribe
Similar to marking knives, scribes are also used to mark
lines across the grain of timber. They have a sharpened
point rather than a blade.
They’re good for marking out where pencil lines may be
hard to see, like on dark timber such as jar rah.
Carpenter’s pencil
Carpenter’s pencils are large pencils which contain
rectangular lead. These pencils produce a thicker line
than ordinary pencils and are ideal for marking out on
sawn (rough) timber.
Primarily used for site carpentry, their large size and
shape make them unsuitable for use on joinery work where finer detail is
required.
Drawing/standard pencil
Drawing pencils are used primarily to mark out fine work in joinery and cabinet
construction. They can also be used by site carpenters for second fix carpentry,
e.g. doors, skirting boards, architraves.
The grade of the pencil is important – 2H grade pencils
keep their sharpness for longer than softer grades, e.g.
2B. However, they create very fine lines that may be
difficult to see on dark timber such as jar rah.
Operating tips – Knives, scribes and pencils
 For greater accuracy, make sure that pencils remain sharp throughout the
marking out process.
 Look for utility knives that allow you to break segments off the blade when
they become dull or chipped.
Safety – Knives, scribes and pencils
 All tools with sharp or pointed ends can cause injury so you should always take
care when handling knives, scribes and pencils.
 Utility knife blades are extremely sharp and you should always retract the
blade back into the knife when you’re not using it.
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Care and maintenance – Knives, scribes and pencils
 You can sharpen the blade of a marking knife with an oilstone. Utility knives
have disposable blades and these should be replaced regularly.
 A utility knife or chisel can be used to sharpen a carpenter’s pencil. You should
always direct the cutting movement away from your body to avoid injury.
Saws
Because of the availability of power saws these days, hand saws are being used
less and less. However, carpenters still need to be proficient in the use of hand
saws as there may not be a power source on some construction sites, or it may
be quicker and more efficient to use a small handsaw for some jobs.
Saws can be split into two groups:
 traditional hand saws – used for larger timber sections
 Back saws – used for smaller detailed work.
Traditional hand saws 1 2 3 10 20 30
Hand saws are classified by their purpose, the length
T ooth Tooth size
of their blade, and the size and shape of their teeth.
Saw teeth size is measured by the number of teeth in a 25 12 mm length6 of
teeth per blade.
teeth per
25 mm
Rip saw 25 mm
Rip saws have teeth with a square‑faced edge
(like a chisel) and are used to cut timber along
the grain, ie in the direction the fibers run.
They’re the largest of the hand saws and are
available in lengths up to 750 mm with 3–6 teeth per 25 mm.
Crosscut saw
As the name suggests, crosscut saws are used to cut
timber across the grain. Their beveled teeth have a
sharper cutting edge than a rip saw, allowing them to
cut the fibers of the grain.
They’re available in lengths up to 650 mm and have 6–
8 teeth per 25 mm.
Crosscut Saw
Designed specifically for rough cutting wood, a crosscut saw has a comparatively
thick blade, with large, beveled teeth. Traditional 2-man crosscut saws (aka
felling saws) have a handle on each end and are meant to be used by two people
to cut across (perpendicular) the grain of timber.
Panel saw
Panel saws are generally used to cut sheet
materials such as plywood and particle board.
They are available in lengths up to 550 mm, and
have 10 teeth per 25 mm.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Back saws
Back saws have a steel or brass strip on the back
of the saw which stiffens the blade so that straight
lines can be cut more accurately. The three most
commonly used back saws are;
 Tenon saw
 Dovetail saw
 Gent’s saw.
Tenon saw
Tenon saws, as the name suggests, were designed
primarily to cut tenon joints. However, they can
also be used to cut other types of carpentry joints,
moldings and beads (lengths of shaped timber).
Tenon saws are generally 250 mm and 350 mm long and their teeth size is 10–
14 teeth per 25 mm.
Dovetail saw
Smaller than the tenon saw and with finer teeth, the dovetail saw is primarily
designed to cut dovetail joints used in joinery. However, they can also be used to
cut moldings and beads.
Dovetail saws are generally between 200–250 mm
long and their teeth size is 16–20 teeth per 25 mm.
Gent’s saw
Gent’s saws are the smallest of the back saws and are used primarily for small
detail work. They’re between 100–250 mm long with up to 32 teeth per 25 mm.
Miscellaneous saws
There are a number of other saws used by carpenters which have been designed
for specific purposes. These include the:
 Coping saw
 Hacksaw (including the junior hacksaw)
 Keyhole saw.
Coping saw
Coping saws have a very narrow blade which is
tensioned by a spring frame.
They’re used primarily to cut curves in timber, but
they can also be used to cut away waste in joints
like dovetails and bridles.
Hacksaw and junior hacksaw
Hacksaws are designed for cutting metals. Blades
are available with
14, 18, 24 or 32 teeth per 25 mm. The larger teeth
are used for cutting softer metals such as
aluminum and the finer teeth for harder or thinner
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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
metal sections.
The junior hacksaw is a smaller version of the hacksaw and is used for cutting
smaller metal components.
Keyhole saw
Traditionally, keyhole saws were designed for
cutting keyholes in doors (as the name suggests).
Sometimes referred to as a pad saw, they’re
commonly used on site for cutting holes (for
electrical sockets, light fittings, etc.) in plasterboard walls and ceilings.
Operating tips – Saws
 Hold the timber firmly in place when you’re sawing. Use a vice, bench hook or
a clamp if possible.
 Examine the timber (especially second‑hand timber) for nails or screws, and
clean any sand or dirt from the timber before you cut it.
 Start a cut by placing your thumbnail alongside the pencil line on the timber to
help steady the saw blade. Draw the saw blade back a few times to help the
saw start in the correct position, then move your thumbnail away from the saw
blade before you cut.
 Hold the saw handle firmly. Extending your index finger along the side of the
handle will give you more control.
 Use the full length of the saw blade to avoid excessive wear on the teeth in the
middle of the saw blade.
 The teeth on a saw are ‘set’; that is, they’re bent slightly away from the Centre
line of the blade to allow the width of the cut (called the kerf) to be slightly
wider than the width of the blade.
If you don’t create this extra space, the saw will jam when timber fibers on each
side of the cut spring back against the blade. This can cause you injury and
damage to the blade. The kerf should be about 1.5 times the thickness of blade.
Safety – Saws
 Saws are designed to cut through a variety of materials. It’s vital that you take
care when using saws as they can easily cut through skin and bone.
 You should inspect all saws for damage before you use them and if you find
defects, send them for repair immediately.
Care and maintenance Saws
Regular maintenance will help the saw to perform at its
best and will protect the operator from harm. A sharp
saw is less likely to cause an accident than a blunt one.
 Avoid using saws in wet or damp conditions. If this is unavoidable, wipe the
blade with an oily cloth to prevent rust. If rust forms on the blade or if a
coating of sap builds up, clean it off with steel wool.
 Any build‑up on the blade will increase drag and make the saw harder and
more dangerous to use. As with all tools, keep your saws clean.

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 Protect the points of the saw teeth when the saw is not in use. This can be
done by making a sleeve for the cutting edge of the saw from a length of PVC
conduit.
Impelling tools
Impelling tools are those that drive or push something. They include hammers,
mallets, screwdrivers and nail punches.
Hammers
Hammers are used for a variety of purposes in construction, including driving
nails, pins and pegs into surfaces, and for demolition. They’re available in many
shapes and sizes. The hammers the carpenter requires depend on the type of
task being undertaken
Claw hammer
The main purpose of the claw hammer is to drive nails into timber
with the claw on the back of the hammer used to extract nails.
Claw hammers are available with timber, steel or fiberglass
handles. Timber‑handled hammers are best suited to joinery work
and the stronger steel and fiberglass types are more suited to on‑
site use.
Warrington hammer
Warrington hammers are small and lightweight, and used for
smaller nails such as panel pins (thin nails used for moldings).
They’re also known as tack hammers.
Gympie or club hammer
Gympie hammers (also known as club or lump hammers) are
heavier hammers with a variety of uses including driving small
wooden pegs into the ground (for setting out buildings, etc.),
striking cold chisels and for light demolition work.
Sledgehammer
Sledgehammers are very heavy hammers used to drive large
wooden pegs into the ground (for setting out buildings, etc.)
and for heavy demolition work.
They generally have a longer handle than most hammers.
This enables the operator to put more energy into the ‘swing’ motion for heavier
work.
Operating tips – Hammers
 Select the correct hammer for the task to be undertaken.
 Hold the hammer near the bottom of the handle. Don’t ‘strangle’ it by holding
its neck near the head.
 When you’re using a hammer to drive nails, both your elbow and your wrist
should be moving. A stiff wrist will produce a less effective tapping action and
hurt your arm.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 When driving a nail into something that is not solid or could move easily, e.g.
thin timber, hold something heavy against the back of the object such as a
gympie or sledgehammer. This is called a ‘dolly’ and it will absorb the force of
the hammer blows and steady the job.
 If you put a piece of plywood beneath the head of the hammer when you’re
extracting nails, this will prevent damage to the timber surface.
Safety – Hammers
 Always wear safety glasses when you’re using hammers. It may also be
compulsory to wear safety glasses on some worksites, and failure to comply
with this rule could result in disciplinary action.
 Never strike two hammers together. Hammerheads are made from case‑
hardened steel so that they don’t get damaged by the nails they strike. This
makes the steel very hard, but also very brittle. Hitting two hammerheads
together can cause one to chip and you could receive serious eye injuries from
flying chunks of metal.
 Hammers with cushioned handles can ease the effects of vibration and the
pressure of continually squeezing the handle. The handles of hammers or
mallets can also be insulated as a safeguard when working on or around live
electrical components.
Care and maintenance – Hammers
 Hammers that show any signs or damage or defect should be repaired or
replaced. Repairs should be carried out only by a qualified person.
 If nails bend while you’re hammering, the face of the hammer may be dirty.
Rubbing it on abrasive paper (sandpaper) or concrete will clean off build‑up
such as sap or glue.
 If a hammer ‘rings’ when it’s used, it could mean that the head is loose. You
should make regular checks to ensure that the hammer is safe to use.
Screwdrivers
Screwdrivers are available in many different sizes with a variety of tips (the
shape of the head). Screwdriver tips are sized and shaped to suit the drive of the
screw.
Traditional screwdriver tips include the following.
®
Slotted head Phillips head Pozidriv

These have a These are self‑centring These are similar to

conventional straight and the driver is less Phillips heads but have
screwdriver blade. likely to slip off the head slightly different shaped
They are less common when it’s being driven. slots which allow more
nowadays, because they torque to be used without
are difficult to drive with a ‘slipping out’. This allows
powered screwdriver. them to drive the screw
more tightly.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
The following newer screwdriver heads are becoming more
commonly used.
Bradawls
Bradawls are used to make small holes in wood (known as a
pilot hole) or other materials to help the insertion of a nail or
screw. They have a blade similar to that of a small slotted head
screwdriver and a handle made from plastic or timber.
The blade is placed across the fibers of the timber and twisted 90°
which displaces the fibers, creating a hole.
Operating tips – Screwdrivers
 Always use a screwdriver that matches the size and type of screw.
 To avoid slippage, keep the screwdriver directly in line with the screw being
driven.
 Avoid using excessive force by allowing the thread to draw the screw into the
timber.
 Screwdrivers shouldn’t be used for activities like prising nails, chiseling or
stirring paint. Never use pliers to turn a screwdriver as they can damage the
screwdriver, the screw and the material.
Safety – Screwdrivers
 Screwdrivers can cause both cutting and puncture wounds so you should
handle them carefully at all times.
 Never carry screwdrivers in your pockets. Hold the handle outward when
you’re passing the tool to another operator.
 Dirt or grease can make the handle and the blade slippery and hard to control.
Use a clamp or vice to hold materials whenever possible rather than bracing
with your hands or legs. They can be injured if the screwdriver slips.
 Bradawls are very sharp tools and improper use can easily result in injury. You
should never use a bradawl underarm, as a slip can cause the point to be
brought up towards the head or eyes.
Care and maintenance – Screwdrivers
 Screwdrivers with rounded or damaged tips should be filed square. A rounded
tip can slip out of the screw slot and cause injury to the user or damage to
material.
 Screwdrivers should be stored in a rack or pouch to avoid damage and allow
easy access.
 As with all tools, keep your screwdrivers clean.
Miscellaneous impelling tools
Carpenters may also include the following impelling tools in their
toolkits for more specialized tasks.
Mallet
Mallets are used primarily to strike wood chisels, although they
can also be used to assemble joinery components such as
window and door frames.
Mallets have two main components – a head (generally hard
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rubber) and a shaft which is generally made from a hard‑wearing timber such as
beech.
Nail punch or Centre punch
Nail punches are used (with a hammer) to drive the heads of nails below the
surface of timber for a neater finish. The nail hole can then be filled before
painting or varnishing.
Similar to the nail punch is the Centre punch which is used to punch a small
mark into materials such as timber or steel before drilling. Its tip is more pointed
than the nail punches.
Pincers
Pincers are used to remove small nails where the use of a claw
hammer is restricted.
The handle has a built‑in claw, which can be used to prize up the
head of the nail to ease its removal.
Wrecking bar or pinch bar
Wrecking bars have a number of uses, including the removal of
larger nails from timber and as a lever in the demolition or
dismantling of a structure or building.
Planes
Despite the widespread use of electrical power planes these
days, no carpenter’s toolkit is complete without at least one or two hand planes.
Hand planes fall into two major categories – bench planes and block planes. The
difference is the direction of the bevel of the cutting iron (the part of the plane
that does the planing).
 On bench planes, the bevel always faces down.
 On block planes, the bevel always faces up.
The angle of the cutting iron means that bench planes are designed to plane
with the grain (the direction of the fibers in the timber), while block planes are
designed to plane end grain or against the grain of the timber.
Bench planes
There are three types of bench planes you’ll use most frequently, as shown here.
The size of the plane and its shape affect the function each plane can perform.

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Smoothing plane Jack plane Try plane

Smoothing planes are Jack planes are slightly Try planes are the
250 mm in length. These larger at 350 mm in biggest of the bench
shorter bench planes are length and are used for planes at 450–600 mm
useful for planing timber dressing timber (planing in length. They’re used
to create a smooth to size) and fitting doors, primarily to straighten
surface to prepare the window sashes, etc. the edges of boards in
timber for its final finish, an operation known as
eg paint, varnish. ‘jointing’.

Block planes
Block planes are used for cutting rather than smoothing. The three most
common types you’ll use are shown here.

Block plane Shoulder plane Bullnose plane

Block planes are small Shoulder planes have a Similar to shoulder

hand planes which blade that finishes flush planes, bullnose planes
typically have the iron with the edges of the are designed to plane
bedded at a lower angle plane, allowing trimming right into corners of joints
than other planes, with right up to the edge of a or frames.
the bevel up. They’re work piece.
The blade is positioned
designed to cut end grain
They’re used primarily to almost up to the end of
and are usually small
trim the shoulders and the plane’s body and
enough to be used with
faces of tenons. consequently very little
one hand.
material is missed in a
corner while planing.

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Rebate plane Side rebate plane Bench rebate plane

Rebate planes Side rebate planes perform Bench rebate planes

(also known as a similar function to rebate are the largest of the
rabbet planes) are planes but with the blade rebate planes and are
hand planes set on the side of the used for planning
plane.
designed in wood. larger rebates in
They’re used to ease the
doors, window
side of grooves or, in
frames, etc.
other situations, where a
conventional plane is
unable to reach.

Specialist planes
Some jobs will require the use of a specialist plane. Three types of specialist
planes are shown here.

Rebate

Note: The term ‘rabbet’ is an Old French word meaning recess.

Router plane (Granny’s tooth)
The router plane is designed to clean out the bottoms of
trenches such as housing joints and grooves. It’s also known
as a ‘granny’s tooth’ because of its distinctive narrow cutting
blade.
Router planes are rarely used these days, as the hand router has been replaced
by the electric router.
Part of the plane
The cutter assembly Frog
The part that the blade assembly is mounted on; it can be adjusted fore and aft
(forwards and backwards) so that the cutter is positioned over the mouth.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Mouth
The slot in the base of the plane through which the cutter protrudes.
Adjustment screw for depth of cut
The nut located behind the frog that controls the amount of cutter that protrudes
beneath the body of the plane.
Lateral adjustment lever
Enables the cutter to be tilted to the left or right so that it protrudes evenly
beneath the plane body.
Toe and heel
The front and back of the plane.
The heart of any plane is the cutting iron (also called the blade or the plane iron)
which does the cutting. It’s attached to the backing iron which has a small slot
near the top that allows the lateral (sideways) adjustment of the cutter.
The lower end of the backing iron has a curved bump and, as the cutting iron
slices a shaving from the surface of the wood, this bump forces it to curl away
from the cutting edge and break into shavings. The lever cap holds the cutting
and backing iron assembly firmly to the frog.
When you’re reassembling a plane after the cutting iron has been stripped down
and sharpened, it’s important that you put the individual parts together the
correct way. The bump on the backing iron and the bevel on the cutting iron
must be opposite one another.
The following diagram shows how Cutting iron Backing iron Lever cap
the cutting iron and the backing
iron should be reassembled.
The front of the backing iron
should be 1–2 mm away from the
cutting edge of the cutting iron.
Operating tips – Planes
Always plane timber in the direction of the grain. This will minimize the risk of
tearing the face of the timber.
Make sure that you locate any nails or screws below the surface of the timber
well before you start planing.
Safety – Planes
Avoid putting your fingers under the body of the plane. Cutting irons are very
sharp and can cause injury.
Ensure that the cutting iron remains sharp by carrying out regular maintenance.
Dull or blunt cutting irons require more effort to plane the timber, and this can
lead to accidents.
Care and maintenance – Planes
Lay a plane on its side or on a block between uses to prevent damage to the
cutting iron.
Keep the sole (underside) and cheeks (sides) of the plane lightly oiled to prevent
rust and reduce friction.

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Keep the cutting iron sharp. Ten minutes spent Firmer chisel
grinding and honing – the two processes involved
in sharpening a cutting iron – is time well spent.
Chisels
Chisels, like planes, are designed to remove timber
using a sharp cutting edge. There are several
types of chisels and each has been designed to suit
particular tasks. They’re available in a range of sizes, depending on the type;
however, common width sizes are 6 mm, 10 mm, 13 mm, 19 mm and 25 mm.
Firmer chisels are general purpose wood‑cutting tools with a rectangular section
blade.
The blade has parallel sides and tapers slightly from the handle to the cutting
edge.
Beveled edge chisels are nearly identical to firmer chisels; however, their blades
are beveled on the top face of the two long sides, and sometimes the top as
well. The beveled edges allow the chisels to be used to work undercuts such as
dovetail housing. It reduces the rigidity of the blade, making it suitable only for
lighter carpentry work.
Paring chisel Bevelled edge chisel
Paring chisels can be either of the firmer or the
beveled edge type; however, the blade is much
longer – approximately 175 mm – enabling it to
be used to pare (chisel) long housings such as
those found in stair or shelf construction.
Mortise chisel
Mortise chisels are used for chopping out joints or chiseling away waste wood.
They’re usually used for cutting mortise joints
(slots in timber), because they’re strong enough
to withstand heavy blows with a mallet.
Gouge chisel
Gouge chisels are similar to conventional chisels
except that their blades are curved in cross‑
section, not flat.
They’re available with two different types of
blade – those with the cutting bevel ground on
the outside, known as ‘out‑cannel’ and used for
hollowing out timber and carving, and those ground on the inside known as ‘in‑
cannel’ and used for scribing concave surfaces.
Cold chisel
Although cold chisels are not woodworking tools,
most carpenters will have one in their toolkit.

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They’re used with a mallet to chip away bricks, concrete and masonry.
Operating tips – Chisels
 Strike chisels only with a mallet. Avoid striking them with a hammer as this
can cause damage to the chisel handles.
 Check timber for knots, staples, nails, screws or other foreign objects before
chiseling, to avoid damaging the cutting edge.
 Use a vice or clamps to hold the timber securely while you’re chiseling.
Safety – Chisels
 Never use a chisel with the cutting edge facing towards you. If you’re using the
chisel for paring (cutting thin slices of timber), hold the chisel in both hands
behind the cutting edge at all times.
 If a handle becomes loose, splintered or cracked, it should be replaced or
repaired by a qualified person.
 Carrying out regular maintenance ensures that the cutting edge on your
chisels remains sharp. Dull or blunt chisels require more effort to use and can
lead to accidents.
Care and maintenance – Chisels
As a carpenter it’s important to learn how to maintain chisels and the cutting
irons in planes. Depending on the type of work you’re carrying out, they may
have to be regularly sharpened to ensure you’re able to work safely and
efficiently.
You sharpen a chisel or cutting iron in two steps – grinding then honing.
Grinding
Grinding involves holding the chisel or cutting iron
against a grinding wheel until all defects have been
ground away and the bevel on the chisel or cutting
iron is at the correct angle (approximately 25°).
A chisel or cutting iron may need grinding if the
cutting edge is damaged or blunt, or if the bevel has
become too rounded for a sharp edge to be honed on to it.
Remember the following points when you’re grinding a chisel or cutting iron.
 The tool rest must be set with clearance between it
and the grinding wheel so that nothing can get
jammed in the gap and cause the wheel to shatter.
 Hold the blade at a constant angle all the time. You
can tilt the tool rest if you need to so that you can
0753821116maintain a constant grinding angle.
 Dip the chisel or cutting iron in water every few
seconds to help keep the blade cool, as metal will heat up quickly under the
grinder.
 Keep the chisel or cutting iron moving across the edge of the grindstone at all
times. This will help to wear the grinding wheel evenly as well as give a
straight edge to the blade.

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 Use a dressing tool on the grinding wheel periodically to ensure that the outer
surface of the grinding wheel remains flat.
 Wear safety glasses at all times, even though the grinder has a safety shield.
Honing
Honing means rubbing a chisel or cutting iron on an oilstone to get a razor‑sharp
edge on the tool.
Oilstones
Oilstones are blocks of fine‑grained stone used to
sharpen blades. They can be natural or synthetic.
Natural stones
These are cut from rock. Because they’re soft and expensive, they’re used by
specialists only in the fine woodwork industry.
Synthetic stones
These are usually made from aluminum oxide and have a coarse side and a
fine side.
Oilstones are porous and can become clogged with abraded (worn down) metal
which makes them less effective. You can avoid this by using oil to float away the
particles of metal.
Some oils thicken over time and clog the stone so they may have to be soaked
and washed in kerosene to remove the metal particles.
Diamond honing stones
These are becoming more popular. They’re made of steel with diamond dust
mixed in and can be used dry (no oil or water).
Stones are available in several sizes but the most
common size is 200 mm × 50 mm × 25 mm.
Grinding bevel
Remember the following points when you’re honing
a chisel or cutting iron.
 The honing angle should be about 5° steeper Honing bevel
than the grinding angle ( approximately 30°), so 30o 25o
that only the front edge of the tool is honed.
 The chisel or cutting iron should be moved from side to side (across the
oilstone) as well as back and forth. This will ensure that the oilstone wears
evenly (remains flat). You can restore a worn File
stone to a flat surface by rubbing it on concrete.
Shaping tools
Shaping tools are usually used to finish or clean up
shaped surfaces. They let you make fine changes
to the size and shape of articles created in a variety
of materials including timber, metal, plastic and
gypsum (plasterboard).
Files are steel bars with a case‑hardened surface and a series of sharp, parallel
teeth on all sides. They’re used to remove fine amounts of material from timber,
metal and plastic objects.
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Files are available in various shapes and sizes including flat, square, round and
triangular. Carpenters usually have an assortment of files in their toolkit.
Rasp
Between teeth, they’re usually
used on softer, non-metallic
materials such as timber.
Surform
Surforms are a cross between a plane and a rasp, and
are used mostly to plane the edges of plasterboard.
They consist of a steel strip with holes punched out
with the rim of each hole sharpened to form a cutting
edge. The strip is mounted in a carriage or handle.
Spoke shave
Spokes haves are similar to planes and have short
soles that enable them to work on concave (curving
in) and convex (curving out) surfaces. They’re used for the final working and
cleaning up of curved edges. Spoke shaves should be pushed rather than pulled.
There are two types of spoke shave:
 flat soled which can be used for planing narrow edges and convex curves
 Round soled for convex curves.
Note: spoke shaves were originally used by wheelwrights to shave the spokes on
old‑fashioned, wooden wheels.
Operating tips – Shaping tools
 Use files by pushing the file forward across the timber rather than dragging the
file backwards (which can cause damage to the teeth).
 Always hold a spoke shave in both hands and push it away from your body.
 Safety – Shaping tools
 Always use files and rasps with handles to avoid cutting and scraping injuries.
 Because files and rasps produce very fine dust or filings, wear eye protection
at all times when using them. A dust mask is also recommended.
 When using a surform, never place your fingers beneath the body of the tool,
as the teeth are very sharp and can cause injury.
 Care and maintenance – Shaping tools
 The teeth on files and rasps can quickly become clogged with timber or metal
shavings. This is called ‘pinning’ and it makes the file less effective. Use a wire
brush to remove any waste material from the file or rasp.
 The cutting irons of spoke shaves are maintained by following the same
procedure as that used with the cutting iron on a bench plane.
Boring tools
Boring tools are used to bore or drill holes in
materials such as timber, metal and plastic. With
the increasing availability of portable power

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tools, particularly battery powered drills, the use of manual boring tools like hand
drills and ratchet braces is becoming less common. However, they are still a
useful addition to any carpenter’s toolkit, as there may be occasions when there
is no power source available.
Hand drill
Hand drills (also known as wheel braces) used to be an essential part of every
carpenter’s toolkit. They were used for boring (drilling) holes up to 6 mm in
diameter.
Hand drills have generally been replaced now by
cordless (battery‑powered) drills.
Ratchet brace
Ratchet braces (also known as sweep or bit braces)
are very useful, versatile tools which can be used
to drill holes anywhere, as they do not need electricity to power them.
They rely solely on applied pressure and the turning of a handle. The brace has a
built‑in ‘ratchet’ which enables it to be used in tight corners or confined spaces.
Auger bit
Auger bits are used with ratchet braces to bore larger
holes in timber. Sizes generally range from 6–38 mm.
The most commonly used auger bits are the:
 Irwin® bit
 Jennings bit
 Centre bit.
Auger bits have a central threaded worm which draws the bit into the wood,
while the spur on the cutters scribe the cut which outlines the hole.
Operating tips – Boring tools
 To ensure that the drill bit doesn’t slip and damage the material being drilled,
use a Centre punch or bradawl to start a hole in the material before you drill.
 Clamp the work piece to avoid unwanted movement during drilling.
 To avoid splitting the timber when drilling, either clamp a block onto the
timber where the bit will emerge or drill from both sides.
Safety – Boring tools
 Always wear PPE such as safety glasses when drilling to avoid injury from
debris, especially when drilling overhead.
 Although hand drills and ratchet braces are reasonably safe tools to use, you
must take care with drill bits, as their cutting edges are very sharp and can
easily cause injury.
 Take care when drilling to ensure that no pipes and/or cables are damaged
with drill bits.
Care and maintenance – Boring tools
 Clean away dust from around the gear wheel and pinions of the hand drill
occasionally to avoid them getting blocked and jammed up.

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 Oil the moving parts of the hand drill or ratchet brace to prevent rusting or
seizing.
Holding and supporting tools
You’ll often need to hold or support timber while it’s
being cut, or keep components together during the
assembly, such as the screwing or gluing together of
doors, frames, cabinets, etc.
The tools used for this purpose are called holding and
supporting tools, and you’ll most likely have a good collection of different types
of these that you’ll use regularly.
Let’s look at a few of the most common.
Sash clamp
Sash cramps consist of a straight steel bar with a fixed
head at one end and an adjustable slide at the other.
They’re generally used in pairs in the final assembly of
joinery work to provide the pressure required to hold the joints on frames
together until they’re secured by either wedges or the setting of adhesive.

The F clamp (also known as a quick‑release clamp) also takes its name from its shape.
G clamp

G clamps are general purpose clamps used to clamp items before and after assembly.
Their name comes from the shape of the clamp which has a curved frame and
straight screw head resembling the letter ‘G’.
F clamp or quick release clamp
The F clamp is similar to a G clamp, but it has a wider opening capacity (throat).
F clamps are ideal for clamping timber to a workbench or saw stool, or
temporarily holding items such as kitchen cabinets together before a more
permanent fixing can be made.

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Speed clamp

Speed clamps are modern clamps, available in a variety of types that have a ‘trigger’
Action so that they can be operated with one hand.
They are faster to apply than traditional cramps, but don’t yield as much
pressure, so they’re generally not suitable for jobs where you need a tight‑hold
clamp. Speed clamps are also used for holding items together temporarily
before a more permanent fixing can be made.
Bench holdfast
The bench holdfast (or bench clamp) is used for
clamping jobs to the workbench when you’re sawing,
cleaning up and finishing. The leg of the holdfast fits
into a hole in the workbench top.
Floorboard clamp
Floorboard clamps are specialized tools
used for clamping floorboards tightly
together before they’re fixed
permanently in position. The toothed
cams at the bottom of the clamp grip
the floor joist and the jaw at the front
pushes the boards up tight when the handle is turned.
Floorboard clamps are usually used in pairs.
Vice
Vices are holding devices that are fixed in position on
the side of a workbench. They’re used to hold timber
securely, allowing you to use both hands when
completing tasks such as sawing, chiseling, planing, sanding or filing.
Bench hook
Bench hooks are simple holding devices which ‘hook’
over the edge of the workbench or other surface, and are
used to hold small timbers while they’re being cut to
length. For safety reasons, it’s advisable to clamp the
bench hook into the vice on the workbench.
Saw stool
A carpenter’s saw stool (or saw horse) is a simple
timber construction used, usually in pairs, to support
timber and sheet materials, eg plywood, chipboard,

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while they are set out and cut to size. Although traditionally used by carpenters,
many other tradespeople use a similar frame to help them with their work.
Door block
Door blocks are simple ‘home‑made’ devices used to hold
a door steady when it’s being planed to size on site.
They’re usually made from a one‑meter length of 90 × 45
mm (or similar) timber, and have a cut‑out for the thickness of the door and an
allowance for a wedge that’s used to secure the door in place.
Operating tips – Holding and supporting tools
 When using holding or supporting tools, put a piece of off‑cut timber between
the material and the holding plate(s) to avoid making marks or dents on your
work.
Safety – Holding and supporting tools
 Holding and/or supporting tools are generally considered low risk; however,
always be careful to keep your hands out of the way when using a vice or
clamp to avoid any injury.
Care and maintenance – Holding and supporting tools
 There’s no special care or maintenance required for holding and supporting
tools – just the standard considerations such as keeping them clean, and
checking them before you use them to ensure they’re working properly.
Setting out tools
Setting out is transfer of work drawing to the ground/ wood work bench
however, we’ll take a look here at the main tools and equipment involved in
setting out.
String line
String lines are some of the oldest and most
basic hand tools used in building and
construction. They are typically used in the
setting out of buildings to create a straight line between two points.
Carpenters use string lines to check that timber components (such as floor joists,
wall frames and roof rafters) have been installed correctly and are in line with
each other.
Chalk line
Chalk lines (also known as snap lines) are used in
setting out for creating temporary straight lines, usually
over long distances, on floors, ceilings, walls, etc.
They’re basically string lines with chalk embedded into the string. The string line
is placed across the surface to be marked and pulled tight, then plucked or
snapped sharply, causing the line to strike the surface and transfer the chalk
onto it.
This creates a straight line. You can buy powdered chalk of various colors to refill
the outer casing. Be careful when using a chalk line in wet conditions, as the
chalk can become damp and clog up the line.
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Plumb‑bob
Plumb‑bobs (also known as plumb lines) are
heavy metal objects with a pointed tip
attached to the end of a string line. They’re
used to transfer points vertically, e.g. from ceiling to floor, and for checking that
a surface is plumb (upright). Plumb‑bobs can be very accurate, but they can also
be awkward to use in windy conditions.
Carpenter’s roofing square
Roofing squares, as the name suggests, are
designed primarily for setting out angles for roofing
components. However, when fitted with a fence across the blades,
they can also be used for setting out stairs.
They are often used in joinery and cabinet work to draw square
lines and to check frames, cabinets, etc. for ‘square’ (90°).
Builder’s square
Builder’s squares are used by carpenters in the setting out of
buildings to make sure that corners are exactly 90°. They’re made
up of three pieces of timber (approximately 120 × 19 mm) fixed together to form
an exact right angle. The legs of the square should be as long as possible but
also easy to maneuver (approximately 1.5–2 m).
Star picket
Star pickets are a type of fence post (also called a T‑post or Y‑
post, depending on their cross‑sectional shape). They’re made of
steel and can be used to support various types of wire, wire
mesh or plastic barrier fencing mesh. They’re often used when
setting out buildings to construct hurdles/profiles to mark the
outside perimeters of a building. Another tool called a star picket
driver – a steel cylinder with handles on each side – is used to
drive star pickets into the ground.
Leveling tools
Leveling is the process of compering two points horizontally, however, we’ll take
a look here at the main tools and equipment involved.
Spirit level
Spirit levels are made up of a body
(generally made from aluminum),
with a sealed
glass tube which is partially filled with ‘spirit’ and contains a bubble of air. The
position of the bubble is used to indicate whether a surface is plumb (vertical)
or level (horizontal).

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Care and maintenance – Spirit levels
Spirit levels are very delicate and can be easily damaged. Take care to avoid
dropping your spirit level, as that will almost certainly throw it out of level. You
should check it regularly for accuracy using the following method.
1. Use a pencil and a spirit level to mark a line onto a wall; this can be either
plumb (vertical) or level (horizontal).
2. Turn the spirit level around and recheck the pencil line for accuracy.
3. If there is any discrepancy in the reading, the spirit level is out and should be
either repaired or discarded.
Line level
Line levels are miniature spirit levels which have a
hook on each end. The hooks enable the line level to
be suspended on a string line and used to transfer datum from one point to
another. The line level is not very accurate and is used mostly for checking falls
in concrete paths.
Water level
As water finds its own level, the water level in its simplest form is a clear plastic
tube filled with water which can be used to transfer datum/levels (heights on a
construction site) from one point to another.
They’re particularly useful when transferring datum from one room to another
when there is no clear line of sight.
Optical level
An optical level in its simplest form is a telescope (usually with a magnification
of around 20×) mounted on a swiveling base. A sausage level (or circular level)
is fixed to the telescope, enabling it to be adjusted, so that it’s exactly level. The
optical level is used along with a staff (a specially marked rule used to measure
the difference in height between datum on a construction site).
Laser level
There are several types of laser levels available, and they have replaced optical
levels to a certain extent. The types of laser level most used in building and
construction are as follows.
Rotating
This type of laser level is like a miniature lighthouse. The laser projects a beam
out from a rotating prism and sweeps around 360°, forming a horizontal plane.
The speed of rotation can be altered from zero to very fast.
Aim able
This type of laser level projects a beam but it does not rotate automatically.
Instead, the operator needs to aim the beam at the target with a remote control
handset. Buttons on the handset allow the operator to move the laser beams to
the desired position.

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Continuous plane
In this type, the laser beam is reflected from an inverted cone
at the top of the instrument. It spreads a continuous plane of
laser light through 360°. Because of the low intensity of this
type of laser, the beam is invisible to the eye and a receiver
must be used to detect the laser.
Power tool safety
Introduction
As a carpenter you’ll be required to work with a range of tools,
plant and equipment. These tools will vary in type, purpose, make and model but
you must consider WHS requirements for every tool you use.
Safety is the most important consideration when you’re selecting and using any
tools, plant or equipment. If you choose the wrong tools or use them in an
unsafe manner, it can result in an injury or accident.
Power tools are particularly dangerous, because they run at high speeds and/or
pressure and can cause very serious injuries.
Before you get to the power tools section of this guide, you’ll be looking at safe
working practices and how to implement them to ensure your own safety and
that of other workers. Your lecturer will also take you through some safety
training in the workshop.
Working with power tools
The following are some important tips for you when you’re working with power
tools.
 If you don’t know how to operate a tool safely, don’t use it. Power tools in
particular should be used only by fully trained operators.
 Choose the correct tool for the job and identify its limitations before you start
any task.
 When using power tools, it’s important that you’re alert at all times. Never use
a tool if you’re tired, unwell or under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
 Be aware of your surroundings, the limitations of your work area and the
presence of other people.
 Never disturb anyone who is using a power tool. Wait for them to finish what
they’re doing before trying to attract their attention.
 Keep the working environment clean and tidy, and make sure there is
adequate lighting.
 Always wear the correct PPE when using any tools, plant or equipment.
Electrical safety
Although there are other power sources available for carpentry tools, eg batteries
and compressed air, electricity is still the most commonly used power source
within the construction industry.
Electricity is extremely dangerous and can cause serious injury or death, not just
to the operator but to others working nearby. When you’re working with

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electricity, you must choose tools with appropriate safety features. You must
maintain their condition and use safe work practices at all times.
Most modern power tools are ‘double‑insulated’. This means that they have two
layers of insulating material (usually plastic) between the live components and
the operator. These tools do not require an earthling wire (used to divert
electricity away from the operator and into the earth), so they’re fitted with a
two‑pin plug or a plug that has a third unconnected pin to help hold the plug in
the power point.
Double‑insulated tools are identified by this symbol.
Extension leads, plugs and sockets
All power tools have cables which need to be plugged into a
240 volt power supply. Extension leads are often used to allow
tools to be operated at various locations around a work area.
You must take particular care to protect these cables and leads
from being damaged or becoming a hazard to others working
nearby.
Keep the following important tips in mind when you’re working with cables and
extension leads.
 Always keep the extension lead of a power tool over your shoulder so that it’s
well away from cutters, blades or other equipment.
 Never carry or lower a power tool by its cable, and never disconnect a power
tool by pulling on the power cable. Always disconnect by removing the plug.
 Don’t use extension leads while they’re coiled up, as they can get very hot if
they’re tightly coiled when current is running through them.
 Don’t try to repair damaged extension leads yourself. Repairs should be carried
out by a licensed electrician only.
 Electric tools and extension leads must have clear or molded plugs and sockets
so that any damaged connections can be seen. Sockets on extension leads
must also have an extended rim or shroud to prevent anything getting into the
gap between the plug and socket and touching the live pins.
 Never allow traffic such as wheelbarrows or vehicles to run over power cables
or extension leads. Protect cables and leads with timber or suspend them
overhead.
 Make sure power cables and extension leads are not a trip hazard.
Fuses and circuit breakers
Devices that cut off the
power in an emergency have
been developed to help
prevent electricity‑related
injuries or deaths. However,
you must remember that
they do not guarantee the

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
safety of the operator and other workers. You still have to take responsibility for
working safely with electricity.
A fuse contains a thin piece of wire through which the electricity flows. If the
circuit is overloaded or a fault develops in an electric tool, the wire melts and
the circuit is broken; that is, the electricity is shut off.
A residual current device (commonly referred to as an RCD) is a gadget in an
electrical circuit that measures electrical current.
If a fault arises in the circuit, the circuit breaker detects that the current flowing
into the tool and the current flowing out are not equal and it immediately trips
and cuts off the electricity supply. RCDs are fitted with a test and reset button
and this check should be carried out before it’s used to make sure it’s working
properly.
Electricity on a construction site
Construction sites have particular electrical hazards that you may not come
across in other workplaces. These include unprotected power sources, unsecured
cables and extension leads, bad weather conditions and hazardous materials.
Remember the following points when you’re working on a construction site.
 Be aware of the location of temporary power sources and cabling, and take
care when moving or operating tools and equipment (particularly cutting
tools).
 Never use an electrical power tool in the rain. The impurities in water conduct
electricity and increase the risk of the current entering your body. Keep power
cables dry, especially where they’re joined.
 Never use power tools near combustible liquid or gases. Power tools can
produce sparks which may ignite these materials and cause explosions or fires.
Battery powered tools
Battery‑powered tools (often referred to as cordless tools) are becoming more
popular with a wide range of tools now available. Although these tools are
relatively safe to use, you should consider the following safety issues.
 Lithium batteries are deemed hazardous, because they can overheat and ignite
under certain conditions.
 Always store batteries in cool, dry conditions. They should never be allowed to
become too hot or to freeze.
 Batteries should only be recharged with a compatible battery charger. Allow
discharged batteries to cool down before recharging.
 Battery chargers are plugged into a 240 volt power source and should
therefore be tested and tagged by a qualified electrician.
 Rechargeable batteries contain hazardous materials and should not be placed
in the rubbish bin. They should always be disposed of at a recycling Centre.
Pneumatic power
Pneumatic tools are powered by air or gas under pressure rather than
electricity. The compressed air is transferred to the tool from an air

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compressor by hose and is expelled with significant force. Compressed air
tools should be used only by fully trained operators.
Bear in mind the following when you’re using a pneumatic tool.
 Do not attempt to disconnect compressed air hoses unless they are protected
by a valve (a device that regulates the flow of air).
 Do not use compressed air hoses to clean away sawdust or other waste
material from the work area, as flying debris can cause serious injury.
 Compressed air hoses must never be directed towards yourself or others, as
the air is dispersed at a very high pressure. Air blown under the skin, eg into
an open wound, can result in infection, or even stroke or heart attack.
 Traffic such as wheelbarrows or vehicles should never be allowed to cross air
hoses, because the extra pressure on the hose can damage the compressed air
equipment.
 Do not allow air hoses to become a trip hazard.
Moving parts
All power tools have moving parts which can be very dangerous, because the
operator, the tool’s power cable or the material being worked on can be caught
and drawn into hazardous positions. Depending on the tool, there are risks of
cutting and crushing injuries.
The following are some general safety tips for all power tools.
 Always keep the extension lead of a power tool over your shoulder so that it’s
well away from cutters, blades, etc.
 Avoid wearing loose clothing and jewelry including chains, bracelets and rings.
Long hair should always be tied back.
 Keep materials clear of moving parts until the tool has reached full speed.
 Never put a power tool down until the rotating parts have come to a complete
stop.
Stability
When you’re using tools, plant and equipment, you should
always remain in full control of the machine. To achieve
this, it’s important that you follow these safety procedures.
 Where possible, always use two hands on the machine.
 Stand with your feet in a stable position and avoid
overstretching.
 Avoid using power tools in hazardous weather conditions
such as strong winds and rain.
 Take extra care when you’re working in awkward positions, confined spaces or
at heights.
 Always clamp work pieces securely to stop them from
moving.
Guards
All power tools have features built into them for your
protection. Guards cover moving parts and cutting blades so
that you don’t come into contact with these hazards. It’s
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extremely important that you inspect safety features before use to ensure
they’re working correctly.
 Tying up or removing guards or safety devices is very dangerous and may be a
breach of WHS law.
 Never use a tool if the guards or any safety features are
missing or damaged.
Emergency stop buttons
Most modern larger power tools and machinery now have an
emergency stop button – usually a large, red button near the
main controls of the tool or machinery. If you press this button, you will
immediately cut power to the tool or machine.
Cutting hazards
Carpentry tools are designed to cut through a variety of
materials including timber and metal, so it’s vital that
you take care when using these tools as they can easily
cut through skin and bone.
Remember the following when you’re working with
carpentry tools. Keep tools sharp.
 A sharp chisel is less likely to cause an accident than a
blunt one.
 Never place any part of your body in the path of a blade or cutting edge or on
any part of the tool that can’t be seen.
 Keep your finger off the switch or trigger of a power tool until you’re fully
prepared to start cutting.
 Remember that the cutting edge of a power tool is still a hazard even when the
power is off. You must take care when changing blades or performing
maintenance.
 Don’t carry sharp tools or blades in your pockets. You must take extreme care
when you’re carrying sharp tools or handing them to others.
 Replace covers or caps on tools when they’re not in use.
Noise
Excessive noise can damage hearing. Some tools, plant and equipment can be
very noisy, so there are many situations where you’ll need to wear hearing
protection.
You should always wear earmuffs and/or earplugs when you’re operating power
tools or in any situation where you have to shout to be heard by someone just a
meter away.
Vibration
The vibrations produced by some power tools can result in damage to blood
vessels and nerves. Where possible, limit the amount of time you spend using a
single tool or performing a repetitive action. You must take a break if you
develop tingling in your hands or arms.

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Some tools are specially designed to reduce the amount of vibration you
experience and you can wear anti‑vibration gloves when you can’t avoid
prolonged use of power tools.
Dust
When you’re using any power tool, some form of dust,
wood chip or waste material will be produced. How that
affects you will depend on the material being used.
Some materials are more dangerous than others and
you must be particularly aware of the risks involved
when you’re working with the following materials.
 When asbestos fibers are released into the air, they
can be extremely hazardous. If you inhale them, you may develop asbestosis,
lung cancer and mesothelioma – all fatal diseases.
 Materials such as bricks, mortar and concrete contain silica. When you drill into
these materials, silica dust is produced and very small particles are released
into the air. This dust can cause lung diseases such as silicosis.
 Medium‑density fiberboard (MDF) is made from fine particles of wood which
are bonded together with resin adhesive (urea formaldehyde). The resin
contained in MDF is a potential health hazard and you should not breathe it in.
 CCA‑treated timber contains chemicals (copper, chromium and arsenic) which
are used to preserve the timber and can be hazardous to your health if you
inhale or swallow them.
Where possible, use dust extraction equipment with power tools that produce
dust, chips or waste material as well as the appropriate PPE. At the very least,
ensure you’re working in a well-ventilated space.
Faulty tools
Occasionally tools, plant or equipment become defective, damaged or faulty
Faulty tools can be extremely hazardous and must be reported immediately,
even if the fault doesn’t directly affect you and the task you’re doing.
If you notice a faulty tool and don’t report it, a co‑worker who uses that tool
later may be injured if they don’t realize that there is a problem with it.
Attach a repair tag to a faulty tool and report it for repair to a supervisor.
Here are some important points to remember.
Never use an electrical tool with a faulty switch.
Stop using an electrical tool if it gets very hot or smells of smoke.
Maintenance
Regular maintenance ensures that tools remain safe to use, and perform with
greater efficiency. All tools, plant and equipment should be inspected for faults,
properly maintained and serviced on a regular basis.
Note: Power and pneumatic tools must be isolated (disconnected from the
power source or air supply) before any adjustment or fault finding is carried out.

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When you’re carrying out maintenance, repairs or adjustments, it’s important
that you refer to the manufacturer’s specifications and recommendations. When
carrying out repairs, use only the tools supplied with the tool or equipment.
All maintenance and repairs should be carried out by a qualified person, as tools
can be made more dangerous if correct procedures are not followed. If in doubt,
always consult a licensed electrician or the manufacturer/supplier
Emergencies
An emergency is any situation that:
 develops suddenly
 seriously threatens the safety, health or lives of
those involved
 seriously threatens to damage or destroy property or the environment
 Requires immediate action.
Typical construction site emergencies are fires, toxic and/or flammable vapor
emissions, vehicle/mobile plant accidents, structural collapses, bomb threats,
chemical spills or injuries to personnel caused by falls or accidents.
It’s extremely important that you’re aware of the correct procedures to follow in
the event of an emergency.
Responding to an emergency
There are procedures for employees to follow in
emergency situations, so that everybody
understands what to do and how to do it.
Managers, supervisors and health and safety
representatives (HSRs) will present this information in the workplace by way of
signs, pamphlets, toolbox meetings, formal training and activities
(demonstrations and drills) and staff induction.
Make sure you read and listen to this information carefully the first time you
encounter it, because in a real emergency, you won’t have time to read the
emergency signage and procedures.
One of your major responsibilities as an employee is to understand, practice and
be able to follow the workplace emergency procedures. This includes:
 identifying who you should report to in an emergency
 having the basic firefighting and first aid skills that all
employees need
 understanding the evacuation procedures
Power tools
Introduction
These days, power tools have largely replaced hand tools,
because they allow site carpenters and bench joiners to
work with increased speed, more efficiency and greater
accuracy.
Power tools are available with a variety of power sources

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including mains power, battery and compressed air.
Carpenters use a range of power tools to cut, shape and install timber in
building construction and fit‑out. There are several categories of power tools,
each designed to carry out specific functions. They’re usually available in a
range of shapes and sizes.
In this section, we’ll look at the main types of power tools you’ll be using for
your carpentry tasks. In addition to what’s covered in this guide, your lecturer
will provide you with power tools training in the workshop.
Types of power tools
In this section you’ll look at power tools in the following categories:
 drills
 saws
 sanders
 planes
 routers and trimmers
 Nail guns.
Power drills
Drills – used to bore holes into building materials – were one
of the first tools to be converted from hand to electric power.
Electric drills have been available since the 1950s and their
basic design and shape haven’t changed a great deal. There’s
now a large range of drills made for a variety of specialized
purposes which have become very affordable.
Speed
The speed shown on the data plate of most power drills is the
‘no load’ speed. This is the speed the drill will turn when there is no resistance.
The actual operating speed may drop by as much as 40% when a full load is
applied, but this will be within the design limits of the drill.
The speed of a drill is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm) and while
cheaper drills may have only one speed, most electric drills have at least two.
A gearbox reduces the speed of the motor to suit the type of drill bit used or
the material being drilled.
Many modern drills are fitted with an electronic speed control which allows a
wider range of speeds. This can be useful for projects which require holes to be
drilled into a variety of materials. The speed control is usually a small dial
located near the trigger.
Light‑duty drills have a speed of approximately 4500 rpm. Medium‑duty drills
have a lower speed – around 1800 rpm – but have more torque (turning power).
Heavy‑duty drills are slower still with a common speed of 550 rpm. These larger
drills are usually fitted with a side handle, because they have a great deal of

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torque and, if a large diameter bit jams, the drill can twist out of the operator’s
grip.
Chuck
A chuck is the part of a drill that holds the drill bit. There are a number of
chucks available and they’re all designed to hold the drill bit tightly so that it
doesn’t become loose while you’re drilling a hole.
Older drills have a ‘keyed chuck’, which means they need to be tightened or
loosened with a chuck key. Newer drills have keyless chucks which can be
tightened or loosened by hand. This is far more convenient, because there’s no
need to carry a chuck key around with you and the drill bits can be changed
more quickly.

Keyed chuck with key SDS Keyless chuck

Special direct system (SDS) drills with a quick release chuck are also
available. These larger drills have a collar on the chuck which, when pulled
back, automatically opens and releases the drill bit. Although they’re very
effective, special bits have to be purchased to fit the SDS drill and they’re not
compatible with other drills/chucks.
Chuck sizes
Drills can vary according to their chuck size, as that
determines the largest diameter drill bit that can be used.
Chuck size can be found on the data label on a drill. Common
sizes in the building industry are 10–16 mm.
Reduced shank drill bits allow holes of a larger diameter than
the chuck size to be drilled, eg a 16 mm bit can be fitted to a
13 mm chuck; however, this can subject the motor to more strain than it can
cope with. Manufacturers match the chuck size to the capabilities of the motor.
Cordless drill
In recent years there has been an increase in the number of cordless (battery‑
powered) drills on the market. You can see the main parts of a standard cordless
drill below.
Speed

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Drill bit Chuck control Data label

Air vents

Torque/gear Forward/reverse
select switch
Trigger
switch
‘Pistol grip’
handle
Battery
The advantages of cordless drills are that they:
 are convenient where there is no access to mains power
 are quick because they don’t need to be set up when only one or two holes
need to be drilled
 are safe and can be used in damp conditions
 have no power cables so there is no risk of electric shock.
While they have limited battery life, lithium‑ion batteries are now quick to
charge, hold their charge for long periods and you can
always take spare batteries with you.
Hammer drill
Hammer drills (with a tungsten‑tipped drill bit) are used
to drill holes in masonry (Concrete and brickwork).
They have a built‑in mechanism which creates a vibrating action in the drill bit
so that, as the bit turns, it chisels its way into the masonry.
The hammer action can be turned on and off with a lever on the top or side of
the drill casing. This allows it to be used for drilling holes in
other materials such as steel and timber.
Rotary hammer drill
Rotary hammer drills are very heavy‑duty drills designed
for drilling into masonry. They have a more powerful
hammering action than a regular hammer drill. Most models
have a chuck designed to take SDS drill bits as normal drill bits won’t fit.
Some of the larger rotary hammer drills have accessories such as a small pick
or chisel that can be attached and used as a type of miniature jackhammer.
Drill bit
The drill bit is the cutting component of a drill and is
available in many shapes and sizes. While some were
originally designed to be used only in hand‑powered
drills, these days there are many drill bits which can be
used in both hand drills and power drills.
Twist bit
Twist bits are the most common drill bits used by carpenters, because they’re
very versatile and can be used on wood, metal or plastic.

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They’re manufactured in a variety of sizes with the most common ranging from
1–12 mm. They can be used in hand, power or battery‑operated drills.
Twist bits are general purpose and suitable for use with timber, metal or plastic.
They’re available in many sizes, with the most popular ranging from 1–13 mm.
Double‑ended twist bits are also available, but they’re rarely used in carpentry.
Spade bit
Spade bits are general purpose drill bits used for drilling
larger holes into timber. Holes can be drilled quickly
using spade bits, but they tend to be quite rough‑sided,
so they’re used mostly where appearance is not important. Spade bits are
generally available in sizes ranging from 6 –38 mm in diameter.
Power auger bit
A power auger bit is another general purpose drill bit
used for drilling larger holes into timber. The advantage
of the power auger is that it produces clean‑sided holes.
You must take care as the worm (thread) on the front of
the drill bit can pull it into the timber very quickly.
Power auger bits are generally available in sizes ranging from 6–32 mm in
diameter.
Dowel bit
Dowel bits (sometimes referred to as ‘lip and spur’ bits)
are specialist bits used to drill holes for the insertion of
wooden dowels.
They produce a flat‑bottomed hole and have a Centre spur (point) which is used
to ensure that holes are drilled with greater accuracy. This enables opposing
holes to line up with each other.
These bits are generally available in diameters of 6 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm.
Forester bit
Forstner bits are used in a drill press (an upright‑standing, fixed
drill that can be mounted on a cabinet or to the floor).
They’re used to produce a clean, accurate and (if necessary) flat
‑bottomed hole (often referred to as a ‘blind hole’).
Forstner bits are generally available in sizes ranging from 10–50
mm in diameter.
Countersink bit
Countersink bits are used to produce a countersunk or tapered
recess which is used to accommodate screw heads.
A clearance hole must be drilled into the material first and the
countersink bit should be run at high speed to ensure a quality
finish.Countersink bits can be used on timber, plastic or metal, and
are generally available in diameters of 10 mm, 13 mm and 19 mm

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Masonry bit
Masonry bits are used to drill holes in brickwork and concrete. They
have a tungsten carbide tip (TCT) which is a hard‑wearing material
often used on the cutting edge of tools to extend its life.
Masonry bits are generally available in sizes ranging from 4–25 mm
in diameter.

Sharpening drill bits

The angle between the two cutting edges on a twist bit should be 120°. You can
check this by holding two hexagonal nuts together.
The drill tip should fit neatly into the angle between them.

If a drill bit becomes blunt, worn or damaged, it can be resharpened on a grinding

wheel. However, there are tools available that will automatically sharpen the tip of
the drill bit to the correct angle.
Spade bits can be resharpened by holding them in a vice and filing the cutting edge
and centre spur with a fine, flat file.

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Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the power drill and extension lead for any visible signs of damage.
Check the tag on the power drill and extension lead for the last inspection
date.
Select and fit the correct drill bit for the task and material, eg timber,
metal, plastic or masonry.
Set the drill to the correct speed and torque for the size of your drill bit.
Remember: Big drill bit – slower speed; smaller bit – faster speed.
Turn on the ‘hammer’ action (if required).
Check that chuck/drill bit is tightened.
Ensure the material to be drilled is held securely.
Operating tips – Power drills
 Set the drill to the correct speed for the material being drilled. The harder the
material, the slower the speed.
 Drill a pilot hole or use a Centre punch to help guide larger drill bits.
 Hold the drill firmly and begin drilling, removing the bit on a regular basis to
clear the dust and avoid overheating.
 Reduce the pressure on the drill when nearing the end of the operation, to
avoid ‘snatching’ or ‘grabbing’.
 Don’t put the motor under excess stress by forcing the drill. Allow the thread
to pull the bit into the material.
 To avoid splitting the timber when drilling, either clamps a block onto the
timber where the bit will emerge or drill from both sides.
Safety – Power drills
 Always wear safety glasses when you’re drilling into timber, metal or masonry
and when drilling holes overhead.
 Always wear ear protection when drilling into masonry.
 Clamp the work piece to avoid unwanted movement during drilling.
 Beware of the drill ‘grabbing’ (especially if drilling metal) as this can make you
lose grip on the drill which can result in an injury.
 Use a side handle on bigger drills, especially when using large diameter bits.
Care and maintenance – Power drills
 Never cover the air vents in a drill casing as they keep the motor cool by
allowing air to circulate.
 Never lay a drill (or any other power tool) in sand. This can cause damage to
the motor and sand to be blown into the operator’s face.
 Remove the drill bit from the hole occasionally and clear any build‑up of dust.
 This helps to prevent the drill bit from overheating or jamming.
Power saws
Power saws are used by site carpenters and bench joiners to cut a variety of
materials including timber, plywood, chipboard and MDF.
There are three types of power saw:

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 portable circular saw
 drop saw
 Reciprocating saw.

Circular saw

No other power tool has given carpenters a greater advantage over old hand‑powered
Methods than the portable circular saw (also known as a skill saw). It’s widely
used on construction sites for cutting timber and sheet materials such as
plywood and chipboard. Exhaust Crown
guard
The circular saw is used primarily for por

ripping and cross‑cutting, but it can also Blade

be adjusted to perform a number of other
operations such as grooving, rebating and
trenching as well as making beveled and
compound cuts. Base plate
The key parts of a circular saw are shown Lower
guard
here.
The base plate can be tilted by up to 45° (degrees) to allow angle cuts (called
beveled cuts) to be made. Depth of cut is set by moving the base plate up or
down in relation to the saw blade. A fence is an accessory often used with a
circular saw, which connects to the underside of the base plate, and is used for
ripping narrow strips from timber and sheet products.
The crown guard covers the top of the saw blade and also directs the sawdust
to an exhaust port at the side of the saw. The blade is safely inside the crown
guard and held in place by a large bolt.
The lower guard is spring‑loaded and retracts when the saw is cutting through
timber. Its purpose is to protect the operator from the blade once cutting is
complete.
The size of a circular saw is determined by the diameter of
the blade. The most common size for site carpentry work is
235 mm; however, 160 mm, 185 mm and 210 mm sizes are
also available.

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The size of the saw determines the maximum depth of cut that can be
performed.
For example, a 235 mm blade will enable a cut of about 85 mm. If the base
plate is tilted to 45°, the maximum depth of the cut will be reduced to about 60
mm.

Blades
There are many types and sizes of blade available for circular saws. The important
specifications for a blade are:
• the diameter of the blade
• the diameter of the hole in the middle of the blade.
On some brands of saw, the hole in the blade is the same size as the saw’s arbor
( shaft). On other saws, the blade has a larger hole which fits over a locating spigot.
Some replacement blades have a large hole and are sold with various sized
adaptor rings to fit any saw.
Rather than ‘xx teeth per 25 mm’ as with hand saws, the size of a circular saw
blade’s teeth are specified by how many teeth there are around the blade’s
perimeter. Saw blades are available in a variety of sizes as per the following
examples.

A blade with a few large teeth will cut more quickly but the cut will be ‘rough’.
A blade with smaller teeth will give a finer cut but will cut more slowly.
You can find this information on the side of the saw blade. A blade labelled
235 × 32 × 22 is 235 mm in diameter, has a 32 mm diameter hole in the centre and
a total of 22 teeth on its outer edge.
Various teeth profiles are available, depending on the type of work to be carried out,
eg ripping, cross‑cutting, compound cuts or cutting sheet materials.
All saw blades are available with a small tungsten carbide tip on each tooth. These
are more hard‑wearing than ordinary steel blades and are ideally suited for cutting
sheet materials such as plywood and chipboard MDF, which can quickly dull the
blade due to the adhesives used in their manufacture.

Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check

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Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.

Check the power cord (and extension lead, if used) for any visible signs
of damage.
Check the tag on the power saw and extension lead for the last
inspection date.
Select and fit the correct saw blade for the task, i.e. ripping, cross
cutting, combination or tungsten carbide tipped.
Adjust the saw blade to the required depth of cut.
Check that the retractable blade guard is working correctly and isn’t
damaged.
Adjust the base plate to set the saw to the required angle.
Set the fence to the required width.
Check all adjustment devices are tight.
Make sure you hold securely the timber to be cut. The best way to do
this is to clamp it to saw stools or a workbench.
Ensure dust extraction system is fitted (if required).
Operating tips – Power saws
 Rest the front of the base plate on the timber before starting a cut. Position
the power cable over your shoulder (away from the blade).
 Hold the saw in both hands and pull the trigger to start the saw. Allow the saw
to reach full speed before you start to cut the timber.
 Feed the saw blade into the timber slowly. Allow the saw blade to do the work
– do not force the cut. The blade guard should automatically retract as you
move the saw along the timber.
 At the end of the saw cut, allow the blade to complete the cut before you
release the trigger. The blade guard should spring back into place (covering
the saw blade). Let the saw blade come to a complete standstill before you
rest the saw on the ground.
 Always keep both hands on the saw, if possible.
 Hold the saw only by the handle and the front knob.
 The waste timber should be to the right of the saw so that the widest part of
the base plate rests on the timber.
Safety – Power saws
 Keep the power cable away from the blade. The safest place for it is over your
shoulder.
 Never place your fingers under the base plate or near the saw blade.
Remember that the saw is designed to cut through the hardest timber and it
won’t slow down if your finger, wrist, arm, leg or power cords get in the way.
 The lower guard on a circular saw is spring‑loaded and there for your
protection. Under no circumstances should the lower guard be fixed back by
wire or string.
Care and maintenance – Power saws
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label found on the power saw for make
and model information when ordering replacement parts.

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 When fitting a new blade to the saw, make sure the teeth below the base plate
point forward. Before you make any adjustments, you must ensure that the
saw is disconnected from the power source (unplugged).
 Keep saw blades dry to avoid rust.
 Clean the blade with an oily rag and remove any build‑up of adhesive or sap to
avoid drag.
 Never cover the air vents in the casing as they keep the motor cool by allowing
air to circulate.
Drop saw
Drop saws (also known as
chop saws or mitre saws)
are a variation of the
portable Power saw. They
consist of a blade and a
motor which is mounted
onto a short portable bench.
They are widely used by
‘second fixing’ carpenters
(carpentry carried out after
the plaster has been applied
to the walls) for cutting
skirting, architraves, etc.
The cut is made by pulling a
trigger on the handle and ‘dropping’ the saw blade down into the work piece.
Most drop saws are fitted with a clamp for holding the timber against the fence.
The blade can be set square to the fence or swiveled up to 45° on either side. It
can also be tilted to produce beveled and compound cuts.

Compound cuts which are a combination of angle cuts (made by adjusting the
angle of the table) and bevelled cuts (made by tilting the angle of the blade)

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Cuts
Drop saws have a number of adjustments which enable them to perform a variety of
functions including the following.
Crosscuts at 90° to the edge of the work piece, made with the table set at 0°.

Angled crosscuts , made by adjusting the table to the required angle. The table
should be rotated to the required angle and locked firmly into position.

Bevelled cuts , made by setting the table to 0° and tilting the blade to the required
angle (between 0° and 45°) and locking firmly into position.

Note: Drop saw adjustments vary depending on the manufacturer and model.
Read the manufacturer’s instructions carefully before you use a drop saw.
Operation
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Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the power cord and extension lead for any visible signs of
damage.
Check the tag on the drop saw and extension lead for the last
inspection date.
Select and fit the correct saw blade for the task, eg ripping, cross‑
cutting, combination or tungsten carbide tipped.
Check that the retractable blade guard is working correctly and isn’t
damaged.
Adjust the saw table to set the saw to the required angle.
Set the saw blade to the required bevel (if required).
Check all adjustment devices are tight.
If using a ‘stop’ to cut a number of pieces the same length, place the
stop on the same side as your hand (allowing the waste piece of timber to
move away from the blade).
Check timber for straightness by ‘sighting’ along the edge.
Ensure the timber to be cut is held securely against the fence with
your left hand. Clamp shorter lengths of timber to the drop saw.
Ensure dust extraction system is fitted (if required).
Operating tips – Drop saw
 Check timber for straightness. If the timber being cut is slightly ‘bowed’
(curved), the timber should be positioned with the bow facing outwards.
 Grip the handle of the drop saw firmly, pull the trigger and allow the saw to
reach full speed before you start to cut the timber. Release the blade guard
lock and slowly lower the saw blade into the timber.
 Feed the saw blade into the timber slowly. Allow the saw blade to do the work
– do not force the cut. The blade guard should automatically retract as you
move the saw into the timber.
 When the cut is complete, release the trigger and wait for the saw blade to
stop moving before you lift it away from the timber. Ensure that the blade
guard springs back to protect the saw blade.
 When you’re performing compound or bevelled cuts, take particular care to
prevent the blade from coming into contact with your fingers.
 Always maintain a firm grip on the handle.
Safety – Drop saw
 Always wear the correct PPE such as safety glasses and/or a face mask,
hearing protection, dust mask, etc.
 The blade guard is an essential safety device and should never be removed or
tied back.
 Never place your fingers between the work piece and the fence.
 Always make sure the blade has stopped moving before you lift it away from
the work piece, as offcuts can be thrown across the workshop and cause you
and others injury.
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Care and maintenance – Drop saw
 When fitting a new blade to the saw, make sure the blade is compatible with
the saw and that the saw teeth face in the correct direction.
 Always isolate the drop saw from its power source (unplug it) before you
attempt to change the blade or carry out any maintenance.
 Regularly lubricate moving parts to ease operation.
Reciprocating saw
The cutting action on a reciprocating saw is achieved by the saw blade moving
with a repetitive up‑and‑down or back‑and‑forth motion which allows the saw
to cut through a variety of materials with ease. The reciprocating saws most
commonly used by carpenters are the jigsaw and the sabre saw.
Jigsaw
Although jigsaws cut more slowly than
circular saws, they can cut curved
shapes into materials such as timber,
metal and plastic. They’re commonly
found in joinery workshops but can
also be useful on site for cutting holes
in, for example, kitchen worktops for sinks.
Most models now have a variable speed control so that you can select the best
speed for the job. Fast speeds are more suitable for cutting timber and slower
speeds for cutting metal. The base plate of a jigsaw can be tilted to allow
beveled cuts.
The teeth of a jigsaw point upward, so the cutting is done during the up‑
stroke. This can result in damage to the surface of the timber, especially on
sheet materials such as plywood. If necessary,
clearance must be allowed for the edges to be cleaned
up afterwards.
There are blades available with teeth which point
downwards and these are useful when cutting
material such as plastic laminates. However, you
must take extreme care when using this type of blade
as it can cause the saw to ‘lift’ away from the work
surface. To prevent this, always maintain downward pressure on the saw.
Some models have a mechanism which produces an orbital motion in the blade.
This means that the blade moves forward on the up‑cut and pulls back for the
down‑cut which results in a faster (but possibly rougher) cut. A control allows
the orbital motion to be reduced to zero for clean cutting.

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Blades
There is a great variety of blade types available for various cutting jobs.

As with hand saws, tooth size on jigsaw blades is measured as ‘teeth per 25 mm’.
Blades for cutting timber have coarse to medium teeth, whereas blades for cutting
metal or plastic have finer teeth, similar in shape to those of a hacksaw .
Scroll blades are thin, very narrow and suitable for making cuts with tight curves.
Sabre saws
A sabre saw is a heavier duty saw which
can be used for cutting through timber,
metal and plastic and is ideal for cutting
sections from a framed wall for a door,
window or air conditioner.
Blades are available in various lengths and with various teeth sizes to suit
different materials. The stroke of the blade is about 30 mm.
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the power cord and extension lead for any visible signs of
damage.
Check the tag on the reciprocating saw and extension lead for the last
inspection date.
Select and fit the correct saw blade for the required task, ie cutting
timber, metal or plastic.
Select the correct speed for the required task.
Set the base plate to the required bevel (if required).
Check all adjustment devices are tight.
Check that the work piece is securely clamped to avoid unwanted
movement during cutting.

Operating tips – Reciprocating saws

 Place the front of the base plate on the material with the motor off before you
start the cut. Ensure adequate clearance under or behind the work piece for
the blade to move up and down.

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 Grip the handle firmly, pull the trigger and allow the saw blade to reach full
speed before you start to cut the timber.
 When cutting, allow the blade to do the work. Do not force the cut, especially
on curves as cutting too quickly may cause the blade to wander or break.
 At the end of the cut, release the trigger and allow the blade to stop moving
before you lift it from the work piece
 Keep the base plate of the saw in contact with the work piece at all times.
 Cutting face‑side down will help to reduce splitting out of grain. Alternatively,
use a blade that cuts on the down stroke.
 Don’t try to cut curves too tight for the width of the blade.
 Lifting the blade from the cut while it’s still moving may result in damage to
the blade and/or the surface of the work piece.
Safety – Reciprocating saws
 Always wear the correct PPE.
 Don’t put your fingers beneath the base plate or work piece.
 Keep the power cable over your shoulder and away from the blade.
 If cutting through a floor or wall, make sure there are no electrical wires or
pipes in the path of the saw blade.
Care and maintenance – Reciprocating saws
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label for make and model information
when ordering replacement parts.
 When fitting a new blade to the saw, make sure that the teeth point forward.
 Never cover the air vents in the casing as they keep the motor cool by allowing
air to circulate.
Power sanders
Power sanders have an abrasive surface and are used by site carpenters and
bench joiners to shape and/or finish work. As with all
power tools, they reduce the time and effort required
to complete a task. Depending on the type of work
and the required finish, carpenters use belt sanders
or orbital sanders.
Belt sander
Belt sanders are used both in the joinery workshop
and on construction sites. They have two rollers, one of which is driven by the
motor. A continuous belt passes over the rollers and is held flat on the job by a
base plate (called a platen). The un driven roller can be tilted slightly from side
to side, which allows the belt to be adjusted so that it ‘tracks correctly’
(remains central to the base).
Belt sanders have the advantage of removing wood quickly, which makes them
useful for flushing joints and removing defects. However, they’re not suitable
for fine finishing or for use on thin veneers.
Belts are available in several lengths and widths to suit the various models of
power sanders on the market. Different grit grades are also available. Before

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buying replacement belts, the data label on the sander should be checked to
establish the length and width of belt suitable for that model.
Orbital sander
Orbital sanders (also known as finishing
sanders) sand in a circular motion, and are
used to achieve a fine, smooth finish on
timber surfaces. They are not suitable for
‘flushing off’ joints or removing wood
quickly. A reciprocating sander is very similar to the orbital sander but its
motion is back and forth rather than circular.
The base of the sander has a soft rubber pad and the abrasive paper is held
to it by a spring clip. This paper can be bought in packs of pre‑cut pieces or
cut to size from standard sized sheets or rolls. The base of the sander rotates
in a circular motion at approximately 12 000 rpm.
The circular motion of the abrasive paper can leave swirl marks on the timber
surface, which may only become visible after you’ve stained or polished the
timber. If a very fine finish is required, you should carry out a final sanding by
hand in the direction of the grain.

Replacement belts and paper

Belts and paper are available to suit the
various models of power sanders on the
market. Different grit grades are also
available.

Before you buy replacement belts, check the

data label for the correct length and width.

Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the sander and power/extension lead for any visible signs of
damage.
Check the tag on the sander and power/extension lead for the last
inspection date.
Select and fit the correct grade of abrasive paper for the required task.
Check the abrasive paper for any visible signs of damage and change it if
necessary.
Ensure a dust bag is fitted.
Secure the work piece to avoid unwanted movement during sanding.

Operating tips – Power sanders

 Start the sander before bringing it into contact with the work piece to avoid the
sander ‘running away from you’

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 Lift the sander away from the timber before stopping it. This will stop it from
damaging the work piece
 Keep the sander moving at all times, as holding it in one place will cause it to
sand a hollow in the job.
 Moving the sander allows you to see what you are doing to the work piece.
 Don’t apply excessive pressure to the sander. The weight of the tool itself
applies sufficient pressure to the job.
 Use a slow, gentle backwards and forwards movement. A common error made
when using a power sander is to vigorously work the machine backwards and
forwards.
 The additional motion makes little difference to the 200 or so rotations per
second produced by the machine, and scratch marks may be left on the timber
surface.
Safety – Power sanders
 The dust created by a sander is extremely fine and therefore hazardous. Some
sanders are fitted with dust bags or attachment points for vacuum systems. If
these are not available, wear a dust mask.
Care and maintenance – Power sanders
 Empty the dust bag regularly. If it gets more than half full, it won’t collect the
dust properly.
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label found on the sander for make
and model information when ordering replacement parts.
 Never cover the air vents in the casing as they keep the motor cool by allowing
air to circulate

Band Saw (Stationary)

This tall, floor-standing saw
uses large pulleys above
and below the cutting table
to move a continuous band
with fine teeth to cut
through most materials.
Band saws are perfect for
intricate cutting of curves
into wood, as well as
cutting tubes, piping, and
PVC, but are limited to a
depth of only a few inches.
Re-sawing (cutting boards
so they are thinner) is
possible with a band saw by
standing the board on its
edge and carefully ripping it
using a fence. Patience is
definitely required for this
task.

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Band Saw (Portable)
A small portable version of the stationary unit, it can
accomplish most of the same jobs as its big brother with the
portability to be able to take to a jobsite or someone else’s
garage.
You are of course more limited as to what you can cut
(typically up to 3-4″ diameter pipes) and it takes more
effort to make straight cuts, but it can be an invaluable tool especially for
plumbers, welders, and metalworkers.
Chain Saw
As the name implies, a chainsaw uses a linked chain with
numerous specially designed ripping teeth. While chainsaws
are uniquely designed, they fall into the category of band
saws.
Chainsaws are more commonly used in tree work than any
other field, and may be essential to homeowners depending
on your region.
Chop Saw
One of the largest portable versions of circular saws, the
chop saw is manufactured in both metal and masonry
cutting versions. The concrete cutting saw often includes a
connection for a water line to reduce dust while cutting.
Both types of chop saws use toothless blades manufactured
with special abrasives designed for the materials to be cut. Chop saws are also
known as cut-off saws, concrete saws, and abrasive saws.
Circular Saw
Sometimes referred to as a buzz saw or by the popular brand
name of Ski saw, circular saws use a toothed blade, typically
between 7-¼ and 9 inches in diameter.
They are the most common type of powered saw, and accept
blades that cut all types of wood, metal, plastic, masonry,
and more.
Compound Miter Saw
This is the miter saw on steroids. Compound saws are used
to make straight, miter, and compound cuts. Instead of
pivoting up and down the way a miter saws cuts, the blade
is mounted on an arm that can be adjusted for complex
angles, including cuts for complex scrollwork and trim.
The compound miter saw is one of the best time-savers
when you need to trim out windows or add crown molding.
Flooring Saw
As the name implies, a flooring saw is a portable unit
intended to re-saw flooring (hardwood, engineered,
bamboo, or laminate) to fit. It’s a fairly specialized tool that
in essence replaces a table saw, miter saw, and other
accessories you may need to cut flooring.

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The portability factor is its biggest advantage as you won’t have to spend a lot of
time moving materials from garage to room and vice versa when putting in
flooring.
Jigsaw
This handheld saw has a short, fine-toothed blade which
moves up and down at variable speeds. This is one of the
few saws which are designed specifically for cutting curves
and other non-straight lines. Look for a jigsaw with a long
cord or even a cordless option.
Miter Saw
One of the few saws designed to expressly mimic a hand
saw, the miter saw is ideal for use in trim or other jobs
involving precise measurements and angle cuts.
A simple miter saw can pivot up to 45 degrees to either
side of a straight 90 degree cut, and can be used in
conjunction with tables for cutting long mitered ends.
Oscillating Saw
If Dr. Frankenstein was an engineer, he’d create the
oscillating saw. Also known as an oscillating multi-tool or
oscillating tool, it has a body that resembles a grinder, but
has an oscillating attachment at the end that can be
changed out depending on the job.
It’s often considered a more versatile sibling to the reciprocating saw, as it can
handle not only cutting, but also grinding, removing grout or caulk, and scraping.
At least one brand even offers sanding pads for their OMT.
Panel Saw
Available in either vertical or horizontal alignments, these
relatives of the table saw are designed to cut large panels.
The horizontal models use a sliding feed table while the
vertical models either require you to feed the material or
have a blade that moves through a stationary panel.
Panel saws are common in cabinetmaking, sign making, and
similar industries.
Radial Arm Saw
By placing the motor and blade on an arm that extends
over the cutting table, the radial arm saw allows you to
make identical compound cuts, miter cuts, and more.
Depending on the manufacturer, radial arm saw blades
may be interchangeable with circular saw blades, but
verify the recommended speed of spin, as some radial
saws turn very fast.
Reciprocating Saw
Like the jigsaw, this saw has a blade which moves back
and forth very quickly. Reciprocating saws are sometimes
called a Sawzall®, referring to the original manufacturer of
this type of saw.

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They are used for cutting tubing, wood, and plastics, and are also used for
cutting beneath walls or wood joints because the blades can cut nails as well as
wood. An invaluable tool for demolition work.
Rotary Saw
Rotary saws (or rotary tools) have a fixed blade and a
small screwdriver-type handle.
They are used for everything from crafts to construction,
and are ideal for cutting into a wall for access or repairs.
Like the keyhole saw, a rotary saw is essential for drywall,
paneling, and a myriad of other small cutting tasks.
Scroll Saw
Scroll saws can operate with a band or a continuous or a
reciprocating blade. Similar to coping saws.
These powered saws are designed for intricate scroll work,
spiral lines, or patterns.
They have the added benefit of a table the material can be
laid on while cutting to achieve precise rotation and detail.
Creating curves with edges is what it excels at.
Table Saw
Table saw blades tend to be a little larger than for a circular saw, and consist of a
high speed motor mounted beneath a flat table. To adjust the the depth of cut,
the blades rises out of the table bed.
Table saws are great for making numerous rip cuts or preparing a large number
of identical sized pieces. These saws accept metal and masonry blades, but take
care that the blade design matches the motor rpm.

Tile Saw
Similar in design to a miter saw, a tile saw (aka: wet saw)
uses a diamond-coated blade and water cooling system to
cut through tiles like butter. It’s used for cutting multiple
ceramic or porcelain tiles to the desired shape or size
quickly and uses a miter to ensure straight cuts along
your cut marks.

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Changing the blade will even allow you to cut glass on some models. Note that
the reservoir beneath the table must be filled with water before using this tool.
Track Saw
Able to attach to a long gliding rail, the track saw (or
plunging saw) is like a souped up blend of table and
circular saw with added abilities. It more closely
resembles the circular saw in appearance, making it more
portable.
Simply line up the sticky-based track with your cut line (which you can see
clearly through the track) and stick the saw on its rails. It’ll glide smoothly along
the rail creating a perfect cut with almost zero effort.
Power planes
Electric planes are regularly used on
construction sites for planing the edges of
doors during the fitting process. They can
also be used to perform operations such
as chamfering (removing the corner of a
piece of timber on an angle) and rebating
(taking a square recess out of the corner of a piece of timber).
Although electric planes vary from model to model, they are all very similar in
appearance and have many of the same features.
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the power cord and extension lead for any visible signs of damage.
Check the tag on the plane and extension lead for the last inspection date.
Check that the plane blades are sharp and set correctly and replace them if
necessary.
Ensure the correct blades for that particular make and model are used.
Check the dust bag is fitted (if required).
Adjust to the required depth of cut by turning the knob at the front of the
machine. This knob also acts as a handle.
Secure work piece to avoid unwanted movement during sanding. Use both
hands to hold the plane.
Operating tips – Power planes
 Place the front of the plane on the timber and check that the blades are not in
contact with the timber.
 Pull the trigger and allow the blades to reach full speed. At the start of the cut,
the pressure should be on the front of the plane.
 Maintain pressure on the front knob and push the plane slowly along the
timber to produce a better quality finish.
 At the end of the cut, transfer the pressure onto the rear of the plane. Failure
to do this will result in the ends of the timber being rounded off.

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 Plane off no more than 3 mm at a time, as deeper cuts, especially in hard
wood, may overload the motor. Don’t force the cut; give the plane time to cut.
 When you’re planing narrow edges, you can keep the plane more stable if you
attach a fence and keep it against the face of the timber.
 You can form rebates with a plane. The fence and the depth gauge should be
attached to the plane when you’re doing this.
Safety – Power planes
 Never place your fingers beneath the base of the plane.
 As with all power tools, place the extension lead over your shoulder, away
from the cutting edge.
 Beware of screws, nails, staples or loose knots in the timber. These can not
only damage the electric plane but cause you serious injury.
 Unplug the plane before you change blades or make adjustments to fences or
depth gauges.
 Use only the tools supplied with the plane when
installing cutters. Changing cutters with makeshift
spanners can be extremely dangerous.
Care and maintenance – Power planes
 When you’re replacing blades in a plane, it’s important
that the cutting edge of the blades line up with the rear base plate. Proper
alignment is usually made easier by using the attachment supplied with the
plane.
 When buying replacement blades, make sure you get the correct type. The
cutters shown here are from two different manufacturers and obviously differ
from each other. You must take care to ensure that replacement parts are
suitable for the make and model of the plane.
 The use of tungsten carbide tipped blades means that they will last longer
between sharpening. However, blades need to be sent to a specialist to be
sharpened on a special grindstone.
Routers and trimmers
Routers and trimmers are versatile power tools which are widely used by site
carpenters and bench joiners to cut and finish edges, and hollow out areas in
material. They have taken the place of a range of hand‑operated planes such
as molding, grooving and rebating planes.
Portable power routers
The portable power router is simply an electric motor on an adjustable base. A
shaft with a chuck is connected to the motor and the chuck holds the cutters
(usually known as bits). The depth of cut is consistent and set by adjusting the
height of the base in relation to the motor.
The motor speed in a portable power
router can vary between 24–30 000 rpm.
This means that, for a typical bit with two
cutting edges, the cutter passes any given
point 800–1000 times per second.

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Plunge router
The base of a plunge router has a spring‑loaded mounting which allows the bit to
be Plunged (pushed down) into the timber. This is useful for forming a groove
that doesn’t begin or end at the edge of the material. The height can also be
locked so that the tool can be used as a normal router (with a set depth).
Trimmers
A trimmer is a specialized router which is used mostly for
trimming plastic laminates after they have been glued down. It’s
much smaller than a normal router but can perform many of the
same operations on a smaller scale.
Trimmers are often used by site carpenters to form housings
for door hinges.
Router accessories
Most routers are supplied with some standard accessories
including fences, template guides and bits. Additional
accessories such as templates for stair manufacture can be bought or made.
Fence
A fence is a guide that is often used with an edge‑forming bit that does not
have a guide roller or pilot to run along the edge of the timber. It is attached to
the router by using ‘fence arms’ which are adjusted to the correct width before
being secured into position. You can fine‑tune it by adjusting the thumbscrew
located at the side of the fence.
You can also use a fence when cutting a groove parallel to the edge of the
material.
Template guide
A template guide is fixed to the base of a router and used
to guide a cutter inside a template. The cutter protrudes
through the guide and traces a path that is the same shape
as the template (or pattern).
Templates are often used in stair manufacture or for
producing a number of identical shapes or housings, eg for cutting housings for
door hinges.
An allowance has to be made in the template which is equal to the distance
from the edge of the cutter to the outside edge of
the template guide
Router cutter or bit
There are many different router cutters and/or bits
available. Some are used for forming rebates and
grooves for jointing and other practical purposes, and others are used for
forming decorative moldings.

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All router bits are secured into the router with a collet – a sleeve with a split in
the side. When the chuck is tightened, the collet is squeezed tight and grips the
shaft of the bit.
Incorrect fitting of the collet or bits can result in very serious injury to the
operator.
Most router bits have a 6 mm or 12 mm shaft. A 12 mm shaft fits directly into
the chuck, but a 6 mm shaft needs a reduction sleeve.
Trimmers have a 6 mm chuck.
Router bits can be divided into the following four
categories.
Straight bit
Straight bits cut grooves, trenches and rebates. They can
be used to form:
 housings for shelving and stair construction
 grooves for drawer bottoms
 Rebates in doors and windows for
plywood or glass.
They’re available with different ends for
forming a variety of shaped grooves
such as those shown here.
Edge‑forming bit

The bottom of the bit runs along the edge of the board and
acts as a guide for the depth of cut. This guide can be a solid pilot or have a
small wheel with a bearing race (ball bearing). The latter is preferred because
the solid pilot revolves at the same speed as the cutter and can scorch (burn)
the wood, especially soft woods such as pine.

Some bits can be used to cut more than one shape either by altering the amount that
The bit protrudes through the base or by using roller bearings of different
Diameter.
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Trimmer bit

roller. They’re used for trimming sheet materials such as plywood and melamine
after they’ve been glued down.
Slip tongue bit
Slip tongue bits are used for cutting grooves in the edge of
boards mainly where two boards need to be joined at their
edge, e.g. tongue and groove or biscuit joints.
Note: With a few different router bits some fairly
complicated profiles can be formed with a router.
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Check the power cord and extension lead for any visible signs of damage.
Check the tag on the router and extension lead for the last inspection
date.
Ensure the correct bit is installed and that the collet and/or reduction
sleeve are suitable for that particular make and model.
Ensure a dust extraction system is fitted (if required).
Adjust the bit to the required depth of cut by adjusting the height of the
base plate.
Adjust the fence to the required width.
Ensure all adjustments are secure.
Check that the work piece is secured to avoid unwanted movement.
Operating tips – Routers and trimmers
 Place the router on the timber and make sure the cutters are not in contact
with the timber. Hold the router with both hands at all times.
 Start the motor and allow the cutters to reach maximum speed. ‘Plunge’ the
router cutter into the timber to the preset depth and lock in place.
 Move the router cutter at a steady pace. Moving the router puts unnecessary
pressure on the motor, but remember that if you move the router too slowly, it
can cause burns to the surface of the timber.
 If you’re using a router to form a moulding on the inside of a frame, the router
should be run around the inside of the frame in a clockwise direction.
 If you’re using a router to form a molding on the outside of a frame, run it
around the outside of the frame in an anticlockwise direction.

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 At the end of the cut, release the lock and allow the cutter to move upwards
away from the timber. Turn the motor off and ensure the cutters have stopped
moving before you move the router away from the work piece.
 Once you’ve set up a router, do a ‘test run’ on a piece of waste material first to
ensure it has been set up correctly.
 When planing narrow edges, you can keep the plane more stable if you attach
the fence and keep it against the face of the timber.
 The cutting depth should never be more than half the width of the cutter.
Safety – Routers and trimmers
 Always wear PPE such as safety glasses, a face mask, ear plugs and a dust
mask.
 It is strongly recommended that you use a dust extraction system whenever
you’re operating a router, as the fine dust particles produced can be very
hazardous to your health and that of others around you.
 Don’t put your fingers beneath the base plate or work piece, and keep the
power cable over your shoulder and away from the blade.
 Disconnect from the power source whenever you make any alterations or carry
out maintenance to the router.
Care and maintenance – Routers and trimmers
 If you’re using a dust extraction system, check the dust bag and empty it
regularly. If it gets more than half full, it won’t collect the dust properly.
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label found on the router for make and
model information when ordering replacement parts.
 Whenever you make any alterations to or carry out maintenance on the router,
avoid bending the power cable as this can cause the wires inside the cable to
break. Allow the cable to pass down the side of the workbench.
 Never cover the air vents in the casing as they keep the motor cool by allowing
air to circulate.
Pneumatic nail guns
Pneumatic (air‑powered) nail guns are used
widely in the construction industry to drive
fixings such as nails and staples into building materials. Although there’s a wide
variety of types and sizes of nail guns, they all work on a similar principle –
when you pull the trigger, a pulse of compressed air operates a piston, pushing
a plunger which punches the fixing into the material. It’s just a matter of
choosing the right nail gun for the job.
Size Fixing Purpose

Large Nails (50–90 mm) Floor, wall and roof framing

Medium Nails (30–60 mm) Light framing, joinery, etc.

Panel pins (15–25 Beads, plywood, etc.

Small (also known as
mm)
a bradder)
Staples

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Nail guns operate with an air pressure of
500–800 kPa (kilopascals) or 70–120 psi
(pounds per square inch). The air pressure is
adjusted at the source to suit the job, eg
hardness of the timber, length of nail.
Nails, pins and staples are glued together Coil nails Framing nails
into strips or coils which are loaded into the gun’s magazine. When you’re
choosing nails or other fixings, it’s essential you make sure that they’re
compatible with the design of the nail gun.
While strips are standard in most nail guns, the advantage of coil magazines is
that they can hold up to 250 or 300 nails (depending on nail size). This makes
them suitable for situations where numerous nails are required, eg hanger
straps, triple grips, decking, claddings.
Larger guns have a muzzle bracket connected to the valve mechanism. The
bracket must be pressed against something before the gun will fire. This safety
device prevents the gun from firing accidentally.
Gas nail guns
Gas nail guns are powered by a small cylinder of gas and a
rechargeable battery. The advantage of these guns is that
they are not connected to a hose and compressed air supply
so they’re portable and safer to use. The gas cylinders,
however, need to be replaced and the batteries recharged and this can be costly.
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Identify and put on the appropriate PPE.
Select the correct nail gun for the task.
Check the nail gun, air hoses and connections for any visible signs of
damage.
Select and fit the correct nails for the gun, e.g. bradder, framing, coil or
staples.
Ensure that the air pressure is adjusted to suit the job, e.g. hardness of
the timber, length of nail.
Fire a nail into scrap timber to check that the air pressure and nails are
suitable.
Operating tips – Pneumatic nail guns
 Do not operate the trigger until the base plate of the nail gun is in contact with
the material being fixed. Adjust the air pressure by starting with a low setting
and increasing until the correct setting has been achieved.
 Always fire a test nail into a piece of scrap timber to ensure that the air
pressure is correctly adjusted to suit the job. This will vary depending on the
hardness of the timber or the length of nail.

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 Maintain a firm grip on the nail gun and apply pressure to the material being
fixed. Failure to apply sufficient pressure can result in ‘kickback’ and possible
ricochet of the nail or staple
 Remove the nail gun from the material being fixed and disconnect it from the
air supply if it needs to be reloaded or when you’re finished nailing. Never
leave a nail gun unattended
 Some larger nail guns have a strong recoil, so you should always maintain a
firm grip to ensure you have control of the gun.
 Don’t rapid‑fire nails by continuously holding the trigger.
 Hold the work piece securely to avoid unwanted movement during nailing.
Safety – Pneumatic nail guns
 Never, under any circumstances, point a nail gun at or towards anyone.
 If possible, keep your hands and feet away from the muzzle when firing.
 Don’t carry a nail gun around with your finger on the trigger.
 Not all nail guns have the same safety features, so it’s essential that you read
the manufacturer’s instruction manual before you use any nail gun.
 Disconnect the gun from the air supply when you’re reloading it.
 Don’t use a nail gun if the muzzle bracket is not working properly.
 Keep compressed air streams away from your body.
 When disconnecting air hoses, hold the ends so that they don’t whip around.
 Don’t kink hoses to cut off air. All hoses should have connectors with shut‑off
valves.
Care and maintenance – Pneumatic nail guns
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label on the nail gun for make and
model information when ordering replacement parts.
 You should never modify nail guns, as this will make them no longer safe to
use and no longer in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.
Lubricating nail guns
To keep nail guns operating smoothly and to prevent jamming, you must lubricate
them to reduce wear on their moving parts. You can do this by using one of the
following procedures.

In‑line lubrication
This system has a reservoir of oil in Airflow
the air line between the receiver and
the tool. As the air passes across the
reservoir, a mist of oil is drawn into the
air stream and passes through the tool
as it’s used.

Manual lubrication
This is done by simply dropping a few drops of oil into the inlet end of the tool.
Use only approved oil that comes with the tool or is recommended in the
manufacturer’s guide.

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Portable power equipment
You can carry out most carpentry tasks using a combination of hand, power or
battery‑operated tools, and most construction sites will have a temporary
electricity supply which you can use to power tools.
However, there may be situations where there’s no electricity supply available or
compressed air is required to power pneumatic tools –
that’s when portable power equipment can be used as an
alternative.
Portable electricity generator
Portable electricity generators are often used on
construction sites where mains powered electricity is not
available. They can be powered by petrol, LPG or diesel
and are used to supply 240 volt power to operate electrical
powered tools and equipment.
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Position the generator:
on level ground
in a well-ventilated area where cool air is available to prevent the
generator from overheating
away from open windows, vents and doorways
where the noise created is minimized away from combustible materials or
gases
Away from damp or wet conditions.
Check the condition of the extension leads and connections.
Check oil and fuel levels.
Check the air filter and replace if necessary.
Read and follow the manufacturer’s operating instructions for the
machine, as each one is different in its operation.

Safety – Portable electricity generators

 Never use a generator in an enclosed area. Generator engines can produce
toxic fumes, eg carbon monoxide.
 Use a battery‑powered carbon monoxide detector in the area where you’re
running the generator to protect yourself and others from a dangerous build‑
up of fumes.
 Petrol and its vapor can also be extremely flammable. Allow the compressor
engine to cool before refueling.
 If you use extension leads, ensure they are earthed and check the maximum
current rating of the extension lead (10 amps, 13 amps etc.).
Care and maintenance – Portable electricity generators

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 Maintain the generator according to the manufacturer’s maintenance guide to
ensure best performance and safety.
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label for make and model information
when ordering replacement parts.
 Make sure the equipment is cleaned after use and before storage. Remove any
fuel by using the drainage valve or by using a syphon.
 Clean and replace the air filter regularly.
 If a generator is stored for a long time, start it up and run it occasionally.
Pneumatic compressor
The pneumatic compressor is a device which compresses
and stores air under pressure. It is used to operate nail
guns, paint spraying equipment, sandblasters and small air
tools.
Compressors can be either a permanent fixture in a joinery
workshop or a portable unit used for work on a construction site. They’re driven
by a motor that can be powered by either petrol, LPG, diesel or electricity
Operation
Step 1 – Pre‑check
Position compressor:
 on level ground
 in a well‑ventilated area where cool air can prevent the compressor from
overheating
 away from open windows, vents and doorways
 where the noise created is minimized
 away from combustible materials or gases
 Away from damp or wet conditions.
Check the condition of air hoses and connections, and make sure all joints
are coupled (connected) properly.
Check oil and fuel levels and the condition of the air filter.
Safety – Pneumatic compressors
 Start the compressor following the manufacturer’s instructions for the
compressor. The air cocks should all be opened. After the engine has been
started and had enough time to warm up, the air cocks may be closed.
 Adjust the air pressure by alternating the regulator to suit the tool being used.
Most pneumatic tools will not operate properly if the pressure is too low. If the
pressure is too high, the tool may be damaged
 When you’ve finished the job, drain the tank of condensation to prevent rust
on the inside of the tank. If rust is allowed to build up, it can be forced through
the air hose and into tools.
 Never use a compressor in an enclosed area. Petrol‑driven compressor engines
can produce toxic fumes, eg carbon monoxide.

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 Use a battery‑powered carbon monoxide detector in the area where the
compressor is being used to protect yourself and others from a dangerous
build‑up of fumes.
 Petrol and its vapor can be extremely flammable. Always allow the compressor
engine to cool before refueling.
Care and maintenance – Pneumatic compressors
 Maintain the compressor according to the manufacturer’s maintenance guide to
ensure safety and best performance.
 Always refer to the manufacturer’s data label for make and model information
when ordering replacement parts.
 Clean and replace the air filter regularly.
 In hot, humid weather, drain the tank several times a day. In drier climates,
once a day is enough.
 To drain the tank:
 open the drain valves near the bottom of the tank(s) while the tank is under
some pressure and let the moisture out
 Close the valves carefully – never twist the valves with pliers; simply tighten
them until the air stops leaking.
 Make sure the equipment is cleaned after use and before storage.
Clean up
Introduction
The final stage of any construction project is
clearing the worksite.
State and territory Regulations usually require a
site to be kept and left in a clean and safe
condition.
It is the responsibility of all construction workers
to make sure they know the site policies and
procedures for maintaining a tidy, organized and safe workplace including:
 safe waste disposal
 recycling of materials
 Maintenance and storage of tools and equipment.
Carpenters can spend years building up a good reputation with builders and
clients, and how they leave the job can form a lasting impression.
Performance criteria
 Work area is cleared and materials disposed of, reused or recycled in
accordance with legislation, regulations, and codes of practice and job
specification.
 Plant, tools and equipment are cleaned, checked,
maintained and stored in accordance with
manufacturer recommendations and standard work
practices.
Waste management
After every construction project, waste products like

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timber offcuts and damaged or surplus materials are left over and must be
disposed of appropriately.
There are laws which outline how waste materials should be dealt with and large
fines can be issued if these are not followed. Companies and contractors usually
develop policies and procedures to make sure everyone complies with these
requirements.
Facilities for waste management on a worksite or in a joinery workshop may
include:
general and recycling bins
hazardous material containers and spill kits
dust extraction devices
Cleaning supplies.
Recycling materials
Carpentry materials are expensive and it’s good practice to recycle or reuse
leftover material whenever possible. This also reduces the amount of waste going
to landfill – an important environmental consideration.
At the end of a task or project, material should be sorted and disposed of, stored
or moved on to the next project accordingly.
 Leftover materials in good condition and in useable sizes or quantities can be
kept for future projects, if appropriate storage is available.
 Some used materials can be salvaged but may have to be cleaned or treated
first. Timber can be reused or recycled but must be de nailed before relocating.
 There are special requirements for the disposal of hazardous waste and
information can be found in safety data sheets (SDSs). For example, CCA‑
treated timber should not be burned, as it contains arsenic and the fumes are
toxic if inhaled. There are laws which restrict the disposal of asbestos and this
is usually carried out by licensed specialists.
Tools, plant and equipment
Tools can be expensive and they need to be looked after when a job is completed
to ensure that they remain in good working condition
and are safe to use and ready for the next project.
Inspection
Before you start a job you must first check tools and
equipment for damage or faults. For example:
 with leads and cables – check for fraying or exposed
wires, bent or loose plugs
 with cutting edges and blades – check whether they
are blunt or damaged
 With metal components – look for corrosion or rust.
If you find any faults, attach a repair tag and remove the equipment from use
immediately. Report all faults on a worksite or in a workshop to a store person or
supervisor. Damaged tools must be repaired but this should be done only by

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trained personnel. Some faults can be fixed only by a specialist or licensed
electrician.
Check the dates on inspection tags to make sure that power tools and extension
leads are still safe to use and in accordance with Regulations. Make a note of
upcoming inspection dates if they’re likely to occur before the next time the tool
is used.
Cleaning
It’s essential that you clean tools and equipment thoroughly before you put them
in storage or move on to a new project.
 Wipe all tools to clear away dust or debris and remove substances like grease
or sap.
 Pay particular attention to tools that have been used in wet or damp
conditions. Clean them with an oily rag to prevent rust and, if rust exists,
remove it with steel wool or a wire brush.
 Use compressed air tools such as ‘blow down’ guns to clean dust from tools,
but take extreme care. You should always wear appropriate PPE to avoid
injury.
 Lubricate moving or adjustable parts of tools to allow smooth, continuous
operation. Lubrication reduces friction between moving parts, helps them to
last longer and makes the machine more energy efficient.
 Remove any fuel left in plant or equipment. Old fuel can go stale and affect
performance. It could also present a fire hazard if it’s not removed.
Maintenance
Regular maintenance helps to preserve the quality of tools, keep them safe and
extend their lives. Doing a little maintenance each time you complete a job or
project can prevent costly and time‑consuming repairs or replacement.
Maintenance, which should always be carried out in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions and guidelines, includes:
 sharpening chisels, planes and saw blades
 replacing damaged or worn components, e.g. blades, belts
 Cleaning or replacing air filters, etc.
Storage of tools, plant and equipment
Proper storage of tools and equipment helps
 to protect them against weathering and
 Theft.
 It also makes them easier to find when you need them and
 Reduces the risk of injury to yourself, other workers or members of the public.
Most people keep their tools, plant and equipment safe in a workshop or garage.
Other ways of storing them are shown here.

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Toolboards Chisel, screwdriver Toolbox

or drill rolls

Vehicles Storage units Shipping

Containers
When you’re storing tools and equipment, they should:
 Be protected from sun damage, flooding and damp conditions
 be organized and accessible
 be stored in their original packaging or specially designed storage boxes where
possible
 have accessories like drill bits and blades removed if necessary
 have all sharp edges covered with sleeves or caps
 be kept in a secure, locked environment.
Note: Documentation such as operating instructions and warranties should be
kept with the tools and equipment where possible or stored together in an
easily accessible plac
Power hand tools:
Portables power hand tools are used greatly in the workshop and site
Unlike hand tools, power hand tools have the advantages as below of
 Enabling work to move faster
 Increasing productivity while at the same time cutting cost of the production
and yet maintaining a
 High and safe standard of workmanship.
Power hand tools include the following.
Portable electric drill.
It is a motorized rotary driving tool. There are many sizes of portable electric drill
to cater for ranges of rotary cutting capacities.
The major uses are:
 Drilling operations, but when equipped with other attachments, they are able
to perform other operations like sanding,
 Polishing and grinding.

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 Screwing (when a special screw is attached to screwing.)
Portable sanders.
These are power driven abrading tools used for smoothening or sanding wooden
surfaces
The three basic types include
Belt sander
Used for regular sanding of flush sanding.
The disc sander
It is used for eliminating scratches on wood surfaces and can also do polishing. It
has a motor spindle on which its coated
Abrasive disc rotates.
 The finishing sander /orbital sander
 It is used for finishing or final sanding.
Portable hand router
It is a power-driven tool with bits that revolve at spindle speed of 5,000 and
27,000 revolutions per minute (rpm).
It is used for;
 Cutting
 Moldings,
 Grooves,
 Dove Details,
 Rebates, Beading,
 Decorative Edges Etc.
Portable electric saw.
It is a power-driven rotary cutting tool with toothed circular blade that resolves
at speed of 3,200 to 4,600 rpm.
It is used for;
 Cutting boards to length and width and also
 Making angular cuts.
Portable electric saber saw
It is power driven reciprocating (to and FRO) tool.
It’s designed for
 Cutting patterns in wood metal, plastic laminates and their composition. It has
variable speed adjustments and range of variable blades.
Portable electric plane.
It is a power-driven rotary - cutting edge tool. It cuts by a continuous – motion
at varying speed of between 20,000 to 25,000 rpm.
Electric plane
Is used for planning wooden surfaces and edges smooth and true, in a smaller
manner like that of manual hand plane, but giving less effort and time taken.
Portable electric planes are available in two sizes;
 Power plane
Mainly applied on longer surfaces.
 Black plane
Applied on short surfaces.
SAFETY PRECATIONS IN USING PORTABLEPOWER TOOLS:

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Precautions are taken in the workshop or at site to safeguard the following:
 The user of tool /machine.
 The tools /machines.
 Other bodies in the surrounding.
Hence, the general safety precautions put across to be observed include;
Before use of machine
 Seek permission from your instructor before using a power tool which you are
not familiar with.
 Do not use a power tool without reading and understanding the instruction on
it.
 Use the correct tool for the work to be done.
 Ever use only sharp cutters and saws to avoid accidents.
 Before using a machine, check each part and tighten loose ones.
 Ensure that the power tool is earthed – before applying the tool to operation
unless it is double insulated.
 Clamp the work piece down trimly before applying the tool to it.
 Before placing the plug in to the socket, always make sure the trigger switch is
in the off position.
During use of machine
 Keep using the tools safety guards correctly.
 Never drag the tool around by its cable.
 Allow the tool to obtain its maximum speed before applying it to Job.
 Disconnect from the supply point before making any other adjustment.
 Wood working machines
 Wood working machines are the machine tools that are power driven by means
of motors.
 They are design to save labor, time and provide a wider range of operations
accurately on wood. The machine tool operations on wood cutting, making
required molds cutting mortises etc.
Classification of wood working machines
Wood working machines are classified according to the different nature of wood
cuts during the operation which bring timbers to require sizes and finished by
machines tools.
The classes or types of wood working machines include the following:
 Circular sawing machine
 The cross cutting machines
 Planning machine
 Mortising machines
 Spindle molding machine
 Wood turning lathe
 Band sewing machine
Descriptions, uses and maintenances of the above classes of machines
Circular sawing machine
A circular sawing machine is used for various operations such as
 Ripping,
 Cross cutting,

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 Beveling,
 Chamfering,
 Mitering,
 Trenching,
 Grooving,
 Tenon etc. on timbers of square or rectangular
A circular saw bench consists of the following;
 A vertical circular saw or plate saw
 A crown guard –it is ranging from 225to 1500mm
Its function is to protect the plate saw teeth by adjusting its piece flange
/extension piece to maximum of 12mm above the work piece
Crown guard adjustment:
Riving knife
It is thicker than the saw blade in order to maintain the saw cut or kerfs to avoid
the cut piece from closing on to the saw blade and project dangerously back
word to the operator
Saw spindle
On which a saw plate is mounted
Flat metal- or saw bench fitted on a metal frame.
It has a slot in which the revolving saw runs.
There are two types of the tables
Fixed table
Rising and falling table
Adjustable fence
It is design parallel to the saw plate and is adjusted according to the required
width of the timber. It can be fixed through 450for beveling.
Gap plate or mouth piece
Made of hard timber and is used for safety in ripping short or thin timbers
Depth control wheel or hand wheel
Used for adjusting depth of cut by rising and falling saw spindle
 Ripping fence
 Fine adjustment knob
 Locking lever – for locking the fence
 On and off switch or control start and stop buttons.
The saw blades
The saw blade to be fitted to a particular machine must have the right saw blade
size/diameter corresponding to the working speed of the spindle.
A rim speed/peripheral speed of the saw blade in saw bench is suitably about
50m per second. Lower or higher speed causes overstress resulting to an
accident.
Saw blades are generally divided into two groups;
 Crosscutting saw blade
 Ripping /deeding saw blade
The three different forms of cross cutting saw blade teeth shapes are;
 Peg teeth
 General purpose teeth

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 Tungsten carbide teeth
The front faces of each cross-cutting tooth slopes towards the radial line to
produce clean cut across the wood fiber,
The forwards slope is known as negative
The two different forms of ripping saw blade teeth shapes are;
 Standard teeth
 Tungsten carbide-tipped teeth
The front of a rip saw tooth slopes backward from the radial line to form a true
hook shape is known as positive hook. The large gullet is to avoid saw dust from
lodging the teeth.
The tungsten –carbide tipped teeth saw
This is used for cutting hard or abrasive materials. It is expensive to acquire
special equipment for its eventual sharpening
Packing circular saws
Packing is applied on a saw bench to the blade deviating from its straight path.
They are made from oil soaked felt, etc. and shaped by wood cutting machinist
to suit various blade types.
The mouth piece acts as a packing stop .it prevents the underside fixed to the
finger plate. The finger plate is used to provide access to changing a saw blade in
the bench slot
Mounting a circular saw blade.
The holes in the saw blade must fit the sizes and locations of both spindle and
driving peg.
The spindle nut is tightening after the blade and the front flange are fitted on the
peg. The nut is designed anticlockwise for further tightening during revolution of
the plate saw
A push sticks
This is used to push the timber fed in the machine instead of hand when the
minimum remaining timber being fed in the machine is short ie 300mm.
Secondly it is used to pushed the finished work piece from between saw blade
and fence
Dimension saw machine
Dimension saw machine is a versatile (has many different performances)
machines designed for cutting
 Beveling oblique
 cutting mitering,
 Grooving,
 Housing and rebating.
Drunken or wobble saw (vibrating saw)
Drunken saw /wobble is a circular saw that is deliberately set slightly un
perpendicular to its own shaft in order to make wider cut
It is used for cutting,
 open mortises or false mortises like that on the table leg
Procedure of ripping on a circular saw bench:
1. Check that the ripping saw is running freely in place
2. Set the fence at the required distance away from the saw blade

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
3. Set the saw to project about 6mm above the work piece
4. Adjust the saw safety guard in position and place a push stick at hand
5. Switch on the machine and stand away from the machine saw
6. Exert pressure on the board against the fence and push it forward. Keep the
board against the fence throughout. use the forked push stick to push the
300mm remaining end of the board and away from the revolving teeth
7. Switch off the machinery after completing the work
The cross cutting machines
The cross cutting is used to cut long lengths of timbers across its grain to
manageable lengths. it has special cutters that can also cut various wood joints
There are two types of cross cut saw
 The travelling head cross cut saw or pull saw
 The radial arm across cut saw
The travelling –head cross cut saw
This has a saw driven direct on the motor and is attached to a carriage which is
mounted on a track.
This track makes the whole unit to be drawn over a table to cross cut a piece of
timber.
It is composed of a fence, steel or wood roller table graduated rule with
adjustable fall away stops obtaining required lengths.
It also has hand wheels and levers for angle and height adjustments
The radial arm cross cut saw
This has its saw unit together with its carriage which is drawn over the work
piece. It is used for ripping grooving and Molding on top of cutting.
The circular sawing machine regulations
 Part of the saw blade below the machine table shall be guarded to the greatest
extent practicable
Arriving knife
 Shall be provided to a circular sawing machine securely fixed below the
machine table, behind and in line with the saw blade
 Shall be strong rigid adjustable and with smooth surface
 Shall be thicker than the saw blade
 Shall be set 25mm below the highest tip of saw
Part of the saw blade above the machine table;
 Shall be guarded with strong and easily adjustable guards
 The front shield of the crown guards shall be set 12mm above the cut work
pieces
The guards
 Shall has a flange of adequate depth on each side of the saw blade and
extends beyond the gullets of teeth
 Shall have adjustable front extension piece with a flange of adequate depth all
along on each side and extend ending beyond the teeth gullets.
Sizes of circular saw blades
 A saw bench has a rim speed of 50m/s
 A machine must display the working spindle speed
 Saw blade diameter must rime with spindle speed.

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Provision of push stick
A suitable push stick shall be kept available on the machine
functions of the push stick shall be;
 To exert feeding pressure on the remaining 300mm work pieces to the
revolving teeth
 To exert feeding pressure on the last 300mm piece or less in length between
blade and fence
 To remove the cut piece off the saw blade and fence
The band machines
A band saw machine in the timber industry is used for cutting logs into
commercial sizes such as planks, boards and small cross section.
In the wood work shop a band saw is generally used for cutting external curved
shapes due to its endless narrow flexible blade. It is also called “narrow band
saw” it is as well used for straight cutting
Two types of band saws are;
 Two-wheel band saw.
 Three-wheel band saw.
The throat depth of the two wheels band saw must be less than the diameter of
the wheels and the throat depth of the three parts wheels band saw is restricted
by the machine frame size.
Components of band saw:
A band saw is composed of two wheels; one wheel is above the other. The
wheels are fitted on vertical frame and they carry on endless narrow flexible
spring steel saw blade. All other parts are fitted on the heavy cast iron frame.
The bottom wheel is motor wheel is motor driven by the belt action of the saw
blade
The rims of the wheels are covered with rubber type to prevent the blade from
slipping of and it protect its teeth from damage
There are two types of wheels
 Spoken wheels of oldest type
 Disc wheels that are now recommended.
Tensioning and alignment of the blade:
Hand wheel or saw straining wheel or saw staining screw is used to adjust the
top wheel in order to tighten the saw until the correct tension is reached as
indicated by the saw indicator and as per the width of the blade.
Note that: In correct tension may results in blade breakage.
The Blade Guides.
 The guides are adjusted as close as possible to the sides of the blade and just
behind the gullets of the blade to prevent blade from twisting.
 The back movement of the blade is resisted by the thrust wheel. The thrust
wheel, when in contact with the blade’s back, revolves to promote the
travelling of the endless blade.
 The guide and thrust wheel are provided with ranges of adjustments to allow
varying blade widths. They are also vertically adjustable to allow space for
work pieces of varying dimensions or sizes
Sequence of operation in fitting a band saw blade:

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Open the guards.
 Move other obstruction a side
 Lower top wheel to allow both wheels to accommodate the blade.
 With the blade teeth pointing downwards, raise the top wheel to hold the
blade.
 Track the blade.
 Tension the blade.
 Reset thrust wheels, guides, etc.
 Close the guards.
Tracking the saw blade:
 Tracking a band saw blade is setting the saw blade to run centrally in a
straight line between the top and bottom wheels’ tires using the tilting wheel
device/ tracking wheel.
 Tracking is to avoid the snaking of UN aligned running blade that would keep
hitting, cutting and damaging the thrust wheel and the guides.
 Tracking and tensioning of the blade is done and checked by turning/rotating
the wheels clockwise slowly using hand, but NEVER with motor running.
Using a band saw:
 Do not put on long sleeves or falling tie.
 Put on safety protective ware
 Ensure that all guards are correctly secured in position.
 Ensure that the blade is properly positioned between the guides/jaws and can
run freely just close to the thrust wheel.
 Switch on the machine while not standing in front of it and any clicking sound
heard means the blade is not tracked properly.
 During work, concentrate without obstruction up to end of work.
 Observe that side of the blade must not rub on the sides of the kerfs. The
smaller the blade width, the smaller the minimum cutting radius.
The banded sawing machine regulations:
 Saw wheels and blade of a band saw, except part of the blade running down
between top wheel and table shall be enclosed by guards’ substantial
construction.
 That part of the blade running down between top wheel and table shall be
guarded by frontal plate closed to the blade with at least one flange at right
angles to plate and extending behind saw blade.
 The friction disc rollers shall be kept adjustable and closed to the surface of the
machine table as is practicable, considering the nature of work being done.
Planning machines:
Planning machines are used for planning/ dressing saw timbers or work pieces to
produce smooth, flat, straight and untwisted surfaces that are parallel in widths
and thicknesses to meet the required joinery framing sizes.
There are three main types of planning machines;
 Hand feed surface/jointer.
 Thicknesses
 Combine hand feed surface and thicknesses combine jointer and thicknesses.
Terms in the planning machines operations;

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Flatting -Producing a face side straight, flat and untwisted.
Edging -Planning the edge of the flatted face straight and square to the face.
Thickening- planning the opposite parallel to the faces produces to obtain the
required thickness
The hand feed surfacer/ jointer
The surfacer or the jointer is used for
 Planning the surfaces
 Edges of timbers,
 Rebating,
 Chamfering and
 Beveling.
It allows planning to be carried on the surface of the table and it is not self-
feeding.
A surfacer consists of;
 heavy cast iron base that supports the front and rear tables,
 circle cutter block onto which the cutters are fitted,
 fence that guides the work piece safety guards that cover the cutters
 hand wheel for adjusting the tables
 locking levers for locking the tables
 on and off button switches for starting and stopping
Procedure of planning board on a hand feed surface.
 Examine the board to be planned to ensure that there are no other bodies
likely to damage the cutters.
 Always put the guard in place to cover the cutters.
 Before starting the machine, ensure that no one is standing in line with
machine and you are also standing to the side of the machine.
 When planning ensures that your fingers are at least 100mm away from the
cutters and never allow your hand to position over the cutters.
 Use both hands to press the board down when feeding and when about
150mm of it is delivered on the out-feed table, receive it by the left hand and
later by both hands as you press it flat on the out-feed table.
 For safety use push block for flatting short pieces of boards in lengths
 Switch off after finishing using the machine using the machine and never leave
the machine running unattended.
Setting the surface for flatting and edging operations:
The bridge guard is positioned for flatting and edging
Flatting -Is producing a face straight, flat and untwisted.
Edging -Is planning the edge of the flatted face straight and square of the face.
The thicknesser
A thicknesser or panel planner is used for planning boards to parallel and uniform
thickness. It is self-feeding and has either single or double cutter blocks.
The single cutter block thicknesses have one cutter block located above the
work piece as illustrated below;
Single cutter block thicknesses table and cutter block arrangement in section:
Section of thickening machine.

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 A thicknesser has a power feed system with four rollers and two pressure bars.
The two upper rollers are driven to propel the timber under the cutter block.
 The two-pressure bar and both upper rollers are fitted with springs to exert
pressure on the wood. The first upper roller is serrated (jag) to grip the sawn
surface without risk of timber kicking back.
 The two idle antifriction rollers in the rise and fall table minimize friction
between work piece and the rise and fall table.
 The out-feed roller delivers the machine work piece. the table is mounted on
vertical slide to enable rise fall.
 The double cutter block thicknesses have the same principle of operation only
that it has two cutter blocks.
Combine hand feed surface and thicknesser
This machine is also known as combined jointer and thicknesser.
It is used for both surfacing and thickening. Timber is fed through it mechanically
at a constant rate by the power-driven feed rollers. It has spring loaded pressure
bar/chip breaker to keep the timber in contact with the bottom friction rollers
and break the wood chips
Section through a combine planner
Using a combined jointer and thicknesses:
On the jointer/surface;
Following that procedure of planning a board on a hand feed surface, at;
Plane one of the surfaces of a board straight.
Plane of the adjustment edges straight and square to the plane surface.
In the thicknesser;
 Lower the bed by means of hand wheel or a workable minimal space from the
cutting circle for easy passage of timber. Over rising of the table causes friction
and jambs on timber.
 Select convenient speed from the great box to use.
 Insert the piece with the plane surface lying flat on the inner table/bed so that
surface to be plane faces cutter head.
 Adjust the depth of cut and report the process until the desired thickness is
obtained.
NB. Lengths of timber at delivery end are supported by a designed roller stand
to avoid stepping the end if the cut surface.
Mortising machines
Mortising is a process of making a recess halt way or completely through a piece
of wood. The machine used for mortising is called a mortiser.
There are two common types of mortising machines. Known as
 The hollow chisel mortiser
 The chain mortiser
Mortising machines consist of the following parts;
 The main frame to support its structure.
 The chisel head stock fitted with square chisel and auger bit
 The chain head stock fitted with link chain cutters, chain guard bearing a
window and a chip breaker attacked to it.
 Table –made of machined cast iron on which the work piece is supported.

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 Fence and cramp fitted on the top of the table for holding the work piece
 Electrical motor fixed at the top of the frame to provide power to drive the bit
and chain cutter.
 Hand leveling for operating the head stock.
 Mortising depth adjustment bar/depth stop bar
 Mortising head slide away.
 Control start and stop button (operated by stop bar)
Isolator – isolating the machine from power or connecting.
Longitudinal /slide way movement hand wheel used for lengthening a
mortise or groove.
Cross traverse/ to and fro movement hand wheel. Used for widening a
mortise groove
The hollow chisel mortises
It is hand operated mortising machine with the capacity ranging from 6mm to
25mm and beyond that is the power driven.
The hollow square chisels slower than the chain cutter but does not neat
accurate job.
Procedure of using the hollow slot chisel boring machine:
 Select the correct size of the bit and fix it firmly in the spindle.
 Hold down the work piece firmly using table cramp ensuring that the piece is
parallel with the side of the table and perpendicular to the bit.
 Adjust the table to bring the worked piece to the desired height and set the bit
to the position marked for cutting.
 Start the motor, bring the marked area on the work piece in line with the
revolving bit and feed into the required depth.
 First bore the ends of a mortise and finish in the middle.
 For through mortise, bore half way and turn over to finish avoiding splitting at
the bottom or park waste piece at the bottom
 Switch off the motor, remove work piece and also.
Maintenance of chisels and auger bits:
The cutting edges of chisels are sharpened by hollow chisel sharpeners known
as:
 Hard steel reamers of various sizes:
 Conical carborundum stones.
Advantage of chain mortise:
 The chain mortising is quicker than chisel mortising,
Disadvantages of chain mortise:
 It has disadvantages of producing semicircular bottomed hole which is not
suitable for short or sub tenons.
 Its cause splitting at the end of the mortises when cutting
The chain mortise differs from the hollow chisel mortise by having a chain saw
type of cutter instead of the hollow chisel and bit cutter.
The chain mortise is used for
 Cutting holes in wood.
In a combined chisel and chain mortise, chisel mortising components are
removed and replaced by the chain mortising components.

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The chain mortising components include;
 Chain cutter.
 Chain drive sprocket,
 Chain guide bar and guide roller bearing wheels
Operating guides
 The chain is adjusted for the correct tension.
 It is driven by sprocket round guide bar.
 It is also provided with glazed guard through which the operator can view his
work. The chip breaker attached to the guard is to rest on the work piece round
the mortise hole.
The two functions of the chip breaker are;
 To press the work piece to avoid the chain rising teeth from splitting the end of
the mortise hole.
 To break the chips as chain cuts the mortise explained above.
The chain maintenance:
 The chain broken during operation is replaced with spare link and rivets like
that of bicycle chain.
 The chain grinder is attached to the rear of the mortising machine grinding unit
which consists of a small saucer/bowl grinding wheel, driven by the rear of the
chain motor spindle and the adjustable chain holder for maintaining the correct
hook bevel of 25o to the chain teeth.
 The pitches of the chain ranges from 13mm to 22mm to produce mortise holes
from 5mm to 32mm wide by 19mm to 75mm long for joinery work.
 Longer mortises are achieved by traversing the table but while the chain is
outside the mortise.
 Traversing the table during mortise cutting strains the chain guide bar.
Spindle molding machines:
 A spindle molders or a shaper principally designed to cut the moldings and to
from various decorative shapes on edges of the work.
 It carries various shaped cutters by means of holding devices. It cut straight
and curved molding, rebate, groove etc.
 The machine uses straight slit fence for cutting straight work and curved work
is cut by means of circular fence
The arrangement of guarding the spindle gutter.
 The revolving cutter block and spindle that extend above the working surface
of the table must be fully guarded by a top guard, side guard and a false
fence.
 In straight work, a false fence is serving as work piece guide and also a guard
enclosing the gap between the two fence halves on which it is clamped leaving
just enough portion of the cutter to protrude.
 The guard gives front protection and exerts just enough pressure to the work
piece being fed by hand.
 A push stick is always used on the last portion of the work piece.
 Stop Molding or rebating is achieved by means of back stop and front stop,
which are firmly attached to the machine to limit the length of cut along the
work piece

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Curve work:
While in the straight work, the machine uses a straight slit fence or a false fence,
in curved work the machine uses a ring fence and wooden cage or bonnet as
guard.
Plain of the ring fence and cutter block.
Curved work requires a jig (a clam or a device for holding work piece) to hold the
work piece securely and safely. The jig provides safe holds for the operative.
Procedure of using a straight slit fence for straight work piece.
 Select and mount the correct cutter block on the spindle securely.
 Set the work to the desired height by raising or lowering the spindle and lock it
firmly
 Adjust the fence to produce a cut of the desired depth and lock it firmly in
position
 Put the guard in place.
 Switch on the motor to ensure the correct direction of the cutters
 Make a trial run on waste piece.
 Feed the work piece against the fence throughout keeping your fingers well
away from cutters.
 Switch off the motor and clean up after the rotating cutters have stopped
completely.
Procedure of using a circular of ring fence for curve work piece.
 Select and mount the appropriate cutter block.
 Set the work to the desired height by adjusting the spindle and lock it firmly.
 Put the guard in place.
 Ensure the motor is revolving in a direction opposite to that of the feed
 Make a trial run on waste piece to check for the depth cut.
 Feed the work piece continuously for the full length of cut to avoid the cut
surface from burning as you keep your fingers well away from the cutters.
 Ensure that work piece is in contact with the collar at all times.
 Switch off the motor
Wood turning lathe
The wood turning lathe is a motor driven machine used for
 holding and
 Rotating a piece of wood.
This rotates against and held turning tools to produce a variety of cylindrical
shapes wood pieces such as,
 Handles of tools and drawers,
 Legs of chairs and tables etc.
The lathe consists of four main parts.
 The bed
 The head stock and spindle
 The tail stocks
 The tool rests.
The bed
This forms the main structure that supports the head stock, the tail stock, tool
rest and other attachment like the face plates and the chucks.

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The bed provides accurate ways on which the tail stock tool rest slide.
It also has some gap provided to enable large diameter trays, bowls, base etc to
be turned on the attached face plates. A large part is provided to allow waste
wood off the bed.
The head stock and the spindle
These are mounted on the left hand of the bed. The spindle passes through the
head stock and runs in balls bearings.
The spindle is threaded to allow further self-tightening the revolving face plates
and chucks.
The head stock spindle is motor turned by means of belt and pulleys. the pulleys
are stepped to give range of speeds. Access open door is provided to be casing
to enable the changing of the belt from one pair of hollows to another stabbing
The tail stocks
This is opposite to the head stock and is the part of the lathe bearing a dead
Centre called “the cone Centre which receives and supports the end of the work
piece .The work piece is driven by the live Centre called “fork Centre” that is
fitted into head stock spindle.
The tool rests
This is used to support the turning tool in use. The tool rest can be set for height
and can also rotate in the tool rest body then locked.
The tool rest unit can slide along the table, swiveling round for contingency then
locked.
The three types of the available tool rest are.
 Long tool rest.
 Short tool rest.
 Curved tool rest.
Types of lathe Centre:
They are fitted into the head stock to drive work piece
 Driving Centre
Fork Centre
Screw Centre
They are fitted into the tail stock to hold the work piece for turning.
 Tail stock Centre
Cone Centre
Cup Centre
The centers are tapered to fit in the tapered sleeves in the head stock and tail
stock
Turning between centers:
It is the operations of removing waste from a work piece inform of savings by
slicing action is done by means of tools;
 Gouges:
Gouges are beveled at 45oon the outside cutting end
The two types
Square nose gouge
It has square end and it is used for removing the bulk of waste of wood
Round nose gouge

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It has round end and it is used in suitable shaping
The skew chisels
The skew chisel has its cutting end beveled on both sides at 35oand inclines to
the sides at 20o.
It is used for shaping and finishing lathe work.
The paring chisels
The paring chisel has edge slight and its cutting end beveled on both sides at45o.
It is used for cutting finished work to length
The scrapper.
It is shaped from old that tile for shaping
Steps/ procedure of wood turning between Centres:
 Lubricate the tip of the back Centre and mount the work piece firmly.
Lubrication minimizes friction to avoid burning.
 Set the tool rest close to the work piece and adjust it to the correct height.
 Put on the goggle
 Turn the mounted work piece round with hand for clearance and checking
 Inspect all the locking devices.
 Select the appropriate speed for the work piece as you note that the larger the
work piece diameter, the lower speed selected.
 Start the machine and allow the machine and the work piece to gain full speed.
 Hold the chisel or gauge flat on the tool rest using the left hand, when you are
right-handed person.
Then hold its handle in the right hand, keeping it slightly above the horizontal
work piece Centre line to avoid the edge of the chisel from digging in to the work
piece.
 Keeps the chisel moving from side to side?
 Complete the work, switch off the machine and allow the rotating work piece
to stop before you start removing it.

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SUB MODULE 2: TIMBER WORKSHOPS
Simple timber workshop includes mainly the following
 timber store,
 machine operator,
 joiners’ workshop,
 tool store and
 Foreman’s office.
The arrangement and positioning of each machine
A machine shop is done under the following considerations;
 Quantity of the machines to be installed
 Shapes of the machine and their sizes
 Types of the individual machines.
 Class of work to be carried in particular machine shop.
A machine shop should have a relative position of the machine from one to
another in a logical order to give smooth flow of consecutive operations.
Below is a line diagram showing a typical carpentry workshop with basic
minimum requirement and their layout including flow of work during operation.

The guide line on the machine shop layout.

The guide lines laid down in the arrangement and positioning of individual
machine in the machine wood working areas are;
 Logical order in laying machines to give smooth flow of consecutive operations
with minim backward and forward movements.
 Sufficient working space around each machine, especially in feed and out feed
sides.
 The machines that are require on three sides only, like mortisers and crosscut
saws are conveniently placed near a wall.
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 The machines that demand extreme concentration like surface and
thicknesser, are best located away from doors to avoid traffic destruction
 Positioning machines should allow clear runs or gangways for workmen
materials, trolleys etc., without zigzagging.
 In a new workshop layout, provisions for the later additional machines need to
be considered.
 A joiner’s work and the machine shop need to be separated by partition with
open able and closable door to allow movement of personnel and materials.
General safety in using wood working machines:
Before use:
 Do not use any machine unless you have been fully instructed in its operation
and you are capable of operating it.
 Check that the machine is isolated from the power supply before setting it up.
 Ensure that the machine and working area around it are clean and free from
obstruction, off cuts, shavings etc.
 Check that the cutters are in good condition and suitable for the work in hand.
 Ensure that the guards, guides and fences are correctly set up and held
securely in place.
 Make sure that push sticks or push blocks are closed hand.
During use:
 Never feed timber into a machine until the cutters have reached maximum
speed.
 Never make any adjustments to a machine while the cutter is moving, even if
you have switch off.
 Never leave a machine until the cutters have stop moving.
 Never allow yourself to become distracted while operating a machine.
 Never pass your hands over the cutters even on the timber being machined.
 Always isolate the machine and clean it down after use.
General safety requirements of wood working machines.
The safety requirements of the wood working machines regulations imposed on
wood working machines in use are;
 The cutters of every machine must be closed by substantial guard to the
maximum possible extent.
 No adjustment should be made to the guards or any other part of the machine
while the cutters are in motion.
 Every machine must have an efficient starting and stopping device located for
easy use by the operator especially in the case of emergency.
 The working area around a machine must be kept free from obstruction, off
cuts, shavings etc
 The floor surface of the work area must be level, not slippery and maintained
in good condition
 A reasonable temperature of not below 13oc must be maintained in the work
place.
 No person must use any wood working machine unless he/she has been
properly trained for the work being carried out he/she is under close
supervision as part of the training.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Machine operators must use correct guards, safety devices, and report any
faults or contraventions not complying with regulations to the supervisor or
employer.
 Any person who sells or hires wood working machine must ensure it complies
with the regulations
Layout of a medium joinery shop machine and work flow

Basis. Machines & equipment

A – Crosscut saw;
B – Circular saw bench (rip and general purpose);
C – Dimension saw bench;
D – Hand feed
Planer and surfacer;
E – Roller-feed planer and thicknesser;
F – Mortiser;
G – Band saw;
H – Wood
Turning lathe;
I – Under and over belt sander;
J – Belt and disc sander;
K – ‘Dry’ grinding machine;
L – Horizontal ‘wet’ grinding machine
FUNCTIONS OF EACH TOOLS & EQUIPMENT IN A JOINERY MACHINES
WORKSHOP
Tool/equipment uses
 Cross out saw -for crossing cutting long timbers to required manageable
length.
 Rip saw -for ripping timbers to approximate sections

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Surfacer -for planning surface and edge flat and square
 Thicknesser or panel planer -for planning to the required width and
thickness
 Marking bench-worktop on which the dressed timbers are mark for joint and
moldings
 Dimension saw -for cutting plywood, block wood, solid board, etc. finely as
per the marking
 Mortiser - for cutting mortises for joints
 Tenon - for cutting tenons for joints
 Band saw - for cutting curved work to required shapes.
 Spindles molder - for cutting the required rebates, grooves,
moldings etc.
 Joiners’ benches - for assembling and cleaning the machined
components to produce the required joinery items.
 Finishes, storage and dispatch areas - for finishes temporal storage and
dispatching finished items.
 Arrows - directing work flow
Furniture Bolts.
Bolts are devices use for hooking a door to the carcasses room the inside so that
another door is closed and looked to hooked door and they are fixed at the top
and bottom and the inside of the required door.
The types of bolts commonly used include;
Furniture locks.
They are used in looking doors and drawers of cabinet work. They include
 straight look- Fitted without recess,
 Cut Locks-Fitted into cut recesses.
 Box look-it is used for leads for boxes and flaps,
 Mortise lock-fitted in mortise or recess made in the front edge of larger doors.
Door Catches;
They are used for securing doors in position. They include, Double ball catch,
Magnetic catch, Roller mortise catch, French catch and Spring catch.
Handle: - They are in 3 types as Handles, Knobs and Pulls.
Stays: - Stays support open doors or lids in position
Hinges: - used for securing doors and lids to cabinets and boxes.
Castors: - wheels fitted to legs and bases of furniture to roll easily

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
SUB MODULE 3: TIMBER AND TIMBER JOINT
Timber is the most abundant industrial material in project use timber is obtained
from tree material which is felled in the forest. The trunk of the tree is cut into
manageable sections or logs by means of portable power saw.
The logs are then conveyed to the saw mills where they are converted into
commercial sizes by means of heavy circular saws or band saws.
Timber selection is carried considering its classification as hard wood from trees
with broad leaves like.
 mahogany
 Teak & etc.
Then soft wood from evergreen trees with needle leaves like pine, spruces and
also standard commercial sizes. The common standardized marketable sizes of
timber, the terminology of the sizes produced are as in the table below;
CROSSS SECTION TERMINOLOGY USE
DIMENSION
115mm*100mm Baulk For heavy structure
½(115mm*100mm) Half timber Structural work
300mm*100mm Flitch For making veneers
300*50to 150mm Plank For supporting loads on wide span like
that on scaffolding and it is used on
its edge as a supporting deep joist
50to 100*250to Deal(from soft For construction work
280mm timber)
100to 200*50to Batten (mainly soft For holding roofing, tilling and ceiling
100mm wood) lining
100*50 Board For holding construction work,
painting work, flooring, shelving and
furniture construction
50to115*50to Scantling For smaller beams and frames
100mm structures like rafters, studs and joist
100mm to 150mm Square timber
2 2 Used as columns for supporting
beams for furniture work like table
and chair legs and turned pieces
Timber seasoning
This is the reduction of moisture content from timber to a stage at which it
becomes stable in the environment where it is to be used
The two main methods of seasoning are;
 Natural seasoning and
 Artificial seasoning
Natural seasoning
In natural seasoning method, timbers are carefully stacked in the open air with
stickers between each layer and the air is allowed to circulate freely through the
pilled of timbers
Artificial seasoning
In artificial seasoning method, timbers are stacked as above but in a controlled
oven where the temperature and humidity are accurately controlled. the method

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
of artificial seasoning is kiln seasoning and it is most widely used, since it is a
faster method.
Preparation for carcass /carcass and joinery work
Cupboard and drawer construction:
Wooden cupboard is made of solid timber and manmade board materials. A
cupboard has three sections;
 The work tops
 The carcass/carcass (body/skeleton).
 The plinth. (stand/support/base)
Designing and molding a cupboard is with the respect to the control of distortion
due to the moisture movement in the timber used, especially wide boards.
Manmade boards are fairly stable compared to solid timbers in terms of moisture
movement.
The cupboard worktop construction:
Solid timber worktop preparation and fixing method
Since solid timber is liable to get distorted and tail, certain precautions are to be
put in mind as follow;
Precautions against wide board distortions;
 The solid timber used for top construction must be of suitable moisture content
of 10% to 15% for job in hand.
 Wide worktop board from edge jointed narrow board should come from rift –
sawn boards (i.e. timber selection) as shown below.
 In the absence of rift sawn boards, slash sawn boards are joint such that
tendency to cup or get distorted is avoided
 Solid timber worktop must never be rigidly fixed to the car case around its
periphery to avoid splitting on edges and ends of the board.
Hard wood buttons or shrinkage steel plates must be used as illustrated below,
to allow the top to have some degree of tree movement as may be caused by
shrinkage and expansion.
Block board worktop method preparation and fixing method
The various types of block board prepared to be fixed on a carcass are described
in the sketches below;
 Tongue hard wood lapping

 laminated plastic top and lapping

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 built up edge with laminated plastic and upping

 laminated plastic top, lapping and balancing sheet

The block board worktops and solid worktops

Are fixed the same to the carcasses by means of hard wood buttons steel plate
buttons and steel shrinkage plates which allow the tops a degree of tree
movements and yet still being held reasonable secured.
The laminated plastic sheets
Laminated plastic sheet is remarkably attractive hardwearing and hygienic
material for working surfaces. it is rather a brittle and fragile material that needs
handling with care to avoid breakage
Hence it should be supported while cutting
Method of fixing the laminated plastic sheet
Order of work
 Giving full treatment or applying the plastic sheet all over the block board;
which includes backing sheet, edge lapping and working surface
1st apply the backing sheet
2nd apply edge lapping
3rd apply working surface sheet, in that order.
 Giving treatment without backing sheet: which can include edging and surfaces
1st apply edge lapping
2nd apply working surface sheet, in that order.
Application in steps
 Ensure that the base material (block board) is clean and free from grease, its
edges are smooth and square
 Cut the laminated plastic sheet to size with allowance of 4mmm lapping on
lapping and 210mm lapping one edges without lapping strips
 Applying adhesive, using plastic sheet scrap, thinly and evenly to both surfaces
of the both base board and back of plastic sheet. apply again one more court
to the absorbent edges after each coat dries

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Following the order of the work and after 10 minutes of drying the two
surfaces are brought together and pressed tightly into the contact, working
from Centre outwards and exclude air bubbles.
since there is no chance in correcting mispositioned large sheets, there is prior
need to lay a series of smooth battens across the base board and place the
coated laminated plastic sheet on them and careful align , then withdraw the
battens one at a time, allowing the two surfaces to come into contact beginning
from the middle

Method of aligning the adhesive coated sheet.

 Press the two surfaces tightly into contact and pay particular attention to the
edges. Ensure good adhesion by hammering or cramping using scrap wood
block. This method is to avoid thick glue line that might spoil the finished
edge.
 Trim the overlapping laminated plastic sheet and surplus glue off by means of
block plane, fine file and cabinet scraper.
File towards the supported edge to form beveled edge
Chip board worktop preparation and fixing method:
The chip board worktop is also a manufactured or manmade material which is
fixed into the cupboard car case using the above methods applied to the block
worktop
The cupboard care case/carcass
A care case is the frame work portion of a cabinet (furniture with shelves and
drawers) where the shelves and drawer are not yet fitted on. A care case is built
in one of the three forms below.
 Framed care case /skeleton

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 Solid end care case / end boarded

 Solid care case / fully boarded

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
The cupboard care case and plinth construction

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Details of joints and their methods in the cupboard car case
construction.
There are several involved in the construction of cupboard car cases, some of
which are illustrated below
Top rail to end joint
Dove tail, tongue and groove joints

To rail to division joints

Drawer rail to division board joints

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Housing, tongue and Grove Joint.
Drawer runners are method of hard wood, small as it is, but it is easier with soft
wood when replacing a worm drawer side.
 Base/Pot Board to End Joints

Division to base joints

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Shelves fitment joint

Dovetail housing join, housing joint, dowel joint and butt joint on bearer
Cupboard back fixing method of joint
The materials used for covering back of a cupboard are either plywood or hard
board.
 Free standing cupboard
The back of the cupboard is rebated into the block board ends while the
division board is reduced to that amount.

 Cupboard fixed to wall

The back of the cupboard is housed into the block board end with clearance for
pipe accommodation or fixing

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124

Cupboard carcasses door construction:

(a) block board door with tongued lapping
A block board door with tongued lapping is made up off 18mm block and lipped
up on all four edges as shown above

 Block board door with frame work

Tongue and groove and mortis and tenon joints
Cupboard carcass drawer construction
Methods of joint for drawer construction
Housing joint Lapped dove tail joint

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Through dovetail joint

Timber joints:
In wood work industry, joints are device for holding parts of the wooden
structures together.
Timber joints for the practical constructions are planned through experience and
discovery of the quality and usefulness of the available timbers and the many
ways they may be joined together.
Timber joints are applied to four main types of construction as;
 Box construction/car case construction
 Stool/ table construction
 Frame and panel construction
 Slab construction (largest flat surfaces)
There are also four points to be considered in choosing a suitable method of joint
for joining timbers together;
 The strength of the joint required.
 The types of article to be made
 The skill that you possess
 The machinery available to give help where there is lack of skill in using hand
tools.
There are varieties of joints applied to many types of timber constructions. In
cabinet timber construction, timber joints are categorized into three main types
as;
 Widen joint or edge joint. widening
 Angle joint or box joint or corner joint
 Framing joint
There are many different joints that the carpenter and joiner may use. This
chapter is concerned mainly with those made by hand.
Joints generally fall into three categories and carry out the following functions:

S/N Category Joint Function

A Lengthening End To increase the effective length of
timber.
B Widening Edge To increase the width of timber or
board material.
C Framing Angle To terminate or to change direction
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S/n Category Joints Description Drawing

Lengthen Lap Joint  The two
ing – end adjoining lengths of
joints timber are lapped
Where at their ends
timber is
Butt joint two methods of
not long
(cleated) securing
enough, a
An end butt joint.
suitable
 This depending
end
on whether the
Joint must
joint is to be
be made.
concealed or not,
The type
and the required
of joint
strength, a ‘single’
used will
or ‘double’ cleat
depend on
can be used.
the
situation
and end
use.
Scarf joint two methods of
making a
Scarf joint.
 The first, for
structural use will
require a slope of 1
in 12 or less.
 The second
method
incorporates a hook
that enables the
joint to be
tightened with
folding wedges.
Laminated By laminating
joint (overlapping)
 Different lengths
of timber together
with nails and/or
glue, large long
lengths of timber
can be
manufactured.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Finger  This is produced
joint by machine, then
glued and
assembled by
controlled end
pressure. This is a
useful method of
using up short ends
and upgrading
timber
 After the
degraded portion
or portions have
been removed, the
remaining pieces
are rejoined.
Half-lap &  These joints are
sloping also both used as
halving ‘Framing Joints and
joints as well as
lengthening in
Intersecting wall
plates in floor and
roof construction.
Widening (a)Butt This is the simplest Balancing the effects of
– edge joint of all edge joints moisture
joints and is the basis of
All edge all the other forms,
glued If the joint
joints is to be glued, it is
enable a important that the
board’s adjoining edges
width to match perfectly as
be explained below
increased,  The boards are
examples first marked in
of these pairs.
joints are  Each pair is
as below planed straight and
 Butt square by using a
/rubbed plane with the
joints appropriate sole
 dowelle length (preferably
d joints long-soled try-
 tongued plane.
joints  They are then

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 loose repositioned edge
tongued to edge to check
joints that no light shows
 slot- through the joint Forming a tongue and
screwed and both faces are groove
joints in line
 Glue is applied
while both edges
are positioned as if
they were hinged
open.
 They are then
turned edge to
edge and rubbed
one on the other to
remove any surplus
glue and finally
form a bond hence
the term rubbed-
joint

(b)Dowell by inserting
ed joint dowels at
approximately 300
mm intervals,
 The butt joint
can be both
strengthened and
stiffened.
(c)Tongue This is another
d-and- method of
grooved strengthening a
joint glued butt joint,
because it
increases the
surface area to be
glued (the glue
line).
 It is used in
jointing boards
together –
floorboard and
matchboard.

(d)loose This is also

tongue another

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
joint method of
strengthening a
glued butt joint
because it
increases the
surface area to be
Glued (the glue
line).
 It can also be
used as a means of
dry jointing boards
together.
(e)Slot- This is asimple yet
screwed effective method of
joint edge jointing
that can also be
used whenever a
secret
fixing is to be
made.
For example:
 After first
preparing the
board edges as
 The edges are
marked with an
offset equal to the
amount that the
screw will travel in
the slot (10–20
mm, depending on
the screw length
and gauge).
 Whilst the boards
are cramped
together one board
is gently driven
over the other
causing the screw
heads to bite into
the pre-formed
slots and becomes
firmly embedded.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Dry edge wide solid wood
joints boards cannot
generally cope with
situations
such as
floors,
walls,
ceilings, or
Doors etc., as
their moisture
content is liable to
become unstable.
 Flexible dry
jointing methods
are used. These
reduce the risk of
splitting and
excessive
distortion.
 Tongued edge
trim is also used to
cover the exposed
end grain to help
stabilize the boards
against surface
distortion.
 Slotted screw
holes in bearers
can help reduce the
risk of wood
splitting about the
fixings. All these
provisions are to
cater for free
moisture
movement without
any effect
Framing Housing Often used in the
angle joints construction of
joints shelf and cabinet
Joints units, partitions,
used to and sectional
form timber framed
angles buildings.
and/or This type of joint
junctions. can be further

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
They are sub-divided into
divided the following:
into the  (a) Through
following housing
groups: The simplest and
 Housing probably most
 Halving common housing
 Mortise joint.
and tenon It gains its bearing
 Bridle support from the
 Dowelle notch when formed
d vertically, and
 Notched resists side
and movement when
cogged used horizontally
 Dovetail  (b) Stopped
 Miter housing
and Conceal the trench
scribe. on one edge.
 (c) Double-
stopped housing
 Conceal the
trench on both
edges.
 (d) Dovetailed
housing
Has one or both
sides of the trench
Sloping inwards,
thereby adding
part or total
resistance to
withdrawal to the
housed section.
These types of joint
generally require
nailing.
Steps in forming
the trench for a
stopped housing
using hand
tools are as below;
a. a mark and
gauge the width
and depth,
b. bore two or more

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
holes to the width
and depth of the
trench
c. chop the edges
of the holes square
d. using the ‘toe’ of
a tenon saw, make
two or more saw
cuts to the depth
line
e. remove waste
wood with a chisel
and mallet
f. Level the
bottom of the
trench with a
router..
Halving  These are used
joints where timber
members are
required either to
cross or to lap each
other. It is worth
noting that the
‘half lap’ which can
be used either at a
corner or as an end
joint (end lap)
similar to the
sloping halving
although not as
strong.
 The joint is made
by a combination of
those methods
used in forming the
housing, tenon and
dovetail joints.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Mortise- These are the most
and-tenon common of all
joints conventional
framing joints –
probably due to
their versatility
and easy
concealment.
The joint’s name
usually
reflects its size,
shape, or position.
For example;
a. Through
mortise and
tenon
the mortise hole
goes completely
through the
material
b. Stub tenon
mortised only part
way into the
material-stopped
mortise hole.
c. Double tenon
two tenons cut in
the depth of a
member;
d. Twin tenon
two tenons side by
side (usually in the
thickness of a
member);
e. Barefaced
tenon
only one shoulder;
f. Unequal
shoulder
One shoulder
longer than the
other.
(Note: in the
timber trades
double tenon
may be referred

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CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
to as twin tenon
and vice versa.)
Haunches serve
two purposes;
They prevent
joints from
becoming a bridle
joints
Reduce the
length of the
mortise hole that
could otherwise
reduce the strength
of the joint.
sequence of
operations
for chopping out
a mortise hole:
a. Set the mortise
gauge to the width
of the chisel, which
should be as near
as possible to one
third the width of
the material being
mortised.
b. After having
secured the work
piece chop a hole
approximately 15
to 20 mm deep and
4 mm in from one
end.
c. Working from left
to right or from
right to left, chop
and gently lever
waste wood into
the hole formed.
d. Repeat until
midway into the
work piece,
carefully lifting out
chippings at each
level.
(Note how the

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
waste left on the
ends of the hole
Try to prevents
damage to the
mortise hole during
this Process)
e. Square the ends
of the mortise hole.
f. Turn the work
piece over and
repeat the process,
the bench should
be protected at this
stage if a through
mortise is to be
cut.
Bridle Except for the
joints ‘corner’ bridle –
also known as an
“open or slot
mortise”.
 Bridle joints slot
over through-
running members.
They are cut in a
similar manner to
tenons and halving
joints.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Dowelled This is useful
joints alternatives to
mortise and-tenon
joints
 For joining
members in their
thickness or as a
means of framing
members in their
width.
Dowel and hole
preparation is
similar
Correct
alignment of dowel
with hole is critical,
but this problem
can be overcome
by using a
dowelling jig.
Notched The notches of a
and notched joint are
cogged used to locate
joints  members in one
or both directions
 And as a means
of making any
necessary depth
adjustments (Joist
to wall plates etc.).
Cogged joints
perform a similar
function, but less
wood is removed,
therefore generally
leaving a stronger
joint – they do,
however, take
much longer to
make.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Dovetail Dovetail is used to
joints prevent members
from being pulled
apart.
The strength of a
dovetail joint relies
on
 The self-
tightening effect of
the dovetail against
the pins, as shown
by the direction of
the arrows.
 Dovetail slopes
can vary between 1
in 6 to1 in 8,
depending on the
physical hardness
of the wood.
 The number of
dovetails and their
size will vary with
the width of the
board.
 The dovetails are
usually larger than
the pins (except
those
produced by
machine – which
are of equal width),
Method of marking
and cutting a single
through dovetail
are as below;
 Set the marking
gauge to the
material thickness.
 Temporarily pin
together those
sides (in pairs)
which are to be
dovetailed at their
ends – gauge all
round.
 Using a bevel or

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CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
dovetail template,
mark the dovetails.
 Using a dovetail
saw cut down the
waste side to the
shoulder line.
 Cut along the
shoulder line and
remove the cheeks.
 Divide the sides
and mark off the
pins.
 Cut down to the
shoulder line with a
dovetail saw.
 Remove waste
with a coping saw,
then pare square
with a chisel. The
joint should fit
together without
any further
adjustments!
Some joiners
prefer to cut the
pins first and
the dovetails last.
Both methods are
acceptable,
but in my opinion
the sequence
described is quicker
and tends to be
more accurate.
Probably
the first
opportunity the
student gets to use
this joint is during
the construction of
a toolbox, chest or
case – dovetail
joints should be the
first choice when
constructing one or
more units of the

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
Porter box projects
MITRE and These are generally
scribe associated with
joints joining or abutting
trims – i.e.
 cover laths,
 architraves,
 skirting boards,
and
 beads
these are used
either at external
or
Internal angles.
The joint allows the
shaped sections
to continue round
or into a corner, as
A mitre is formed
by;
bisecting the
angle formed by
two intersecting
members and
Making two
complementary
cuts.
The scribe joint
has its abutting
end shaped to its
own section
profile, brought
about by first
cutting a mitre
Note: The scribe
joint used should
not be confused
with a surface
scribe, as this is
where a joint has
to be made
between a trim and
an
uneven surface,
such as a
floor,

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
wall, or
ceiling,
Scribing in this
case provides a
means of closing
any gaps. By
running a gauge
line parallel to the
uneven surface, an
identical contour
will be produced
(see also Carpentry
& Joinery Book 3
(wall trims and
Finishes)).

Hardware for securing and bonding wood joints

The members of the wood structures such as frame works and carcasses, require
methods of securing and bonding them together.
There are two methods of reinforcing joints
 Temporary fastening methods.
In this method, the member’s secured together can be dismantled apart without
causing damage to them.
 Permanent bonding method.
Here the members are permanently bonded and dismantling is likely to damage
them
Temporarily fastening is achieved by means of fastens
Common Fasteners
Fasteners are metal pieces for fixing wooden member together.
The common fasteners are the nails, screws and bolts.
NAILS
Nails are shaped from mild steel wire or plate. It consists of three parts as head,
shank and point. They are prevented from rusting by coating with zinc or
calcium.
 Rustles metals like brass, copper, aluminum etc. are used for making special
purpose nails like those used in boat building.
 Nails are classified according to the shapes of the head. Its cross section and
the use to which and the use to which one is put.
 Nails are ordered by stating the weight, length and gauge required.
 Types of nails and methods of nailing are as illustrated on the following page
Types of Nails
 Roofing nails – used in roofing buildings.
 Flat head nails.
-flat head round nails
-flat head square nails
Both are used in boxes and packing cases construction.

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Diamond Head nails-
Used for fixing flooring boards, lining boards, packing cases, boxes and general
constructional work.
Jolt head nail or lot head nail
Used Diamond Head nail above or lose head nail.
Panel pin nail-
It is used for fixing plywood to frame cabinet backs and moldings.
Veneer/finished pin nail-
used for fixing very small moldings backs of picture frames and also used for
holding veneers in positions for gluing, setting and cutting.
Upholstery nail –
Used for fixing leather and other materials on wood e.g. chairs
Escutcheon pin nail-
Used for fixing small plates e.g. escutcheon plate that is used for covering and
protecting key hole.
Wiggle nails or corrugated box fasteners –
it is made from corrugated steel iron plate. it used for widening boards in edge to

edge joints of packing cases, cores of flush panel doors and in carcass
constructions.

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Types of nails and methods of nailing are as below.

Staining:
 Stain is the material used for staining to pretreated wood surface after wood
sealer. It is used to give a desired colored effect to the wood surface in the
appearance.
 Wood stain is the oil containing colored pigment. The oil content or liquid is
also known as vehicle pig is the very finely grounded mineral powder dissolved
in the vehicle to give it a color.
Types of wood stain:
Available three common types in use are:
water stain
oil stain
methyl spirit stain
 Wood water stain is thinned by water; wood oil and methyl spirit and methyl
spirit stain are both thinner.
Procedure of staining wood surface:
1. Shake the container thoroughly before opening.
2. Test the color on scrap pieces of wood.
3. Apply the stain by use of brush or cloth.
4. Wipe off surplus stain with cloth.
5. Allow the stain to dry before applying the other following coats.

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(i) Final wood finishes applications:
 After staining the wood surface, other following wood finishes containing glossy
material are applying to give protective coat and decoration
 Types of wood finishes that are commonly applied after the stain are shellac,
lacquer, varnish and wax finish.
Adhesive
An adhesive is a medium that allows the surfaces of two or more items to be
attached or bonded together. Adhesives are made from either natural or
synthetic (man-made) materials. They come in a liquid (one or two part), powder
form, a combination of both powder and liquid, or as a semisolid which requires
melting.
Wood adhesive (glues):
 Wood adhesives are bonding substances used for fixing or sticking wooden
parts together permanently.
 Wood adhesive is used in the permanent bonding method of wood joints.
There are three groups of varieties of adhesives;
 Protein adhesives.
 Synthetic resin adhesives.
 Contact adhesive.
Protein adhesives:
Protein adhesives includes
 animal glue,
 casein glue, and
 Vegetable glue.
Animal glue:
Is made from parts of animal like hides and skin, bones, sinews (tendons,
ligaments), cartilage and intestines. It is non-exotic; none staining and has good
gap filling ability.
 Animal glue is disadvantageous in that its water and heat resistances are low.
Use
It is used while hot and the job is assembled before it sets.
Casein glue
Is manufactured in powder form from chemicals. It is father prepared by adding
water to be used in liquid form and cold.
 Advantages of casein glue is that it is fairly water and heat resistance, a good
gap filler and does not take long to dry and set about 4o minutes.
Use
Casein glue is used for manufacturing ply wood, laminated boards, veneers etc.
in cold pressing.
Vegetables glue:
It is manufactured from the reissue of oil which is extracted from vegetables like
soya beans, peanuts, cotton seed etc.
 It is water resistant due to the chemicals added to it.
Use
Vegetables glue is used for manufacturing water resistant ply wood

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Blood albumin glue: it is manufactured from albumin that is obtain from animal
blood and chemicals are added to it to become water resistance, special
machinery is used for heating and pressing the glued plies
Use
It is used for manufacturing water resistant ply woods in the ply wood industry.
Types of Adhesive
Casein
Derived from dairy by-products that are dried, treated and mixed with chemical
additives to produce a powder which, when mixed with water, is ready for use. It
is used in general joinery assembly work and in the manufacture of plywood. It
tends to stain some hardwoods.
Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
A very widely used synthetic resin adhesive, for such things as general assembly
work and binding within some manufactured boards (including MDF). Strong
mixes can achieve moisture resistant (MR) requirements. Most are designed for
close contact jointing, but formulations are available to satisfy gap-filling
requirements. When set (chemically cured) these adhesives
Will either be clear or lightly coloured so glue lines can be concealed.
Melamine Urea Formaldehyde (MUF)
An adhesive with more melamine than urea, which can enhance moisture
resistance to bring it above boil-resistant (BR) rating. Its usage is similar to that
of UF. The main purpose of these adhesive types is to provide the best moisture
resistance (weather and boil proof – WBP) to structural plywood. They are also
used as a binder in particleboard and wafer boards. Glue lines may show as
slight red/brown staining to the wood.
Resorcinol Formaldehyde (RF)
Because of their WBP properties these adhesives are highly suited to the
assembly of external Structures and marine applications. They are, however,
expensive. Glue lines can result in the staining of wood. Again, the glue lines
may show a red/brown staining to the wood.
Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAc)
Thermoplastic adhesives consisting of a simple to use, one-part water-based
emulsion, with additives to produce either a standard interior type, cured mainly
by evaporation and used extensively for gluing internal joinery components and
veneering. Or, an improved PVAc, which gives higher moisture resistance by
inducing a chemical reaction. This so-called ‘crosslinking’
will put this type of PVAc in the class of
a thermosetting adhesive.
Contact adhesives
Made of natural or synthetic rubber and a solvent that evaporates when exposed
to the air, giving off heavy flammable vapors. They are used in the bonding of
wood and plastic veneers (laminated plastics) to wood based materials. Bonding
is achieved by coating both surfaces to be joined, leaving them to become tacky
(for a time specified by the manufacturer) and then laying one onto the other
while excluding any air. Bonding is instantaneous on contact (hence the name

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
‘contact adhesive’), with the exception of thixotropic types which allow a certain
amount of movement for minor adjustments.
Note: Some generally available contact adhesives are emulsion based, non-
flammable and less hazardous.
Hot melt synthetic (thermoplastic) Adhesives
Are either semisolid rods or pellets or come in the form of tapes or films, which
are melted for application by heat. As they cool, they re-harden to their original
strength. The most common type of application is with an edge-banding
machine, used for applying veneers of wood, plastics, and plastic laminates.
Handheld glue guns are quite popular for spot gluing or running narrow joints;
glue guns use cylindrical adhesive ‘slugs’, which are available in various
formulations.
Epoxy synthetic (thermosetting) adhesives
This type of adhesive is limited to specialized applications, for example, gluing
wood to metal or glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and small repair work.
Adhesive characteristics
Adhesives may be of the ‘one’ or ‘two’ component type,
liquid,
Powder or both.
Two component types become usable either by applying them direct from the
container, mixing the components together, or by applying each part separately
to the surfaces being joined. Some types, however, have to be mixed with water.
Moisture resistance
Refers to the adhesive’s inherent ability to resist decomposition by moisture.
Resistance and is classified as follows:
 INT (interior) – joints made with these adhesives will be resistant to
breakdown by cold water
 MR, moisture and moderately weather resistant joints will resist full exposure
to weather for a few years when made with these adhesive types.
 BR (boil resistant) – joints made with these adhesives will resist weather but
fail when subjected to prolonged exposure. They will, however, resist
breakdown when subjected to boiling water.
 WBP (weather and boil proof) – joints made from these adhesives will have
high resistance to weather, micro-organisms, cold and boiling water, steam
and dry heat. Reference to the above categories is also made in table 4.1 with
regard to the bonding of plywood veneers; these are British Standard Terms.
Gap filling
Adhesives should be capable of spanning a 1–1.3 mm gap without crazing.
They are used in situations where a tight fit cannot be assured and where
structural components are to be bonded.
Bond pressure
Refers to the pressure necessary to ensure a suitable bond between two or more
surfaces joined together. Pressure may be applied simply by hand, as with
contact adhesives. With items of joinery, mechanical, manual presses or clamps
of various shapes and sizes are usually employed. Wood wedges can be used not
only to apply pressure but also to retain a joint permanently. The length of time

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needed to secure a bond will vary with each type of adhesive, its condition and
the surrounding temperature.
Assembly (closed) time
A period of time will be required to accurately set cramping devices and correctly
position frame components; each type and make of adhesive will state the time
allowed for this.
Adhesives characteristics 247
Storage or shelf life
Period of time that a containerized adhesive will remain suitable for use. Beyond
this period, marked deterioration may occur, affecting the strength and setting
qualities. Once the adhesive’s components have been exposed to the
atmosphere, the storage life may well be shortened. ‘Shelf life’ therefore may or
may not refer to the usable period after the initial opening, always note the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Pot life
Period of time allowed for use after either mixing or preparing the adhesive.
Application of adhesives
Methods and equipment used to apply adhesives will depend on the following
factors:
 type of adhesive
 width of surface to be covered
 total surface area
 work situation
 clamping facilities available
 Quality of work.
The spreading equipment could be any one of the devices listed below:
 mechanical spreader
 roller
 brush
 spatula
 Toothed scraper.
Safety precautions
All forms of adhesives should be regarded as potentially hazardous if they are
not used in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, either displayed on
the container or issued as separate information sheet.
Depending on the type of adhesive being used, failure to carry out the
precautions thought necessary by the manufacturer could result in:
 an explosion – due to the adhesives flammable nature or the flammable
vapors given off by them
 poisoning – due to inhaling toxic fumes or powdered components
 Skin disorders – due to contact while mixing or handling uncured adhesives.
Always cover skin abrasions before starting work. Where there is a risk of
dermatitis, use a barrier cream or disposable protective gloves. Always wash
hands thoroughly with soap and water at the end of a working period.
Finally, the manufacturer’s instructions on handling precautions should cover the
following:

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 good ‘housekeeping’
 skin contact
 ingestion
 eve protection
 fire risk
 Toxicity.
Adhesive characteristics (general guide only as properties can differ)

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N – Adhesives in the main and are of natural origin;

S – Synthetic resins;
WBP – weather and boil proof;
BR – boil resistant;
MR – moisture resistant;
INT – interior;
Note: All are in two parts (component – powder & liquids forms are available in
the market)
Adhesives; † Special formulation for exterior use, depending on formulation and
they may be classed as
 Thermoplastics
 Thermosetting adhesive
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic adhesives may be in the form of fusible solids which soften by
heat, or in a soluble form. Generally, after heating thermoplastics will regain
their original form and degree of strength
Thermosets
Thermosetting resins become solid either by a chemical reaction, or via a heat
source; however, once set they, unlike thermoplastics, cannot be reconstituted
by heat

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SUB MODULE 3: TIMBER FLOORS

INTRODUCTION:
Floors in general of mainly two types as;
SOLID FLOOR.
This one consists of compact concrete and hard core which rest directly on the
ground.
HOLLOW FLOOR.
 This is the floor that is suspended above the solid floor after the DPC level of
the walls and indirectly supported on the ground via walls.
 It has spaces in its thickness.
 Hollow floor is term as SUSPENDED FLOOR.
 Suspended floor consists of joists and floor boards.
They are classified as below;
(a). Single Timber Floor:
This consists of one set of common joists or bridging joists.

(b). Double Floor:

 This is when additional one set of larger joists know as BINDERS is introduced
to support the set of joists called bridging joists when the span is larger.

(c). Triple Floor:

 This consist of the one set of common joists that transmits floor load to the set
of binders and set of even larger joists called GRIDERS that are further
introduced to support the two set in (a) and (b), where the span is even
larger. The set of binders bears the floor load and transmits it to the ground
via the wall

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SINGLE TIMBER FLOORS:

Single timber floors have two types of constructions as:
1. Timber ground floor construction.
2. Timber upper floor construction.
 Timber ground floor is constructed such that short walls known as SLEEPER
WALLS are first built on the solid concrete floor and higher than the DPC level
to support the ground floor which would be suspended in the relatively wide-
open span.
 Disassociating the floor as made of timber, from the ground, avoids the timber
from being direct to contact with ground moisture.
 Timber upper floor suspended its shelf high up above the ground floor in
relatively wide-open span where the sleeper wall (also called DWARE WALL) is
not applicable. Thus, timber upper constructed out of joists with greater
distance and transmit load to the load bearing inner-wall and external wall.
TYPES OF SINGLE TIMBER FLOOR:
Single Timber Ground Floor;
 A single timber ground floor is made up of a series of timber beams called
common joists or bridging joists and conversed with floor boards.
 The whole floor is supported by wall plate that distributes the weight onto walls
and honeycombed
FUNCTION:
Ground floor is to provide suitable, durable and acceptable surface to carry
load which may be implied upon it.
To prevent moisture penetration through floor from the ground.
To provide convenient room temperature.
To prevent growth of weeds inside the building.
 Timber members in contact with moisture surface from dry roots when
moisture content goes above 20% and which is danger level to timber. Dry
rots is a fungus that decay timbers that of poor quality or subjected to high
moisture since the fungus is able to pass through moisture walls.

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In timbers ground floors, the following measures are taken:
 DPC and other impervious materials are laid contentiously between bricks or
bricks are wall plates.
 Air bricks are provided to the perimeter wall below suspended floor and
sleepers wall are honey combed for ventilation to allow out moisture-laded air
which could condense within underside of the floor.
For the timber structure of the floor to be stable under controlled moisture, it is
as well designed taking the following factors into account:
Clear span joists.
Joist sectional side.
Joist spacing.
Grade of timber.
Dead load as supported by joists.
Flooring material and its thickness.
FLOOR JOIST CONSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN:
 Floor joists is designed to be laid across the shortest distance between room
walls. The distance is farther reduced by sleeper walls.
The centers range between 400mm to 600mm bearing in mind the factors of
joists design mentioned above.
 Joists spacing is determined by the distance between centers of adjacent joists
as illustrated below

GROUND FLOOR FIRE PLACE CONSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS

 Perimeter wall, Jamb and Fender wall that are constructed on foundation
concrete enclosing the fire place.
 Vent that is provided in the perimeter walls to allow air circulation within the
space under the suspended floor.
 Jambs that extend 328mm from the perimeter wall to form the fire place
opening and should be minimum of 200mm thick.
 Fender wall that extend 500mm from the jambs to retain the concrete hearth
and support trimmed portion of the floor round the fire place.
 Hard core, well packed is provided inside the fire place above fender wall
foundation concrete level and resting directly on the ground.

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 150 site concrete, which is casted from the top level of fender wall foundation
concrete.
 Sleeper wall with voids/honey combed wall that is constructed on the site
concrete up to fender wall height which is the DPC level of the perimeter wall.
 DPC which extends from the perimeter wall to tops of fender wall and honey
combed perimeter wall.
 100 x 75 wall plates that are embedded on the DPC to distribute loads from
the floor joists to the walls. They are embedded in mortar.
 Fire place hearth concrete, that is embedded on the hard core to the level of
the floor boards top surface, but stepped down to accommodate front hearth
titles
 Floor joists that are spaced and laid on the wall plates but trimmed to
accommodate the fire place
 Floor boards that lay on the joists.
 Hard wood edging that is mitered and fitted to the trimmed edges of floor
boards at the front hearth to ensure a heater and more accurate finish
between floor boards and front hearth titles
 Tiles that are embedded on the front hearth and because of being non-
combustible.
ARRANGEMENT OF SPLIT-LEVEL GROUND FLOOR CONSTRUCTION:
Split-level ground floors are constructed to improve on floor appearance or to
conform to the sloping ground.

CONCRETE FLOORS INCORPORATING TIMBER:

This is when timber is abutted on to concrete floors by means of;
(a). Floor joists clip buried into concrete to receive timber floor joists for decking.

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(b). Timber tilled (impregnated with preservative) built into concrete to receive
decking material.
(c). Mastic-types adhesive that sticks the wood blocks directly to the surface of
the floor concrete.

(a) floor joist clip method of fixing timber floor joist to concrete

VERTICAL SECTION SHOWING TIMBER FILLED METHOD OF FIXING

TIMBER FLOOR JOISTS TO CONCRETE:
Never the less, surfaces of timber and concrete floor must not be abutted
together as un even up and down movement is likely to occur and damage the
floor coverings, e.g. carpet.
Floor Joists Leveling:
 The leveling is carried out by one or two of the following methods:
 Spirit level and straight edge.
 Water level (Aqua level)

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 Cowley automatic level (A metal case with arranged mirrors)
 Laser levels (A metal unit level consisting of electronics that produce thin laser
i.e. powerful thin light to mark on objects).
Leveling operation with spirit level and straight edge;
First and last floor joists are leveled by spirit level, then a straight edge bearing a
spirit level is place across the two joists to level the intermediate joists.
Uneven levels of floor joists are or may be caused by unleveled wall plate or un
uniformly sown joists.
Methods of adjustments in leveling floor joists:
(a) Re-sawing all joist to uniform depth

Uniform depth

The disadvantage of housing the joists is that it reduces depth of joists and its
efficiency over that span.
When joists ends are to be built in the wall slate packing is used instead of wood
packing.
Access to Under-Floor Space Services:
 Ground floor under space is used to run services pipes cables and as
equipment storage avoiding exposing them on the surface above.
 When the under space is not enough to allow a person to work from below,
access traps are made from above with boards fitted with removable screws.
Ground floor Thermal Insulations:
 The material used for building thermal insulation is cellule quilt (blankets)
made up of fiberglass mineral wool (insulator) or granular products such as
processed vermiculite (night weight material with high insulation and fire
resistant).
 The thermal materials are place within the ground floors, wall and roofs. It
helps to keep the interior of the building cool during warm weather and warm
during cold weather thus reducing room heating cost.

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Floor or Decking:
Material used are;
 Planed tongued and grooved (PTG) floor board.
 Flooring-grade chip board- tongued and grooved or square edge.
 Flooring grade ply wood-tongued and grooved or square edge.
Board Flooring or Decking Construction:
(i) Preparing Floor board.
Floor board is plane, tongued and grooved with deeper rebate cut from the upper
suffer than from the underside as illustrated below.

Advantages of deep rebates.

 Guides a joiner as a face side
 Surface wear takes time before reaching the tongue and groove joint.
(ii). Laying floor boards:
 Floor boards are laid at right angles to the joists and fixed with lost head nail
or floor board. The nail should be 2.5 times the floor board thickness and double
nailed at crossing joists. Floor boards are set 15mm from the wall and later
covered by skirting.
There are four method of clamping floor boards:
 Cramp folding method
 Laid folding method
 Dog and wedges folding method
 Leverage closing method
Cramp folding is the most effective method
CRAMPING METHOD AND ITS PROCEEDURE/SEQUENCE
 Level the top edges of the joists
 Lay the first board at right angles to the joists and nail 15mm away from one
wall.
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 Lay loosely 5 to 6 boards up on joists.
 Fix two cramps to the joists and insert the protecting strip between cramp
plate and the floor boards.
 Operate the cramps to grip the side of boards and exert considerable pressure
on the boards until joint between them are completely closed.
 Secure the board by using oval wire nails of length 2.5 times deeper than the
thickness of the boards.
 Remove the cramps and proceed to the next 5 or 6 boards.
 On reaching the opposite wall there comes no space for cramping and can
apply leverage or laid folding method.
 Drive nail heads below the board surfaces by means of nail-punch and harmer

2 LAID FOLDING METHOD AND PROCEEDURE:

 Boards are fixed at a distance equal to boards that are placed by hand from
board B but less by 6 to 13mm.
Floor boards are hence arranged in the space a board is laid across them and
jumped upon to force them to positions.
 Boards are nailed and the operation continues.
End joints should not appear more than one at a point to avoid weakness.
Boards’ ends should be splayed for lengthening to avoid splitting on nail

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DOG AND WEDGES FOLDING METHOD PROCEDURE:

 A metal dog is driven into the floor joists
 Floor boards are arranging together
 Folding wedges are set between metal dog and protecting strip.
 Harmer is used to knock the hard wood folding wedges to ensure tightness of
floor board joints.

LEVERAGE CLOSING METHOD:

Closing floor boards by leverage is useful when dealing with small areas or
confine space.

Floor and Wall Skirting Board:

 Skirting board is a second fixing operation done after the plastering is
complete.
Skirting boards are machined to many different profiles to seal the joints
between floor finishes and plaster finish
SKIRTING BOARD SECTIONS:

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 The main function of skirting board is to provide good finishing between wall
and floor. It also acts as a seal against draughts i.e. temperature and as a buffer
to protect the wall surface from knocks.

Fixing skirting board is achieved by one of the following methods.

Plugging
Timber ground
Nailing direct
Masonry mail
Plastic plugs
Adhesives
 Cover moldings-fillets mounded to cover joints between ceiling board and wall.
2. Single Floor construction for Upper Floor:
 Single upper floor layout differs from that of a ground floor in that single upper
floor.
 Have greater depth of joist section to span greater distance without sleeper
walls.
 Have provision for stair case and protruding like flue.

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 Single upper floor is supported by load bearing inner wall or indirectly via steel
joist hangers.
An upper timber floor sectional size is obtained regarding:
 The grade timber.
 The load supported by the joists
 The spacing of joists
 The maximum span
TRIMMING
 Trimming is an arrangement to support the ends of joists that are cut short to
provide an opening to accommodate a stair well, chimney breast and other
construction works like traps and manholes (sewage passage).

 The layout of timbers round upper floor openings are as illustrated below:
Trimmers and trimming joists are double, or 25mm thicker than other joists as
they carry greater loads.
 The bridging joists that are cut short round the openings are:
Trimming joists -Supported by wall provide bearings for trimmers.
Trimmer joists -thicker joists or pairs of joists that carry the ends of the
trimmed joists, and while they are supported by trimming joists only as shown in
fig.2. or by trimming joists and wall
Trimmed joists- They are supported by trimmers or by a trimmer and a wall.
They are fill the space between trimming joists or between a wall and a trimmer
joist
Joints involved in trimming for openings through timber floors:
Strutting the Floor Joists:
 Trimmer to trimmer joist
Tusk tenon joint
Joist hanger
 Trimmed joist to trimmer joist
Joist hanger joint
Beveled housing joint
Stopped housing joint
Stopped dovetailed housing joint

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Strutting the floor joist

Floor joists are strutted to stiffen the whole timber floor as it avoids bowing of
narrow joists. The intervals of strutting do not exceed 6 times the depth of joists.
E.g. 225 x 50mm joists is space at 225mm x 6 c.c. i.e. 1.35m. c.c.
There are three methods of strutting employed:
 Steel strutting

 Timber herring bond strutting

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 Solid timber strutting

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Typical arrangement in in a single timber flat roof construction

T&G-Boarding
19mm T&G boarding pieces are laid on the firing pieces that are on the 225 x 50
joists for the following upper roofs fall/decking.
Wood roll
50 x 50 solid wood rolls are fixed along the lower and upper wood boarding top
surfaces as means of joining flexible roof covering materials by lapping and
folding the materials over them during widening of the material sheets to cover
the whole roof surface
Box gutter bearer
50 x 25 bearer pieces are fixed at the end of the lower roof fall to carry a box
gutter that receives water from the roof fall and leads to the cesspool.
T&C Boarding

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19mm T&C boarding pieces are nailed on the bears to panel the box gutter and
its cesspool.
Cesspool out let
Hole made at the bottom of the cesspool to drain rain water away from the
parapet wall enclosed roof through the outlet down pipe.
Lead bed
Lead sheet lining a applied inside the box gutter as a water proof material.
Asphalt felt
Asphalt felt is one of the flat roof covering materials applied. Others are Led,
Copper, Zinc, Aluminum sheets etc. Asphalt felt is a soft sheet made from a
black sticky substance known as ‘ASPHALT’ from chemical industry.

 All method of strutting requires folding wedges-packing between the walls. Too
tight packing dislodges the wall.
 Herring bonding strutting is the most effective one, through expensive

 In timber ground floors, services like water and electric cables are run under
the floor joists.
 In upper floors, the services are run either parallel with or through the joists.
The joist to bear holes or notches is designed 25mm deeper than other joists
or a double joist is applied.
 The guidelines with regard to drilling holes and cutting notches are as
illustrated above.

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SUB MODULE 4: ROOFS
ROOFS
A roof is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the
form of a frame work to given protection to the building against rain, heat, snow,
wind etc. A roof basically consists of structural elements provided at the top of
building for the support of roof coverings.
Following are the requirements of well-planned roof:
 It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies such as
wind, rain, sun etc.
 It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
 It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of taking the
loads likely to come over it.
 It should be well-drained
 It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
Types of Roofs-Methods of construction:
Roofs are classified into the following three categories;
 Pitched roofs
 Flat roofs
 Curved roofs
Pitched roofs:
A sloping roof is known as “pitched roof”

Members/Parts of building with pitched roof are;

 Barge Boards: Wooden planks or boards which are fixed on the gable end of
the roof
 Battens: Thin strips of wood which are fixed on rafters or ceiling to support
the roof ceiling.
 Cleats: Small blocks of wood which are fixed on truss to prevent the sliding of
purlins.
 Dragon beam: The diagonal piece of wood which is laid across the corner of
the wall.

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 Eaves: The lower edge of a
roof which are resting upon
or projecting beyond the
supporting walls are known
as “eave”
 Gable: The triangular upper
part of a wall formed at the
end of a pitched roof is
known as gable.
 Hip: The angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as hip.
 Pitch: The inclination of sides of a roof to the horizontal plane is known as
pitch, expressed in degrees or as a ratio of rise to span.
 Purlins: The wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principal rafters
to carry the common rafters are known as purlins.
 Rafters: There are the pieces of timber which extend from the caves to the
ridge
Common rafters: These are the intermediate rafters, which give support to
the roof coverings
Hip rafters: These are provided at the junction of two roof slopes
Jack rafters: Any rafters, which is shorter than common rafters is known as
Jack Rafters.
Principal rafters: These are the inclined members of a truss
 Ridge: A wooden piece provided at the ridge line of a sloping roof is known as
ridge or ridge board or ridge piece
 Span: The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports
is known as span or clear span.
 Template: A bidding block generally provided at the end of a truss. This block
is known as template and it helps in spreading load over a large area. A
template may be of wood or stone or R.C.C.
 Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the caves and ridge is known as
a verge
 Valley: When two roof surfaces meet together and form an internal angle, a
valley is formed
 Wall-plate: These are long wooden members which are embedded on top of
walls to receive the common rafters
ROOF FUNCTION AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
 Its function is to collect rain water that would enter into the building through
the open top of the substructure and direct it away from the building interior.
Thus, the functional requirements are the roof covering materials and gutters
that are adequately supported as explained to details below.
Two common types of roof in use are:
Flat roof.
Pitch roof.
 Flat roof has the outer surface horizontal or inclined at an angle not exceeding
10 degrees. Whereas a pitch roof has the outer surface slopping in one or
more directions at an inclination greater than 100

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Single Timber Flat Roof construction.
 The structure of the single timber flat roof consists of covering material;
guttering supporting structure components as are listed below with sketch and
the numbering that also show the sequence of laying each building component.
Wall plate
100 x 75 wall plate embedded in the wall to the roof joists and distributes the
roof load uniform to the wall.
Roof joist
200 x 50 roof joists reduced in with for lower roof-fall, spaced 400cc. and fixed
on the wall plate to support the wood boarding of the lower roof-fall
Firing pieces
50mm wide firing pieces with varying depths to slope the roof surface in order to
direct the rain water flow are nail along or across the upper edges of the joists
and in all slopping to the gutter. Two types of firing pieces are;
Tapered firing pieces that are of different depths 50 to lower.
Firing pieces of varying depths on each piece from 50 on one end and lower to
the other end
T&G-Boarding
19mm T&G Boarding pieces are laid first on the 200 x 50 shallow joists bearing
the firing pieces. Methods of laying the boards are the same as that of floor
boards.
Other alternative covering materials cheaper to lay are chipboard, ply wood and
wood-wool slabs of 1220mm wide.
50 Drip or 50 x 25 packing
It is a 50 x 25 wood batten packing nailed along the upper end of the board/ roof
fall / roof decking to step up the following roof boarding and forma 50mm deep
drip.
Roof joists
225 x 50 joists increased in width for upper roof fall/ boarding, spaced 400cc and
fixed on the wall plate to support the wood boarding of the upper roof fall
Firing pieces
Nailed on the 225 x 50 wide joists to slope upper roof fall surface in order to
direct rain water flow to the 50 drip at the end of the upper roof fall surface on
its way to the box gutter.
Over cloaks
The ridges formed at the edges of roof flexible covering material sheets as a
result of over lapping, over wood rolls for sheet widening
Roof Decking
It is the insulated water proof building top covering panels made of wooden,
steel or aluminum structure and over which is covered with roof flexible cover
material such as aluminum sheets.
PROCEDURE OF LAYING ROOF FLEXIBLE MATERIALS
Asphalt felt
The roof flexible material covering consist of one, two or three layers of asphalt
felt.
First layer

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The first layer is laid direct on the boarding lapping 75mm at the joint over the
roll and nailed at 75mm intervals along the joints with adhesive between the
laps.
Second layer
Hot bitumen adhesive is then applied over the first laid asphalt felt and the
second layer of felt is laid with 75mm lapping without nailing.
Third layer
Follow the procedure of the second layer for the third.
Grit
When the layer is the last one applies a top coat of hot bitumen adhesive over
it and roll grit in to the hot adhesive finally to protect the felt from the sun.
Grit is consisting of a very small particle of sand or stone.
Flat roof without parapet wall and flat roof with parapet wal

THERMAL INSULATION OF FLAT ROOFS

1 Wall Plate-As seen in section.
2 Roof joist -Seen in elevation.
3 (a)-Firing pieces of varying depths. -As seen from elevation
(b)-Tapered firing pieces-laid across the joist and as seen in section.
4. (a) -Roof boarding- in section.
(b)-Roof boarding- in elevation.
5. Fillet – triangle pieces of wood fixed in the angle form by surfaces of the wall
and the flat roof to seal their joint.
6. Water proof roof covering.
7. over lap-on wood roll.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
8. Lead- molten lead is used to seal the joint between the roofs felt that
overlaps the triangular fillet which is fixed at the angle and the wall.
9. Ceiling- fixed on the roof joists.
10. Vapor barrier – fitted in between the warm side and the insulation to
prevent the passage of water vapor in to the roof.
11. Insulation- Protection of rooms or buildings from heat, cold or sound as you
break up their paths by discontinuing the building construction and
incorporating the spaces with insulating materials such as fiber boards, wood
wool, expanded poly styrene, etc. as they have low heat conductivity.
12. Ventilation space – to allow air circulation within and out of the roof
spaces.
13. Fascia board– in the absence of a parapet wall, it is nailed to the ends of
the joists to provide a suitable finish and carry the eave gutter.
14. Eave gutter – box gutter.
15. Wall – house external vertical enclosing structure.
16. Parapet wall- it is that part of a house – wall passing above the flat roof to
guard the roof.
17. coping – it is the concrete erected on top of a parapet wall or a precast
concrete laid overhang top of the parapet wall to protect it from rain.
(ii) Pitched roofs in timber:
The main classes of timber pitched roof are;
Single timber – pitcher roof (set of spars)
Double timber – pitcher roof (set of spars and purling)
Triple or trussed timber pitched roof (set of spar, purling and trusses)
Single timber pitched roof;
Single pitched roof is further divided in to the following;
 Lean to pitch roof.
 Mono pitched roof.
 Double lean-to roof.
 Couple roof.
 Closed couple roof.
 Collar couple roof.
All the single timber pitched roofs have their common rafters spanning from wall
plate up to ridge board without intermediate support. Their roof surfaces are
covered with same materials described for single timber flat roof and corrugated
sheets.
Lean to roof or half span roof;
Shape of lean-to roof section.
Types of pitched roofs:
 Single roof
 Double or purlin roof
 Trussed roofs
(i) Single roof: In this type of roofs, common rafters are provided to each slope
without any support. The following are the varieties of single roof.
Lean to roof
Couple roof

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Couple close roof
Collar beam roof
Monopitched roof
Double lean roof
Lean to roof:
It is the simplest form of a pitched
roof and it is known as pent roof or
Aisle roof. In this type of roof, one
wall is carried up sufficiently higher
than the other to give necessary
slope to the roof. A lean-to roof is
generally used for sheds, out-
houses attached to main
buildings verandah etc. This is
suitable for a maximum span of
2.40m
Couple roof:
In this type of roof the common
rafters slope upwards from the
opposite walls and they meet on
a ridge piece in the middle. A
couple roofs are suitable for spans
up to about 3.6m.
Couple close roof:
This roof is just similar to couple
roof except that the legs of the
common rafters are connected by a
tie beam. The tie beam prevents
the tendency of rafters to spread
out and thus danger of overturning
of the walls is avoided. This roof
can be adopted economically up to
the span of 4.2m.
Collar beam roof:
The tie beam is raised and placed
at a higher level and this is known
as collar or collar beam. This beam
roof is adopted to economize the
space and to increase the height of a
room. This roof can be adopted up to
a maximum span of 4.8m.
Double or purlin roofs:
When the span exceeds 2.4m, the
necessary size for the rafters
becomes uneconomical. Hence in
order to reduce the size of rafters,

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intermediate supports called purlins are introduced under the rafters. This roof
can be adopted economically up to 4.8m.
Monopitched roof
This slop from its own higher wall to its own lower wall

Double lean roof

This kind of roof has two roof sloping to meet an internal division wall where a
gutter is formed.

Trussed roofs:
When the span exceeds 4.8m and when there are no inside supporting walls or
partitions for purlins, framed structure known as trusses are on the roof,
position of cross walls, span and material of the truss. The spacing is 3m for
wooden trusses. Trusses carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the common
rafters rest. Some of the usual forms of roof truss are given below.
 King-post truss
 Queen post truss

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 Mansard truss
 Truncated truss
 Bel-fast truss
 Steel trusses
 Composite trusses
King post truss:
In this type of truss, the central
post known as king-post forms
support for the tie beam. The
inclined
Members, known as struts,
prevent the principal rafters from
bending in the middle. A king-post truss suitable for roofs of span varying from 5
to 8 m.
Queen post truss:
This truss is differing from a
king-post truss in having two
vertical members known as
queen posts. The upper ends
of the queen posts are kept
in position by means of a
horizontal member known as
straining beam. Additional
purlins are supported on the
queen posts. A queen post
truss is suitable for roof spans varying 8 to 12 m.
Mansard truss:
This is a combination of king post and queen post trusses. Lower queen post &
upper king post trusses. Use of mansard trusses results in the economy of space
and room may be provided in the room.

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Truncated truss:
This is similar to mansard except that the top is finished flat.
Steel trusses:
For spans greater 12m, it becomes
economical to use steel trusses. For smaller
spans, steel trusses consist of angles riveted
or welded together through plates known as
gusset plates. As steel resists both
compression and tension stresses, the
design of steel truss is simplified various types of steel trusses are;

Composite stress:
This truss composed of wooden
members and steel. Steel members
resist tension. A composite truss is light
and economical. The factors should be
considered before selecting the type of
roof covering for pitched roof
Climate of the locality
Nature of the building
Initial cost and maintenance cost
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Resistance to fire and heat
Special features of the locality.
Flat Roofs:
A roof which is nearly flat is known as flat roof. It should be noted that no roof
can be laid perfectly level. The roof must slope in one direction or the other to
cause rain water to flow off rapidly and easily. The construction of flat roof is the
same as that of floors except that the top surface is made slightly sloping in case
of flat roofs.
The types of flat roofs commonly used are
Madras terrace roof
Bengal terrace roof
Madras Terrace Roof:
Procedure of construction:
1) Teak wood joists are placed on
rolled steel joists with a furring
piece between the joists and rolled
steel joists. The furring is placed
sloping and gives necessary slope to
the flat roof
2) A course of specially prepared
terrace bricks of 150x75x25mm is
laid diagonally across the joists with
lime mortar
3) After the brick course, has set, a
course of brick bat concrete of
75mm thick with 3 parts of brick
bats, one part of gravel and sand
and 50 percent of lime mortar by
volume is laid.
4) The concrete is well rammed for
three days and allowed to set
5) Flat tiles are laid over the layer of
concrete of thickness 50mm
6) Finally, the surface of roof is
finished with three coats of plaster
given a slope of 1 in 30.
7) As this type of flat roof is widely
used in madras state, it is known as madras terrace roof.
Bengal terrace roof:
Procedure of construction:
1) Rafters are placed, with a slight inclination, at 30cm to 50cm c/c. one end of
the rafters is inserted into the main wall to a depth of 20cm and its other end is
supported on a verandah wall.
2) Battens are placed at right angles to the rafters at a centre to centre distance
of about 15cm
3) A course of flat tiles is then laid in mortar over the battens.

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4) Finally, the surface of the roof is finished in any one of the following methods
Two or more courses of flat tiles may be laid and the surface of roof is rubbed
and polished with two or three coats of plaster
A layer of jelly concrete of 40mm thick may be laid over the first course of
files. On this layer of concrete, another course of flat tiles is laid and the surface
of roof is rubbed and polished with two or three coats of plaster
5) As this type of roof is mainly used in Bengal state to cover verandahs, it is
known as Bengal Terrace roof.
Advantages of flat roofs:
 The construction of roof is simplified
 It is easier to make a flat roof fire-proof than a sloping roof
 The roof can be utilized as roof garden, drying yards and conveniently be used
for sleeping in hot season.
 The construction of work of upper floors can be easily started whereas pitched
roof, the entire roof is to removed and is to be replaced by a new floor under
such circumstances
 Flat roofs are economical than pitched roof.
Disadvantages
 Flat roofs cannot be used for long spans without introduction of intermediate
pillars and beams
 Cracks are developed on the surface of the roof due to the variation in
temperature
 Pockets of water are formed on the surface of the roof if slope is not sufficient
and leads to leakage of roof
 Flat roofs are not suitable, where rainfall is heavy
 The dead weight of flat roof is
considered and hence it proves to
be more expensive, Initial cost is
higher than pitched roof.
Curved roofs:
These are the just the modifications
of pitched roofs and are frequently
employed in modern age to cover
large areas shed/roofs and domes
are the varieties of curved roofs.
They are useful for big structures
such as factories, monumental
works etc. curved roofs may be
constructed of timber or R.C.C. the
latter material being very common now-a-days.
They are two common forms of a shell roof
 A north-light shell roof
 A barrel vault shell roof
Barrel vault shell roof
A dome is a round vault forming a roof. It is
useful when roof is to be provided on circular

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brick work or regular polygon shaped walls. Curved roofs afford pleasing
appearance and due to arch action, the stresses are considerably reduced which
results in thin sections for a curved roof.
Procedure of construction
1) Pre-cast units of cement concrete tiles of size 70 x 70cm with a uniform
minimum thickness of 20mm in the form of domes with a rise of about 50mm are
used
2) Pre-cast units of R.C.C. 1:2:4 beams are prepared as per design usually 90mm
deep and 130mm wide as per design usually 90mm deep and 130mm wide
3) The beams are suitably laid across the supporting walls
4) The tiles are placed in position after spreading some mortar on the edges of
beams. The minimum bearing of tiles on beams should be 25mm and that on
walls should be 50mm to 70mm
5) The haunches between the humps of tiles are filled up with cement concrete of
proportion 1:2:4
6) Suitable water-proofing treatment to the roof is given at the top. The roof thus
exhibits a flat surface at the top and curved surface at bottom.
Advantages
 It can be constructed in short time
 It does not require skilled supervision
 It is cheap in construction
 It requires less frame work
Triple timber pitched roof;
Triple timber pitched roof is a framed roof or a trussed roof. It is termed triple
roof due to the addition of the framed unit call roof truss.
Triple roof consists of triple sets of roof load bearing members as;
Set of spars– to distribute loads to the purling
Set of purling– to distribute roof loads to the trusses.
Set of trusses– to distribute the roof loads to the wall plates for the wall to
bear.
In brief;
Single roof
This has only spars to transmit roof loads to the wall plates.
Double roof
This has both spars and purling to transmit roof loads to the wall plates.
Triple roof
This has all the three, i.e. spars, purling and trusses that are employed to
transmit wads of the roof to the wall plates.
Thus, design and choice of a roof stricter from the above is made considering
mainly;
 Span of the building.
 Economy in the erection
 Functional requirements
 Weights and types of roof coverings.
Triple roof is of two forms of roof truss as
Building up truss

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Glued lamination portal frame
Building up truss;
A built-up truss consists of principal rafter’s main tie and struts.
Fabrication:
Fabrication is done according to the chosen design.
Two common and most popular designs are;
 W-Truss
 Fink truss and
 Fan truss.
Therefore, in the construction of trusses the following factors are to be put into
consideration
 -Ensure that the moisture content of the timber work pieces is 20% or forming
nod joints.
 -Butt the member together forming nod joints.
 -Reinforce the nod joints by means of;
Poly wood gussets- Nailed to both side
Or Steel plates - fixed over the nod joints.
Or punched -Toothed plates – Driven in the members
Or Bolts and timber toothed connectors.
Or Bolts and timbers split ring connectors.
All the above are the different method of making nod joints.

W-TRUSS/ FINK TRUSS FAN TRUSS

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Built- up fink truss as chosen for example
In built-up trusses, the principals’ main tie and struts are double members while
the inclined ties are single members
W-trussed rafter roof with nod joints reinforced by gussets.
In trussed rafters all the members are single.
Roof Truss
Roof truss is applied where the roof span is clear and un interrupted like a dining
hall without a partition. The trusses are space along the length of the roof at
intervals of up to 1.800M. cc
Purlins are the horizontal beam in a roof running at right angle to the principal
rafters.
Site Storage of Roof Truss:
 Make flat and leveled bearers on which the rafters are stacked above the
ground level to avoid rising damp from the grown.
 Provide covering and ventilation to the shack to protect the rafter from sun,
rain water and allow air circulation in the shack.
Roof Erection:
Below are the stages in roof erection;
1. Mark and fix truss clip on the wall plates to receive truss- rafters.
2. Position the truss- rafter of the beginning plumb and fix temporary stays to the
rafter.
3. Position the following rafter and fix it by means of battens to the first rafter
4. Fix the remaining trusses in the same way and fix diagonal braces to the
underside of the rafters and wall plate.
5. Securely fix all the longitudinal members known as BINDERS and all the
trusses.
6. Fix all holding device like anchors, straps, etc.
NB:
Water storage tanks in the roof- void is supported by means of the trussed
rafters and two cross-bars laid as close as possible to the nods.
Roof Openings:
Roofs may require chimney shack, ventilators or roof lights/ windows and
therefore, openings are to be created on roofs to accommodate constructions for
their ways.
Penetrated roofs are framed or trimmed for the openings in the similar way done
to floor openings.
Trimming to roof opening

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Eaves
This is the lowest overhanging part of the sloping roof
Eaves details
No. Eaves Type Illustration Description
Flush eave This has spar feet
lapping wall 25mm for
roofing space
ventilation.
Has fascia board
nailed to trim the
sloping roof and act as a
bearer for the gutter
Open eave Has spar feet lapping
well beyond the wall
without fascia board.

Closed eave Has spar feet well

over hanging but closed
by fascia board and
soffit board

Sprocket eave The sprocket reduces

the pitch of a steep roof
at the eave and slower
the speed of water that
could have flown over
the gutter

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SUB MODULE 5: FRAMES AND SHUTTERS
DOORS
Definition of Doors
Doors are defined as-
Movable barriers used to cover openings through enclosing fabric of building and
internal partition, or screens used to seal openings into buildings and rooms
within buildings.
Door way is an opening for access where the door frame and shutters and fitted.
They are made of timber, glass, metal, plastic or any combination of these
materials.
Doors are building components that are classed as EXTERNAL and INTERNAL
doors. External doors are thicker and more robust in design than internal doors
as they have more functions to fulfill.
FUNCTIONS AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
Doors have many requirements to fulfill the functions or performances expected
of them, but a limited number of them is maintained.
The limited number of the requirements maintains is also treated with priority,
depending on the situation under which a door is performing.
TYPICAL FUNCTIONS AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A DOOR
FUNCTIONS OF DOOOR FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
Providing access and egress to people Suitability constructed and well
and their properties through enclosing finished doors that withstand natural
fabric of a building. elements.
Giving good appearance of the Conformity with the surrounding
combination of itself and the entire fabric.
enclosing of fabric of a building.
Excluding wind, rain and snow from the Closing fitting of a door into its frame.
interior of a building.
Shedding off surface water from its Weathered bottom of a door.
face.
Providing privacy and thermal comfort. Proper fitting with minimum gap of
2mm between door and frame.
Providing natural day light to the Glazed area.
interior of a building.
Providing of safe means of escape to A designed door that gives required
the building’s occupants for a period of fire resistance.
time under fire condition.
Providing security for the interior of the Adequate locks and bolts.
building.
TYPES OF DOORS
Doors are made into two main categories.
Standard doors
These are doors made and manufactured to B.S specification of quality and
dimensions. They have common members with repetitive dimension that makes
massive production achieved. Thus, standard doors are cheaper in making in
term of cost as compared to purpose made doors.

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Purpose made doors
 These are doors of none standards sizes, but designed or shaped locally to fit
none- standard required openings.
 These kinds of doors are used in banks, shops theaters, hotels and civic
buildings (town hall buildings)
 Types or classes of doors came from a door’s methods of construction, kind of
function or their position in building.

Two major classes of doors are;

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EXTERNAL DOORS

INTERNAL DOORS.

These are classified in to three main groups, namely: -

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a) Match board doors
b) Paneled and glazed doors
c) Flush doors.
DOOR CONSTRUCTIONS
MATCH BOARDED DOORS OR BOARDED DOORS
Match boarded or battened doors are classified into: -
(i). ledged and battened door.
(ii). Ledged braced and battened door.
(iii). Framed ledged and battened door.
(iv) Framed ledged braced and battened door
Ledged and battened door;
 Ledged and battened door
Is a none standard or a purpose made door.
The use of this type of door is limited to
buildings such as sheds, small units like trap
doors and out-house like simple houses that
may be attached to the main building to keep
minor items. These doors are simple and
cheap to make.
 Ledged and battened doors
Consist of vertical boards called BATTENS that
are secured to horizontal pieces called
LEDGES.
 The narrow the battens, the more the
satisfactory appearance. Decorative forms of
joints between edges of assembled boards improved the appearance and even
after shrinking take place.
 Below are sketches showing six forms of match boarding joints as alternative
methods as numbered with corresponding names above.

Preparation of timber materials.

1. Plain piece of required timber sizes.
2. Do the grooving, tonguing, chamfering and beading on batten required edges.
3. Paint the edges of battens and back of the ledges.
 Painting backs of ledges coming into contact with battens, edges, tongues and
grooves of batten before assembling the door is to avoid later expose of
unpainted margins due to effect of shrinkage giving bad appearance.

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 Painting preserves and also prevents water from lodging into joins to cause
rot.
ASSEMBLING PROCEDURE OF LEDGE AND BATTENED DOOR:
Stage 1.
a) Cut the battens and ledges to lengths.
b) Check on twisted ledges and correct them by planning.
Stage 2.
a) Rest the battens’ faces down across three bearers then lightly cramp the
battens together as illustrated below.
b) Mark positions of the ledges on the battens and
temporally nails ledges on the battens.
c) Turn the door upside down.
d) Support the ledges across two temporally
bearers and complete proper nailing as illustrated
below.
Return the door with front face supported on the
two temporal bearers.
Clench all the nails along the direction of the grain,
and then punch the clench below wood surface
Stage 3.
a) Cut batten edges off square.
I.e. clean and sandpaper the edges to square.
(b) Dress batten top and bottom off level.
I.e. plain and sun paper top and bottom surfaces to level.
 These ledge and battened doors are liable to sag toward the bottom of the free
edge with time and this defect can be reduced by screwing battens to the ledges
instead nailing.
 They are also liable to twist and this is overcome by use of well-seasoned and
good quality timber.
(ii) Ledged braced and battened door;
 Ledged braced and battened door or ledged braced and match board door is a
ledged and battened door with inclined struts or braces added between ledges.
 These braces increase the rigidity of the door each brace must always raise
from the hanging side diagonally up wards for its effectiveness in holding the
door against dropping at its nose.
 The use of this type of door is the same as that of ledged and battened door,
but its greater strength may make it selected for larger openings.
 Construction of this type of door is similar to that of ledged and battened door
and only that braces are fitted diagonally in between the ledges as illustrated
below.
(iii). Framed ledged and battened door.
 Framed ledge and battened door are similar to framed ledged braced and
battened door as its braces only are omitted.
 This type of door has a tendency of getting distorted due to lack of braces and
as such, it has small demand.
(iv). Framed ledged braced and battened door

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 Framed ledged brace and matched boarded door of standard type is a ledged
braced and matched boarded door with framed round it for more strength and
rigidity.
 Framed ledged brace and match boarded door is then the most superior doors
as compared to other types of doors. It is very satisfactory for external use
where strength is important and is suited for factories, warehouse, firm buildings
and buildings with doors subjected to rain or
rough treatment.
The construction of these types of match
boarded doors includes a framing strengthened
by ledges and braces then battens. The frame
work consists of horizon to top member called
TOP RAIL which is haunch mortis and tenoned
into vertical side members called STILL.
 The middle and bottom rails called LEDGES
are mortised and tanned in the stiles. The
diagonal members called BRACES must be
inclined upwards from the hanging stiles.
The battens are joined by any of the match
boarded methods of joints given above. Ends of
the match battens are tongued unto the top
rails and butt-jointed to the bottom rails while
side battens are tongued into the stiles.
These doors are used as internal and external
doors.
Framed ledged braced and match boarded door details with standard dimensions
are illustrated in the sketches below: -
Drawing
GUARAGE DOOR
An enclosing fabric of garage requires large entrance through it. This entrance
requires a type of door with more strength like framed ledged braced and match
board door.
Since the opening is larger and out of standard, a purpose made or a traditional
type of a framed, ledged braced and matched boarded door is employed for this
case and under the same principles of construction.
Frame and filled doors:
This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with Tongue
and Grooved boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather
face.

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Louvered Doors:
In this type of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either fully or
partly. The louvers are arranged at such an inclination that horizontal vision is
obstructed. The louvers maybe movable or fixe

Collapsible Steel Doors:

It consists of a mild steel
frame. A collapsible steel
door works without hinges
and it is used for compound
gates, residential building,
schools, sheds, goes downs,
workshop, public building,
etc.

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Revolving Doors:
It essentially consists of a centrally placed mullion in a circular opening revolving
shutters which are 4 in number are radially attached to pivot as shown in fig.

GARAGE DOOR CONSTRUCTION

Following are the principles of the construction of a framed, ledged, braced and
matched boarded door is a typical and suitable quality of a pair of garage door is
designed with glazing area on top of the middle rails this external door has
glasses embedded in to the rebate externally on the weather side of the door.
The principles of the construction are in the following illustrations:
Drawing
Paneled and Glazed Doors:
Paneled doors consist of a frame work with grooved or rebated members to
receive panels.
The framing members of this door are either horizontal or vertical. All the
horizontal members are called RAILS. The two outside vertical members are
called STILES.
Horizontal members are named according to their position in the door as Top rail,
Middle rail, Bottom rail and intermediate rail.
Intermediate vertical members are called Muntin.
Below is sketch of a typical paneled door with standard dimension and terms on
individual member.

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A TYPICAL PANEL DOOR

The middle and bottom rails are deeper in sections as they serve to hold the door
square and prevent sagging.
muntin is introduced to reduce the panel widths they would result in greater
damage due to moisture movement effect.
Horns are left un cut during door construction to serve two purposes;
 To allow effective wedging of the joint without splitting of the stile.
 To protect the bottom and top edge surfaces while handling before hanging.
The available types of panel doors are;
 Single panel door,
 Double Panel door,
 Triple panel door,
 Four Panel door,
 Five Panel door
 Six- Panel door.
Types of panels are;
 Flat glass panel,
 flat solid panel,
 flat plywood- panel,
 Single raised panel,
 Double raised panel and
 Flush panel door.
Panels are fitted into groove that is ploughed around the inside of framing edges.

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A joint between the panels and the framework is sealed by decorative molding as
illustrated below;
Panel doors:
Panel doors, also called stile
and rail doors, are built with
frame and panel construction.
EN 12519 is describing the
terms which are officially
used in European Member
States. The main parts are
listed below:
 Stiles - Vertical boards
that run the full height of a
door and compose its right
and left edges. The hinges
are mounted to the fixed side
(known as the "hanging
stile"), and the handle, lock,
bolt, and/or latch are
mounted on the swinging side
(known as the "latch stile").
 Rails- Horizontal boards at
the top, bottom, and
optionally in
the middle of a door that
joins the two stiles and split
the door into two or more
rows of panels. The "top rail"
and "bottom rail" are named for
their positions. The bottom rail is
also known as "kick rail". A
middle rail at the height of the
bolt is known as the "lock rail",
other middle rails are commonly
known as "cross rails".
 Mullions - Smaller optional
vertical boards that run between
two rails, and split the door into
two or more columns of panels,
the term is used sometimes for
verticals in doors, but more
often (UK and Australia) it refers
to verticals in windows.
 Muntin - Optional vertical
members that divide the door
into smaller panels.

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 Panels - Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails,
and mullions. The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to
keep the door rigid. Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs. Can be glued
in or stay as a floating panel.
 Light or lite - a piece of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the
door a window.
Panel Doors and Weather boards.
For external doors, panel doors are provided with WEATHER BOARDS and fitted
onto the bottom rail to exclude water from the inside of an opening as illustrated
below.
Drawing
Flush Doors
Flush doors have the advantages of being produced massively at a comparatively
low cost and possessing fair dust free surface that is easy to clean and decorate.
Flush doors consist of either hollow or solid core and are faced with sheets of ply
wood or hard board and lippie of solid materials are fitted at the edges.
Hollow or Framed Flush Doors:
There are two methods of constructing a hollow flush door as;
 Lattice core
Where the core is consisting of narrow strips of hard board arranged to cross one
another forming small square spaces.
 Skeleton core
The construction is as illustrated below

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Laminated flush door

It consists of styles, rails, laminated core and plywood as shown in fig.

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Fire Doors:
Fire doors are made up of protective materials that act as a barrier to any
possible fire attack. They provide effective barrier to fire that may pass from, or
to a room within the building for a stated period of time before they finally
collapse under fire conditions.
Thus, a fire door provides safe means of escape to the building’s occupants
within a stated period of time.
Fire doors are used for sealing significant passages within a building that is used
by the building’s occupants. Possible significant passages within the building are;
 Access through a separating wall or partition.
 Access through a wall to a protective shaft (route).
 Access through a wall leading to an attached garage or a boiler-house.
Fire doors are of different types, varying from one to another by the number of
minutes that each of them is designed to last under fire condition. Hence it is the
Local Authority’s Fire Prevention Officer to advise on the designed fire doors
suitable for the required location of the door in the building before placing the
order for the required fire doors.
A fire doors resistance to fire is measured by the RATING of its STABILITY to its
INTERGRITY.
STABILITY is the resistance in minutes up to the collapse of a door under fire
condition.
INTERGRITY is the resistance in minutes up to the penetration through the door
by flame and hot gasses under fire condition.
Types of Fire Doors:
Types of fire doors are based on the types of the material employed in the
construction of the door giving different magnitudes of Stability / Integrity and
Rating respectively as 30/20, where the required magnitude of stability of the
material is designed to last 30 minutes and the reduced magnitude of the
material 20 minutes under fire condition.
The designed and available various magnitudes of stability/ integrity rating are
30/20, 30/30, 60/45 and 60/60.
From the above, types of fire door with their respective stability/ integrity rating
respectively are;

S/no, TYPES RATING DESCRIPTIONS

01  Half hour 30/20  It has required stability of 30
 Fire check rating and reduced integrity of 20
 Solid door rating.
02  Half hour 30/20  Also has required stability of 30
 Fire check rating and reduced integrity of 20
 Flush door rating.
03  One hour 60/45  It has required stability of 60
 Fire check rating and reduced integrity of 45
 Flush door rating.

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04  Half hour 30/30  It has required stability of 30
 Fire resistant rating and reduced integrity of 30
 Solid door rating due to intumescent strip
added to its edges and rebates
05  Half hour 30/30  It has required stability of 30
 Fire resistant rating and reduced integrity of 30
 Flush door rating also due to intumescent
strip added to its edges and rebates
06  One hour 60/60  It has required stability of 60
 Fire resistant rating and reduced integrity of 60
 Flush door rating as well due to intumescent
strip added to the doors
Construction of Fire –Doors:
 Standard size of 0.5hr fire door is 838mm x 44mm x 1981mm.
 Standard size of 1hr fire door is 838mm x 54mm 1981mm.
 All wooden members involved in the fire doors construction are impregnated
with 15% to 18% solution of oxoammonium phosphate in water.
 Fire door frame are of 65mm x 95mm members with planted rebates or
rebates from solid timber
 Door members are of 38mm x 95mm dimensions with 10mm x 25mm rebates
on both sides to receive the protective plaster board infill. 4.5mm thick
asbestos layer is bedded on the plaster board and door framing 3mm plywood
or hard board is a facing to the door. Lipping’s must continue all round door
edges.
 Joints between door members are strengthened by means of synthetic resin
adhesive glue.
 Timbers for the construction of fire doors are dense solid hard wood like Oak,
Teak, etc.
Half Hour Fire Check Solid Door, 30/20 Rating:

Half hour fire check flush door, 30/20 rating

Below are the sketches showing constructional set up of the members with
standard dimension for the door.

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One-hour fire check of wish door, 60/45 rating

Below are the sketches showing constructional set up of the members with
standard dimensions for the door.

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Suitable glazing for half an hour fire check door 30/20 rating

FIRE DOOR SEALS:

Joint between fire door and frame can be penetrated by fire and smoke. To avoid
this penetration, the joint can be sealed by means of intumescent seal and
smoke seal to prolong the doors integrity as illustrated below;
DOOR FRAME:
Door frame are used for supporting doors which close openings in brick or block
structures.
They are the timber frames that are firmly fixed lining with wall in the opening.
A door frame is required to support the door when hung as its swings on its
hinges. The door frame is also required to provide means of securing the door. It
has a rebate as a door stop to door from swinging through the opening, straining
the hinge and splitting the jamb.

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A door frame is fitted in to the wall opening in two ways;

 During the walling.
 After the walling.
During the walling:
The door frame is fixed in its position as the wall is being erected and secure it
on the floor is by means of metal below or metal shoe or in-situ concrete up
stand.
It is plump and supported temporarily by means of stout stays that are anchored
to the floor and nailed to the head.
The backs of the jambs are fixed with wall clamps at intervals of 500mm by
means of screws to hold the frame into the wall.
After the wall:
The frame is fixed into an existing opening by means of fixing devices like; wood
ply plastic ply, or built in fixings like timber blocks/ pallets that are buried in the
wall to receive screwing.
Below are the sketches showing a typical door frame and methods f joints
involved during assembly and erection.
Drawing.
Door Frame Assembly and Erection:
Fitting and Hanging Door Frame;
PROCEDURE:
 Check to ensure that the door is parallel with the floor or threshold/ sill by
making temperature fitting.
 Bevel the closing edge 3mm to provide door clearance of entering into the
rebate.

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 Remove waste wood to give clearance of 2-3mm at the sides and top, then 4-
6mm to the floor
 Cut recess and fix the hinges on the door’s hanging side by means of two
screws per hinge.
 Position the door into its frame, check the door for clearance using thin wedges
to hold the door and mark position of hinges for cutting recess on the frame.
 Remove the door and cut recesses frame jamb.
 Fit the door into the rebates correctly and first fix the top hinge to the jamb
then bottom hinge with one screw each.
 After the door closing and opening well, where the hinges are not repainted,
unscrew all the hinges starting with the top hinge on the jambs and finally
remove all and paint the backs of the hinges.
 Rehang the door and fix all the remaining screws.
Ironmongery for Doors:
Locks:
Locks are door fasteners that are operated by means of keys for security. E.g.
upright mortise lock, security dead lock, horizontal mortise lock and Rim lock
also Rebated mortise lock used on meeting rebates.

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Latches:
Latches are door fasteners that fasten or lock the door in to the jamb
automatically by means of springs but in them. E.g. Cylinder/rim night latch and
mortise latch.

Bolts:
Bolts are used to prevent doors opening for security. E.g. Barrel bolt, tower bolt,
monkey tail bolt used on large doors and gates and the flush bolts- used to
maintain flush surfaces of door.

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Hinges:
Hinges are used for hanging both interior and external door. They are called butt
hinges. E.g.
 Butting hinge, rising butt hinge- used for giving more clearance between door
and floor on opening,
 parliament hinge- is designed to allow a door opens further outside the door
opening and position its shelf close to the wall surface to minimize
obstructions,
 Hook and band- used on heavy doors and gates
 Reversible hinge also used on heavy doors and gates.

Casement Windows:
The main functions of window in a building are;
 To allow natural air to enter into the building.
 To exclude wind, rain and snow from a building.
 To open and provide a ventilation to a building.
 To admit day light into rooms of a building.
 To allow vision outside the building.
A window consists of a frame and a glazed unit known as SASH. A sash hung
vertical and opening outwards is called a Casement.
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Types of window mainly used:
 Casement windows.
 Double hung sashes or sliding sashes.
 Pivoted casements.
Casement Window Construction:
The methods of construction depend on the;
 Types of window and the
 Profile of its section.
Two types of casement window are;
 Traditional casement window
 Storm roof casement window
Traditional casement window
This type houses its sash fully within its frame.
Storm proof casement window:
This types do not house its sash fully in to the frame. It has double- rebates
system, one on the frame and another on the sash as show below.
Drawing.
Detail of Section Y-Y for Storm Proof Casement Window
Water or moisture on the ground, surrounding a building or on the surface of a
building, travel up to the interior of a building through the building components
or gaps left between them by means of CAPILLARY action.
The gaps left around doors and sashes promote capillary action to allow water
penetrate into the building even defying the laws of gravity
A water- checked casement window as in the illustration above, has methods of
directing surface water from the gap area to the outer surface of the wall and
method of dripping off that surface water
Fixing a window frame in to the building fabric is similar to methods of fixing a
door frame described earlier.
Sash Hanging:
Window sashes are hung in three ways as below:
 Clockwise hung -where hinges are on the right from external.
 Anti-clockwise -where hinges are on the left from external.

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 Top hung -where the hinges are fixed on the head piece of window

frame.

NB. Other remaining types of window for your research are:

 Horizontal pivot hung window,

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 Double hung sash window,

 Sky light window, Bay window, etc.

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Window Hardware/ Ironmongery:

Hardware for window includes;
Hinges
 Butt-hinge- used for hanging sashes
 Storm proof hinge- used for hanging storm roof sashes.
 Easy- clean hinge;
Window Fastener; this includes,
 Casement stay-
A bar fitted on the bottom of a window casement with spaced holes bored in it
to receive peg stay.
 Peg stay-
It is a pin fixed on the bottom of a window frame to hold the window casement
in place by means of the holes in the casement stay.

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SUB MODULE 6:
FORM WORK AND TEMPORAY SUPPORTS:
FORM WORK:
Form work is the general name for all types of molds or mold boxes that are
used for casting concrete in to various required forms or shapes
Soft wood timbers are generally used for the construction. The timbers used or
required are partially seasoned or wetted-dry-timber in order to avoid absorption
of moisture from wet concrete.
From work for high finished concrete forms must have the insides of the mold
boxes lined with extra grade ply wood or hard board.
When the concrete is not to be plastered, then the inside surfaces are treated
with parting/finishing agents such as mold oil soft soap solution, lime wash or
diesel oil to avoid concrete getting stuck on the walls.
Loads on Form Work:
 Form work carries dead loads which are static loads such as the weight of the
form work and the wet concrete plus its steel reinforcement. On hardening the
concrete weight because less and the concrete becomes self- supporting.
 The from work also carries live load which are the workers, work force,
materials and equipment that are imposed during the erection of the formwork.
Formworks carries vertical loads unlike that of suspended floor and floor slabs,
which have less lateral pressure built up by concrete and its fluid. Form work
carrying concrete load with greater depths such as in columns walls and deep
beams; have greater fluid pressure exerted on them.
The fluid pressures have varying degrees i.e lower at the top and high at the
bottom of the wet concrete in the column mold box which is known as
hydrostatic pressure.
The Design of Formwork
The following functional designs of formwork are;
 Formwork is designed to withstand dead and live loads.
 To be easily assembled and dismountable.
 To be accurately able to produce or reproduce concrete items of concrete sizes
and shapes.
 To produce the desired to finish on concrete face.
 To be economically re-useable.
The Construction of Concrete Formwork:
Concrete form work is divided into two main groups;
 Cast in- situ concrete form.
 Pre-cast concrete form.

Cast in- situ concrete formwork:

The formwork for cast in-situ concrete is known as Shuttering. The shuttering is
erected to cast the concrete in its final position.
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The main types of cast in- situ formworks are;
 Base formwork.
 Column formwork.
 Wall formwork.
 Suspended floor and roof formwork.
 Beam formwork.
Base concrete formwork:
Base concrete or fixed concrete slab is required to provide drive- concrete yard
such as;
 concrete path,
 light garage
 Shed floors.
The construction of its formwork requires simple forms with only side boards held
by stakes firmly driven onto the ground.
There are two methods or alternative mean of anchoring the base of concrete
column to the pointed location during its erection are as below;
 Column box anchor frame
 Kicker mold box

Column formwork:
Formwork boxes or shuttering for square or rectangular concrete column must be
securely anchored at its base to avoid moving away from its alignment/
appointed location, during construction or while pouring wet concrete.
There are two methods of achieving the above;
 By means of column-boxes, anchor, is first erected and fixed in to the floor at
the appointed location
 Then the whole column box is brought fitted and securely fixed on to anchor to
receive casting.
OR
 By means of Kicker, mold box for casting kicker are first erected at the
appointed location,
 Then later the whole column box is fitted and hooked round the kicker for
further development of the concrete column.
Methods / Types of formwork box construction for column
The main common different types of formwork construction for column are;
 Formwork with sheet lining
 Formwork with grade ply wood or ply wood sheeting

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 Octagonal column formwork
 Circular formwork
 Corner column formwork
 Shape end column formwork
Some concrete columns are required to be tall, to avoid much weight and much
fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete content during
erection, column boxes are constructed reasonably short, then the required full
height of the column is achieving by casting the concrete column in more than
one lift/ in bits not at once.
Methods of formwork box construction for column
a) The desired types of formwork or column box are constructed in the workshop
or at site.
b) It is then either anchored on to the column –box- anchor-frame or kicker-
mold-
c) The box is removed from the casted base- concrete column kicker, and then
the column boxes are anchored on the kicker for uprightness.
d) The column boxes are plumbed and held vertically with raking props.
e) The wet concrete is then poured into the boxes that are anchored on the
anchor frame or kicker to start the first lift of the concrete column.
The short formwork designed to be raised vertically for more lifts, is known as
‘Climbing- formwork’ or ‘Moving formwork’
Formwork with sheet lining in isometric drawing.

Formworks with grade ply wood or plying wood sheeting in isometric

drawing.

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Octagonal column formwork in section & Circular column formwork in section

Corner column formwork in section

Shaped end column frame in section
Spacing of Yoke on Forms:
Forms or shutters are the member of the formwork which comes into contact
with concrete being casted in form of panel of board or plywood. The form is
stiffened by other formwork members like the
 Bearers,
 ribs,
 Wooden yoke or Metal yoke.
The spacing of the yokes is designed to resist the hydrostatic pressures of the
wet concrete which is greater at the bottom of the shuttering.
Thus yokes are spaced closer at the bottom of the shuttering as illustrated in a
diagram below.

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The spacing of the yokes is as well governed by the capacity of the shuttering to
take the pressure of the wet concrete without bending and the strength of the
yoke to take pressure from the shuttering.
Wall formwork:
Wall formwork or shuttering is constructed in various ways and the same general
methods are applied in all kinds of wall forms.
Units or panels of wall forms are fabricated and assembled, including the
following members;
Wall panels
This is of exterior grade resin/gum mastic bonded plywood or boards of solid
timber.
Waller’s
This is used for stiffening the wall panels.
Soldiers or studs
They are vertical members on which panels are fixed.
Spacers
This is used for keeping both panels and forms in correct distance apart.
Ties
Used for tying the panels firm in position
Struts Used as vertical support to keep the form perpendicular as it sets.
Sole piece
Strip of timber lay on the ground with one end nailed at the foot of a soldier at
right angle and the other end nailed at the foot of a strut.
Sole plate
It is a timber block nailed on the sole piece or anchored in to the concrete slab to
stop the prop from slipping off.
Stakes
It is a pointed timber member which are driven in to the ground to stop the feet
of the props from slipping off.
Wall formwork construction:
Walls are casted with two or more lifts of formworks due to their great height, a
kicker is first casted as an anchorage on which the first lift is embedded, wall
formwork alternative methods of constructions are as illustrated below;
Steps in Casting Column
Kicker
1st lift casting
2nd lift casting and different types of ties and etc.

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Methods of wall formwork construction

 Horizontal boards or sheeting are used for formwork built in place
 A panel wall form uses walling as horizontal members to keep the studs or
soldiers in line and stiffen the form.
 Panels of wall formwork are made in advance for easier erection and repetitive
work.
 The shuttering to be anchored on the base concreted as a strut coming from a
sole piece which is fixed by a steel anchor that is embedded in a base
concrete.
 The shuttering to be erected on the ground has a strut nailed to a brace which
is also nailed to a stake that is driven in to the ground.
Progressing with more lift by raising the forms vertically is known as climbing –
formwork’ or ‘moving – formwork’
Alternatives for wooden tie and spacer are;
Coil tie
Serves as a distance piece for keeping both panels in correct distance a part and
firm in position.
It is made up of bolts and washers, cone or bobbin, then tie.
The cone hole left on the wall after striking is filled or left as an anchor point.
Tapered tie –
It is tapered for easy withdrawal.

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Crimped tie –
It remains embedded in the wall while the end pieces are removed and filled.
Plastic tube-spacer –
It serves as the above coil tie.
Beam formwork and lintel formwork:
Beam and lintel formworks have the same principal in the constructions;
Lintel
Is a short beam carrying load of wall over door or window openings?
These formworks require soffit and side support to the wet concrete: various
methods of supporting areas illustrated below;
 Single headed tree form support Double headed tree beam form support

Adjustable beam clamp form support

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 Stirrup headed adjustable steel twin

prop that are other alternative of
supporting beam form

 UB steel formwork or I beam

formwork that is used for casting
concrete round the I beam

 Coiled – steel beam hanger or arrangement, it is used for supporting both

soffit and side forms for the wet concrete being casted round the UB steel beam.

Floor concrete slab

Suspended Floor and Roof Concrete Form Work
Floor and roof forms that are also known as “decking” are of concrete and during
its casting.
The form or decking is supported by prefabricated formwork units or decking-
units which are made in standard sizes and consisting of decking and joints.
The ready prefabricated formwork
This unit is positioned onto a pre-arranged assembly of ledger, props and bracing
as illustrated below. Crane is one of the means of lifting and positioning the unit.
Drawing

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The other method of supporting the framed panels or decking-units is by means
of steel hanger instead of props, as illustrated on the next page.

Pre-cast concrete formwork

These are mold boxes which are designed and constructed to accurately form the
required shape of concrete such as;
 Pre-cast concrete post
 Pre-cast concrete panel
 Pre-cast concrete sill
 Pre-cast concrete beam
 Pre-cast concrete cornice
 Pre-cast concrete slab
Pre-cast concrete post mold box designed and construction

Pre-cast concrete panel mold box design and construction

Below is the sketch of formwork for repetitive casting of concrete panels.
Drawing
Pre-cast concrete sill mold box design and construction
Below is the sketch of formwork for repetitive casting of concrete sill.
Drawing
Pre-cast concrete beam mold box design and construction
Below is the sketch of formwork for repetitive casting of concrete beam.
Drawing
Pre-cast concrete cornice mold box design and construction
Below is the sketch of formwork for repetitive casting of concrete cornice.

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
SHORES
Shores are temporary framings designed to give support to unstable structures
that are liable to be
disturbed while being
altered or parts of them
liable to give weaken
while removing their
supports for repair.
There are three
examples of different
forms of shores applied
to building;
 Dead shores,
 Racking shores and
 Flying shores.
Dead shores
The temporary frame
work arranged to
support a wall and
floors, while the lower
part of the wall is being
removed or under
repair.
The arrangement of dead shores construction is as illustrated below.

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Dead shores
Are square sections of 230mm and placed at about 1.800m intervals. They resist
compressive stress.
Raking shores
A raking shore
The form of shore is applied to a building that has shown sign of movement or
bulging due to settlement.
Types of the raking shores
are;
 Single raking shore system
 Double raking shore system
 Triple raking shore system,
Below are the sketches showing
the arrangements of a three
raker system with a rider.
Single raking shore system

Double raking shore system

Triple raking shore system

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Flying shores are used to support two parallel walls of loft high buildings that
show signs of failure and yet road or passage runs between them.
They are made up of horizontal shores, wall plate to spread the thrust (push) on
the wall needles and cleats no support the timbers at the wall plate, struts, posts
and straining pieces.
Flying shores are in varying forms;
 Single flying shore system with one shore/raker
 Double flying shore system with shores, etc.
These shores are hoisted (lifted) up in its position by means of mobile cranes or
ropes and ladders.
Below is sketch of a line diagram showing an arrangement of a double flying
shores system. The strutting method is similar to that of raking shore.

Single flying Shore System Double Flying Shore System

Arrangement Arrangement

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SCAFFOLDS
Definition
A temporary framework consisting of poles or metal tubes and planks, etc., on or
from which work may be performed during construction or maintenance
operations on a building, or by means of which access may be obtained to the
working area.
Scaffolding can be classified in either of two ways:
 By the material used to construct scaffold, i.e. wood or steel/light alloy tubes
 By the method of erection, i.e. dependent or independent.
Classification by type of material
There are two materials that may be used in scaffolding:
 Wooden
 Metal.
Tubular scaffolding
Steel and light- alloy tube are the commonest materials used for this type of
scaffolding although the use of steel is fast diminishing because it is heavy and
costly to maintain. The scaffold is erected using a series of fittings.
Advantages of tubular scaffold include the following.
 Less likely to deteriorate than wooden scaffolding.
 Correctly used it is more rapidly erected
 More convenient for internal work owing to wider range of widths
 Take up less space when stored
 Used for multi- storey building
Disadvantages are as follows
 High cost of preservation
 High initial cost
 Many types of coupler are needed
Advantages of wooden scaffold
 Woods/timbers are cheaper and in plenty compare to tubular materials
 Easy to cut into required size
 No extra maintenance cost may be needed
 No fittings are required
 Less skills may be required to construct
 Its waste can be used for other purposes like fire wood
Disadvantages
 Wooden scaffold is restricted to low rise building (limited height)
 As log are mode out of young trees, they are prone to insect attack, thus
limiting their length usefulness
 Large holes are left in the wall after used and these need to be patched/filled
 It can occupy wider space compare to tubular in term of storing them.
 Regular replacement essential in order to avert/avoid likely failure resulting to
over dried logs
 In cannot be reused for many times
Types of scaffolds
The following types of scaffold are as below
 Dependent / putlog scaffold

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 Independent / tubular scaffold
 Cantilever scaffold
 Slung scaffolds
 Truss out scaffold
 Suspended scaffold
 Mobile tower scaffold
 Birdcage scaffold
 Gantries
 System/patent scaffolding
 Trestle scaffold
Method of erection
There are two ways in which scaffoldings, other than trestle/bracket scaffolds,
may be erected
Dependent scaffolding
This is a type of scaffold which have outer row of standards joined together by
ledgers which in turn support the transvers putlogs which are built into the bed
joints or perpend as work proceeds
 This is sometime termed as a ‘putting scaffold’ or ‘bricklayer’s scaffold’.
 The system uses putlog whose flat end are built into the joint to provide
rigidity the stability of dependent scaffold is provided by these putlogs.
 There is only one raw of standard connected by ledgers.
 They are therefore suitable for new work in brick or block.
 The erection procedure of dependent scaffolding is shown in the drawing below

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Independent scaffold
These are scaffold which have two rows of standard, each row joined together
with ledger which is in turn support transverse transom.
 The scaffold is erected clear of the exiting or proposed building but is tied to
the building or structure at suitable interval.
 This is something called the mason’s scaffold, it has two rows of standard,
one close to structure and another at a distance equal to the required platform
width away from the first.
 It is stronger, and used for heavy operations, such as masonry work.
 Putlog are not used, instead transom pieces are used to support the platform
Procedure of erecting a tubular scaffold
The scaffold units have been brought to the site and sorted out in their various
lengths, fitting oiled and sorted out according to their kinds, and planks stacked
ready
 Place the base plate for standards No 1and No 3 at equal distances from the
wall, allowing for the type of plate.
 With the aid of assistance, stand the standards on the base plates and connect
the two with a ledger using double couplers.
 The ledger should be sighted for level.
 The bolts of the couplers should be place uppermost.
 Putlogs can now be fixed using single couplers or putlog clips with the flat ends
pushed well into the joints.
 No. 2 standard is then placed into position and sighted for uprightness and
alignment with No. 6 into position and sight for alignment.

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 Connect the ledger by using a joining pin at the end of the first ledger and
joining the second ledger.
 Fix putlogs, and place standards No. 4 and No.5 sighted, aligned and fixed, to
the ledger with double couplers.
 Place putlogs in accordance with the regulations, but place two putlogs close
together at the junction of planks so as to prevent tipping
 Repeat this procedure until the required length scaffold is obtained.
 At corners, it is usual that the planks from one direction overlap those from the
other and a ledger comes over the other at a right angle. Putlog hole are left
out or made in cross joints of the lower ledger.

Mason’s independent scaffold

Modern developments in scaffolding

 In recent years there has been a tremendous improvement in the design of
tubular scaffolds.
 The rate at which buildings are required to be finished has made traditional
systems of erecting scaffolds for construction purposes too slow and tedious.
 Also lack of trained indigenous labor is a common problem with which the
contractor has to contend/deal with.
 Although timber scaffolding, which require a knowledge of carpentry to erect,
is in common use and is comparatively cheap, the rapid growth in the industry,

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the increasing sophistication of building designs and the need to improve
safety standards have led many builders to seek other ways of scaffolding.
 One type of access and support scaffolding system which has been introduced
into the market is called ‘cup lock’.
 The system can be erected by unskilled worker. As the name implies, there is a
series of cups on the vertical members are simply place placed in these cup.
 A movable collar is then dropped over the connection and locked hammer
blow.
 There are therefore no bolts to tighten, no wedges to knock into position, and
no leveling out to be done after the initial line of horizontal members.
 As stated before, the initial capital necessary to purchase tubular scaffold
precludes their use by many contractor, despite the apparent advantages.
 It is however, necessary for craftsmen to know what is available to the user.
Cantilever scaffold
These are form of independent tied scaffold erected on cantilever beam used
where
 it is impracticable
 undesirable
 Uneconomical to use a traditional scaffold constructed from the ground level.
The assembly of a cantilever scaffold requires special skills and should therefore
always be carried out by trained and experienced personnel.

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SLUNG/HUNG SCAFFOLDS
These are scaffolds that are suspended by means of wire ropes or chains and are
not provided with a means of being raised or lowered by a lifting appliance.
A secure anchorage must be provided for the suspension ropes, and this can
usually be achieved by using the structural members of the roof over the
proposed working area.
 Any member selected to provide the anchorage point must be inspected to
assess its adequacy.
 At least six evenly spaced suspension wire ropes or chains should be used, and
these must be adequately secured at both ends.
 The working platform is constructed in a similar manner to conventional
scaffolds Consisting of:
ledgers,
Transoms and
Timber scaffolding boards
Necessary guard rails
Toe boards.
 Working platforms in excess of 2.400m × 2.400m plan size should be checked
to ensure that the supporting tubular components are not being overstressed.
Use
Their main use is for gaining access to high ceilings or the underside of high
roofs.
TRUSS-OUT SCAFFOLDS
These are a form of independent tied scaffold that rely entirely on the building
for support,
The supporting scaffolding structure that projects from the face of the building is
known as the ‘truss-out’.
Anchorage is provided by adjustable struts fixed internally between the floor and
ceiling, from which the cantilever tubes project.
Except for securing rakers, only right-angle couplers should be used.
The general format for the remainder of the scaffold is as used for conventional
independent scaffolds
Used
 Used where it is impossible or undesirable to erect a conventional scaffold from
ground level. e.g. tall building

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SUSPENDED SCAFFOLDS
These consist of a working platform suspended from supports such as
outriggers/brace that cantilever over the upper edge of a building, and in this
form are a temporary means of access to the face of a building for Many new tall
structures have suspension tracks/road way incorporated in the fascia or upper
edge beam, or a cradle/frame suspension track is fixed to the upper surface of
the flat roof on which is supported a manual or power trolley with retractable
davit/pivot arms for supporting the suspended working platform or cradle.
 All forms of suspended cradles/support/frame must conform to the minimum
requirements set out in the Work at Height Regulations 2005 with regard to
Platform boards,
Guard rails and toe boards.
 Cradles/support may be single units or grouped together to form a continuous
working platform; if grouped together they are connected to one another at
their abutment ends with hinges.
Use
The purposes of cleaning and light maintenance work.

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MOBILE TOWER SCAFFOLDS

The scaffold is basically a square tower constructed from scaffold tubes mounted
on wheels fitted with brakes. Platform access is gained by short opposing inclined
ladders or one inclined ladder within the tower base area.
Use
These are used mainly by painters and maintenance staff to gain access to
ceilings where it is advantageous to have a working platform that can be readily
moved to a new position.

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BIRDCAGE SCAFFOLDS
These types of scaffold consist basically of a two-directional arrangement of
standards, ledgers and transoms to support a close-boarded working platform at
the required height.
To ensure adequate stability standards should be placed at not more than 2.400
m centers in both directions, and the whole arrangement must be adequately
braced.
Use
These are used to provide a complete working platform at high level over a large
area
GANTRIES
These are forms of scaffolding used primarily as elevated loading and unloading
platforms over a public footpath where the structure under construction or repair
is immediately adjacent to the footpath.
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As for hoardings, local authority permission is necessary and their specific
requirements such as;
 Pedestrian gangways,
 lighting and
 Dimensional restrictions must be fully met. It may also be necessary to comply
with police requirements as to when loading and unloading can take place. The
gantry platform can also serve as storage and accommodation area as well as
providing the staging from which a conventional independent scaffold to provide
access to the face of the building can be erected. Gantry scaffolds can be
constructed from standard structural steel components as shown in Fig. 2.6.3 or
from a system
Gantry scaffolds can be constructed from standard structural steel components
The gantry platform serves as storage and accommodation area as well as
providing the staging from which a conventional independent scaffold to provide
access to the face of the building can be erected. As for hoardings, local authority
permission is necessary, and their specific requirements such as pedestrian
gangways, lighting and dimensional restrictions must be fully met.
It may also be necessary to comply with police requirements as to when loading
and unloading can take place.
Uses
 These are forms of scaffolding used primarily as elevated loading and
unloading platforms over a public footpath where the structure under
construction or repair is immediately adjacent to the footpath.

System/Patent Scaffolds
These scaffolds are based upon the traditional independent steel tube scaffold,
but instead of being connected together with a series of loose couplers and clips
they usually have integral interlocking connections.

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They are easy to erect, adaptable, and generally can be assembled and
dismantled by semi-skilled operatives.
Advantages
 The design of these systems is such that the correct position of handrails, lift
heights and all other aspects of the Work at Height Regulations 2005 are
automatically met.
 Another advantage found in most of these system scaffolds is the elimination
of internal cross-bracing, giving a clear walk-through space at all levels;
façade/front bracing, however, may still be required.

Trestle scaffolding
The working platform is supported on the top of moveable contrivances/set up
such as tripods, ladders etc. mounted on wheels
Such type of scaffolding is used for painting and repair works inside the room, up
to a height of 5m.

Parts and terms used in scaffolding

Standard
The upright members positioned in alignment and parallel to the wall face
Ledgers
The horizontal members which connect the row of standards
Putlogs
Shorter lengths with one end flattened to enter the wall joints.
The ledger fixed diagonally across the standard for added rigidity.
Reveal pin
A short piece with chewable end attachments used across openings for the
purpose of fixing a putlog
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Base plate
Abase plate is used at the foot of standard to provide stable footing, the base is
nailed to the base board if the ground upon which the scaffold rest is weak and
unstable
Double coupling or coupler
This is used to tie ledgers to standard at right angles.
Single coupler or coupler
Used to tie a putlog to a ledger.
Swivel coupler
Rotating fitting used to tie a brace to the standard
Jointing pin
Used to joint two lengths of tubing.
The pin consisting of split halves connection by a coach screw.
Tightened the bolt causes the split halves to pull apart thereby wedging tightly
against the internal surface of the tube.

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Regulations affecting scaffolds:

Where work cannot safely be done on or from the ground or from part of blag or
other permanent structure, there shall be provided, placed and kept in position
for use and properly maintained either scaffolds or where appropriate ladders or
other means of support all of which shall be sufficient and stable for the purpose.

Following are regulations guiding scaffolds are strictly obeyed

 Scaffold and components used must be of sound materials, safe construction
and be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose for which they are meant.
 A partly erected or dismantle scaffold must comply with the regulations and if
not must not be allowed to remain in that condition unless a warning notice
against its use is displayed
 Timber members of scaffolds, ladders and trestles must not be treated in such
a way as to hide defects on them. Metal parts must be free from corrosion and
similar defects.
 The standard of scaffold must either be vertical or lean slightly toward the
building for stability
 The foot or base must not be place on loose or weak material, but placed on
an adequate base plate so as to prevent slipping or sinking
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 Put logs or other supports for a platform must be securely fastened to the
ledger or standard or their movement restrained by other means.
 If a putlog is supported by a wall, it must extend into the wall to provide an
adequate support
 The distance between two consecutive put logs varies according to the
thickness of planks used for the platform.
For 32mm thick planks/board, it must not exceed 1m.
For 38mm thick planks/board, it must not exceed 1.5m.
For 50mm thick plank it must not exceed 2.6mm.
The minimum width of working platforms from which a person is liable to fall a
distance of 2m or more, must be as follows
As a footing only, minimal width must be 600mm (3 boards)
For deposit of material, minimum width must be 800mm (4 boards)
For passage materials, minimum width must be 600mm (3 boards)
For dressing of stone, minimum width must be 1.30m (6 boards)
For support of higher platform, minimum with must be 1.05m (5 boards)
For higher platform and stone dressing, minimum width must be 1.50m (7
boards)
 Plank should not be project beyond the end support at the end of scaffold, or
at the change of direction, any more than a distance of four times the
thickness of the board.
 The plank must be fixed securely to prevent tipping.
 Provision must be made for levelling pieces where boards overlaps to make the
movement of wheelbarrows easier and to prevent falls
 The clear passage of at least 400mm must be left between rails of working plat
form and any obstruction or deposited materials.
 Brace must be used to prevent the scaffold from collapsing due to sideways
sway. Where the scaffold is adequately tied to the structure at its upper end,
no brace need to use.
 Every scaffold must be tied to the structure vertically and horizontally every
10m
 The distance between two consecutive standards in a normal bricklayer’s or
block layer’s scaffold should not be more than 2.5m.
 Between ledgers, which is termed a ’lift’, it should not be higher than 1.6m.
 Guard rails and toe boards must be provided in all situations where person are
liable to fall a distance of 2m or more
 A guard rail or rails must be fixed 910mm from the top of the toe board or at
1.15mfrom the working platform.
 The minimum height for a toe board is 150mm and the distance between toe
board and the lowest 765mm.
 Guard rails and toe board must be placed on the inside of the standards
 Guard rails and toe board are not required for the platform of a ladder scaffold
if there is a secure hand-hold for the full length, nor for the platform of a
trestles scaffold which is supported by trestles.

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 The used of a trestle scaffold is not allowed if person are not liable to fall more
than 4.5m from platform which it supports. A trestle scaffold must not be
constructed with more than one tier if folding supports are used.
 Ladders are often used on scaffold, and the following regulations relate to
them.
 Ladders of all kinds other than those used as crawling devices on roof must
stand on a firm base.
 They must be securely fixed, near their upper resting place when in use and, if
this is impracticable, at or near their lower end.
 Where neither fixing is practicable, an adult must be stationed at the foot to
prevent slipping. Ladder must have a firm base and not stand on loose blocks
or other loose materials.
On supervision of work and inspection of materials.
 No scaffold shall be erected or be substantially added to or altered or be
dismantled except under the immediate supervision of competent person and
so far as possible by competent work man possessing adequate experience of
such work.
 All materials for scaffold shall be inspected by a competent person on each
occasion or seven days before they are taken into use or after adverse weather
conditions which affects its strength and stability and the inspector must give
location and description, date of inspection, state of scaffold must sign.
On construction and material
 Every scaffold and every part thereof shall be of good construction suitable and
sound materials and of adequate strength for the purpose of which it is used36
 Sufficient material shall be provided for and shall be used in the construction of
scaffold
 Timber used for scaffolds shall be of suitable quality, be in good condition and
have the back completely stopped off.
 Timber used for scaffolds, trestles ladder and folding steps ladder shall not be
painted or treated that defects cannot easily be seen.
 Metal parts used for scaffolds shall be of suitable quality and in good conditions
and free corrosion or other patent (obvious) defects likely to affect their
strength materially
Defecting materials
 No defective materials or defective parts shall be used for a scaffolds
construction
 No rope or bond/connection which has defective weather through contact with
an acid other corrosive substance or other shall be used
 All materials and parts for scaffolds shall when not in used be kept under good
condition and parts from other materials or parts an suitable for scaffolds (e.g.
dump places)
Maintenance of scaffolds
 Every scaffold shall be properly maintained and every part shall be kept so
fixed secured or place in position as to prevent as far as practicable accidental
displacement
Partly erected or dismantled scaffolds

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 No scaffold or part of scaffold shall be partly erected or dismantled and
remained in such condition as work proceeds
 The scaffold to be erected or dismantled must comply with regulation
whenever and at all cost
 A prominent warning notice indicating that the scaffold or part as case may be,
is not to be used in fastened pinned (fasten or attached to 5th), near any point
of which the scaffold or part as the case may be is liable to the approached for
the purpose of use; or
 Access to the scaffold or part as the case may be, is as far as reasonably
practicable effective block

General Safety Rules and Regulations in the Workshop/Laboratory

General Safety for Engineers and Engineering Students, Workplace Safety &
General Safety Tips
 You are responsible for your own safety and safety of others.
 Always listen to the lecturer/technician carefully
 Always put on full protective gear; such as.
Overall
Apron
Glove
Eye safety glass
Strong shoe
Helmet & etc.
 Do not run in the workshop, you can bump onto another student and cause an
accident
 Bags should not be brought into the workshop as people can strip over them.
 Never work alone in the workshop, work at least in pairs. This is so because in
case of industrial/workshop accident the other partner will be a helper
(Ecclesiastes 4:9-10) it’s all about Teamwork.
 Think about what you are doing; think before you start a job and during the
entire time you are doing it. Remember that your own personal caution is of
more value to you than all the safeguards that can be set up.
 Know where the main switch is. This stops processes immediately should
anything go wrong in the industry.
 Smoking and carrying matches or naked flames by employees is prohibited in
and about the complex except in zone specifically designed for such purposes.
Safety section must see that “No smoking” signs are placed in and about their
area to warn the employee and visitors.
 When work is being done which requires the wearing of a safety belt, the
supervisor in charge shall determine whether or not stand-by personnel are
required, and if necessary, will provide suitable personnel.
 Any one working at or going to any plant area in the complex must wear a
safety cap and safety shoes.
 Always use a safety belt when working at height such as on stacks or columns
where the danger of falling exists.
 Do not tamper with or attempt to repair equipment or instruments which you
do not understand.
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 Ability to communicate with the outside world, very important. This is usually
achieved by the installation of telephones. Important phone numbers should
include the following in Emergency cases;
Fire Service number
Ambulance number
Police number
 Defective tools are dangerous, do not use them. In fact never use a tool
except for its proper purpose.
 Metal ladders may not be used for electrical work and must not be used near
electrical circuits or equipment.
 Machines must be rendered inoperative by the removal of fuses or locking out
of moving parts. Replace guards before equipment is put back in operation.
 Provide a first Aid Box.
 Protective valve caps must be placed on all cylinders (oxygen, acetylene,
ammonia, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, butane or propane, chlorine, etc.) at all
times when not in use or in transit.
 Guards may not be removed from equipment while it is in operation and
equipment must never be operated with guards removed.
 Goggles or shield must be used when working on emery wheels, using wire
brushes, chipping, etc.; or any other circumstances where eye hazards exist.
 Only authorized employees from the Electrical section may operate switch
gear, apart from routine stopping and starting of motors and lighting.
 When electrically-driven equipment is shut down for repairs, the electrical
circuits must be isolated before commence.
 All injuries must be reported immediately by completing the official “Accident
report form”. No employee who is feeling ill or suffering from after effects of
injuries or illness should be permitted to report to work, without the doctor’s
permission.
 Make a close safety inspection of the work area before a job is undertaken
whether or not the related equipment is company owned, operated or
maintained.
 Avoid carrying tools and materials which will prevent reasonably free use of
the hands in going up or coming down ladders or structures.
 Employee must not be permitted to use any make shift apparatus of any type
which involves the use of compressed air, steam, gas, oil, gasoline or
electricity without the approval of his supervisor.
 Before turning on electricity, steam, gas, or water, or setting in motion any
machinery, equipment, investigate to be sure that no one is in a position to be
injured.
 Keep your hands off machinery that you are not operating or repairing.
 Report all leaks of any nature and size at once. Be at alert for defective and
dangerous runways, railings, ladders, cables, switches, pressure gauges and
the absence of safeguards. If any unsafe act/practice/condition is seen, it
should be corrected or reported by the employee immediately.
 All ropes should be tested before trusting your life to them.

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 Special care must be taken in the dismantling and erection of scaffolds and
handling tools and materials to and from scaffolds or other elevated work
levels. Warning signs should be placed at the ground level that would indicate
that work is being done overhead. Arrange tools and/or any materials on
scaffolds and other elevated places or work in such a position to prevent them
from falling and injuring people below.
 Pressure must be released before repair work is started on lines, vessels,
pumps, etc.
 The use of gasoline (petrol/fuel) for cleaning purpose of any nature is
prohibited. A cleaning solvent should be used in cleaning orifice meters,
instruments, and electrical motors.
 All stairways, platforms and walk ways must be kept clear at all times.
 Rubber gloves and eye protection material must be used in the handling of
acids, caustic, and bactericides.
 The use of propane or other hydrocarbon product to shrink posts by chilling is
prohibited. When a shrinking agent is needed for shafts or pins, dry ice, liquid
nitrogen, or carbon dioxide may be used with adequate precautions.
 In areas where hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, or other toxic gas is
encountered the supervisor will determine when, and under what conditions,
gas masks will be worn. Employees entering tanks, or other confined places
must have the approval of the supervisor, and he will determine the safety
precautions that must be taken.
 Wear no loose hanging garments; wear smart fitting overalls if possible. No
dangling ear-rings, necklaces, chains, watches, etc. this is as things lie long-
ties may get into the machine and in the process of trying to free it, the
operator may find him/herself trapped in the machine.
 Ensure that you wear prospective helmets, steel-capped boots, hand gloves,
goggles (shields) and other protective wears as the workshop demands.
 The female gender should also take note of all the above.
Workshop Safety Rules regarding machines
Guards on machines (such as lathes, drill presses, grinders, hydraulic presses,
band saws, radial saws, table saws), when in good working condition and
properly adjusted, protect the operator and other employees from hazards and
potential serious injuries such as those created by point of operation, ingoing nip
points, rotating parts, flying chips and sparks.
Basic safety rules for machine safeguarding consist of:
 Check guard(s) and make sure they are in good working condition;
 Do not operate a machine if a guard is missing or damaged;
 Damaged or missing guard(s) must be replaced and a machine shall be locked
out until repairs are completed;
 Adjustable guards must be set properly to prevent access to point of operation
and danger zone;
 Always leave guards in place while the machine is in operation;
 Always leave guards in place over idle machines where there is a potential for
injury by contact;

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 Machines designed for a fixed location shall be securely anchored to prevent
accidental displacement;
 Machine shall be kept clean such that guards are fully operational;
 Avoid wearing gloves, loose clothes or jewelry and long hair that may get
caught in the machine;
 Put guard back in position after its removal for repairs and before the machine
returns to operation.
Arch-Formwork:
Formwork or temporary support for arches is known as CENTRES. The act of
giving temporary support to an arch by means of a center, posts and wedges is
called CENTERING
Centre is wooden structures that are shaped to support the arch being
constructed. They must be sufficiently rigid to support the weight of bricks or
stones to be constructed on them.
Types of Centre
1. Turning Piece Centre:
This is a Centre out of timber built with flat or slight curvature on its supper
surface. The supper surface is shaped to conform to the soffit of the arch.
Turning piece is employed on smaller wall openings like that for a window. It is
also camber arch Centre in other term.

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2. Segmental Arch Centre (For 1M Span):
This is a Centre consisting of ribs, laggings and bears. Two types of this centre
are;
(a). Close lagging Centre:
It is used for supporting voussoir that is with thin joints between them.
(a). Open Lagging Centre:
This is used to support voussior that are with thick joints between them.
Voussoir is an arch brick or stone that is in the arch.

3. Semicircular Segmental Arch Centre:

This is a Centre designed to suitably support a semicircular brick arch. It consist
of 2 bearers, 2 lower ties, 2 upper ties, 4 ribs and close or open laggings. The
Centre is supported by props with folding wedges on top and sleeper plats at the
bottom. The Centre can be of more than 4 ribs.

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1. Circular Arch Or Bull’s-Eye Arch: (R 300mm)
This is a Centre that may consist of two portions one for the external arch and
the other for the internal rough arch. It resets upon wedges that are supported
by struts instead of props. It is mounted to position after the mission has
constructed the lower half of the arch.
Voussors for the upper half of the arch are laid direct on the ribs without
laggings.

5. Semielliptical Arch Centre:

This is a Centre similar to semicircular arch in construction but only that it is
shaped semielliptical.
BUILD UP RIB CONSTRUCTION

Elevation for Centre of Semielliptical Arch

Formwork for Reinforced Concrete Stairs
The stair formwork is supporting a reinforced concrete stair of a flight from a
ground floor with a landing at the wall side for the upper floor.
Planks
Are plugged to the wall and cleats are nailed to the planks.

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Cleats
Provide fixings for riser forms in order to shape the Steps. The other ends of the
riser forms are nailed to the outer strings that have been cut to the profile of the
steps.
The stair concrete is supported at the soffit by 32mm decking board that is
carried on the joists.
Joists
Are supported by the bearers by means of bird’s mouth joint.
The bearers rest on the posts that are standing on the floor via sole plates and
folding wedges

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SUBMODULE 7: CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER STAIRS:
A stair is a number of steps or a set of steps and together body parts, leading
from one level or from one floor to another.
Its function is to provide means for movement between different levels.
Terms Used In Stair Design:
A flight
It is a series of steps between floors or landing.
Stair way or stair case
It is that part of a building containing flights and providing travelling routes, it’s
also called stair case.
Landing
It is a plate form between two flights serving as arrest and a means of turning a
stair.
A half- space landing
It is a landing extending the width of two flights and where a complete half turn
is made.
A quarter-space landing
It is a landing that provides only a quarter-turn from the end of the flight to the
beginning of the next.
Stair case
It is the stair with its all other parts, including parts of the building that forms a
flight unit.
String or stringer
It is an inclined timber member fixed to wall and into which steps are housed and
supported. It is termed as an inclined beam when it is not fixed to the wall.
Balustrade
It is a protective structure built at the side of a stair.
Open balustrade
It consists of vertical bars called balusters which support the hand rails and
protect the sides of a stair.
Solid balustrade
It is a panel construction that protects the side of a stair.
Rise of a step
It is the vertical distance between the upper surfaces of the two constructive
treads.
Rise of flight
It is the total height between the floors and landings that it connects.
Going or run of a step
It is the horizontal distance between the Nosing or Risers of two consecutive
steps.
Going or run of a flight
It is a horizontal distance between the top and bottom nosing
Line of nosing
It is an imaginary inclined line touching the nosing of a flight.
Pitch or slope
It is the angle made between the line of nosing and the line of floor or landing.

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Head room
It is the vertical distance between the line of nosing and the soffit of the upper
flight or edge of the above.
Head room is vertically 2m and 1.5m at right angle (BS. 565)
Step
Step is that unit of a stair consisting of a riser and a tread.
CLASSES OR TYPES OF STAIR:
Stairs are constructed in several classes. The types commonly employed are;
 Straight flight stair.
 Dog leg flight stair.
 Open well flight stair.
Straight Flight Stair:
It is a stair consists of only fliers (rectangular treads) without a cladding. A
landing is introduced to a flight to control the number of riser s in a flight.
The straight flight stair is constructed between walls and which gives it a
continues support. It is also constructed with one or both sides open. The width
of a straight flight stair is 850mm.
Below is a low is a line diagramed sketch of a straight flight stair.

Dog -leg flight stair:

A dog –leg flight stair looks like a dog’s leg in its sectional elevation. It is
applicable in a space sufficient to accommodate two widths of a flight.
It has balustrade of upper flight immediately over that of lower flight

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A dog flight is a stair with two flights, rectangular half landing and without stair
well. The outer string of each flight is housed in the sake newel post.
Open-well flight stair:
An open-well flight stair has a space known as ‘WELL’ between the outer strings.
It requires more space to accommodate it than dog-leg stair.
The open-well flight stair is either composed of two flights, a half –space landing
and a well or three flights, two quarter-space landings and a well, as shown in
form of plan in a line diagram below:

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Fair Spaces to Accommodate Different Types of Flight in a Building:
Straight stair-requires.
Dog-leg flight stair-requires.
Open-well flight stair-requires.
Construction of Steps and Methods:

Supporting Treads and Risers:

Treads and risers are supported by wall strings of 300mm x 32mm, which are
securely plugged into the walls as illustrated below.

Carriage-piece or bearer and other details:

A stair exceeding 915mm width, requires a central carriage-piece or a bearer
such a stair is as well provided with additional side bearers when it has a
plastered soffit.

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Stair Details
The foot of the bearer is jointed to the floor joist or fitted by means of bird’s
mouth and notched joints with nails. The head of the carriage is screwed to the
wall plate.
The triangular blocks or rough brackets are nailed along the bearers to receive
the underside of the treads for maximum support.
The triangular blocks are nailed on the upper edge while the rough brackets with
square heads are nailed on alternated sides of the bearers.
Designing A Stair:
Widths of a stair and going are designed such that, twice the width of riser + the
width of the tread, MUST fall within 550mm to 700mm.
E.g. Rise =200 and going = 220.
2r + g = 550 to 700
(2 x 200) + 220 = 550 to 700
620 = Within BS.
Types of a stair are determined by;
1. Size of the stair way.
2. Shape of the stair.
3. Height of the stair from floor to floor
Number of steps is determined by the total going available.
Eg. Height obtained from a storey rod is 3020mm from floor to floor.
 Total going = no. of steps
Rise
3020 = 15.1 Step
200
Hand nail should be shaded without injuring its features and plugged at internal
of 1.2m.
Construction of a stair in a workshop:
A dimension for constructing a stair in a workshop is taken direct from the
building instead of from the plan, in order to avoid errors.
Setting and constructing the stair is done by means of the following;
 Pitch boards
It has going rise and margin of the same dimensions as from the storey rod. It is
used for marking trenches with marking knife.
 Tread template
It is used for shaping tread.
 Riser template
It is used for shaping riser.
Storey rod or storey post or storey lath or storey pole and for stair is
called going rod
It is a batten cut to the exact height of a storey, for the case of storey house
buildings, with levels of required features in that space like brick courses window
sill, etc. marked on it.
Going rod

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This is used in the construction of stairs. It is a batten that is cut to the exact
height of a flight of stairs and on which dimensions and levels of treads for the
stairs are marker.
Plumb bob
It is used for showing vertical direction.
Wastes from trenches on the string are removed by stair-trencher machine or by
hand using the following tool respectively.
 Brace and bit.
 Chisel.
 Tendon saw.
 Router.
ASSEMBLING STAIRS:
There are two alternative methods of assembling a stair;
(A)
 All treads are first fixed to the string
 Risers follow and then cramped.
(B)
 Treads and risers are first framed together to form steps.
 Steps are fitted into trenches of string
 The second string is fitted and then cramped.
An appliance for assuring the right angle formed by riser and tread is known as a
CRADLE. Other appliances are:
T-cramp
This is used for overhead cramping and
Straight edge
This is also used for leveling the nosing during the wedging and gluing to avoid
winding (twisting) of the nosing and then glue blocks are applied.
The assembled stair is secure between the walls by nailing the string to plugs
that are embedded in the wall.
Wall string or inner string is the string fixed to the wall whereas outer string is
the string away from the wall.
Newels are the vertical posts at the ends of a flight. They support; the following
 String
 Hand rails
 Trimmers
 Bearers
Upper projection of a newel is called a ‘CAP’ while the lower projection is known
as a ‘DROP’.
Spandrel or spandrel is the triangular surface that is plastered or wood paneled,
between outer string and the floor.

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SUBMODULE 8: TIMBER FINISHES AND DECORATIONS:
Internal Fixings;
Internal fixings consist of TRIMS that are in form of.
 Skirting cover moldings’
 Dado rails
 Cronies.
Trims
Are out of wood strips that are fixed at the foot of the wall as skirting, Dado,
picture rail or cornice mold
The purposes of trims in the building or a room are to seal joints between
building materials, cover nail heads and as well provide decorations
Skirting
These are strips of timbers or any other materials fixed/ laid at the foot of the
wall to seal joint between the floor and the wall, provide good finishes and
barring an object from damaging the wall when pushed against the wall
Dado rail
These are rail fixed at the position above the skirting to prevent chairs from
damaging/ injuring the wall surface
Picture rail
These are rail fixed at the door level to hold photo frame and wall clock
Cornice
These are finishes provided on the ceiling against/ round the wall to provide good
looking finishes and to seal the joint between the wall and the ceiling finishes
Methods of Fixing Trims to Base Materials
Wood base materials
These materials accept and hold nails and therefore trims are fixed direct to
them by means of either nails or screws
Masonry based materials
This type of background does not accept nails or screws as they are neither too
hard, brittle nor weak. Thus the trims are indirectly fixed on to them via fixing or
plugs such as common grounds, Wood plugs and plastic plugs as typically
illustrated below.

Sketches of wall sections showing three alternatives of fixing trims

Wood plug
It is a small pointed wooden peg shaped for shelf tightening when pushed into a
hole made in a masonry structure in order to receive nail or screw during fixing
of trims. The holes are made by plugging chisels and hammer.
Ground or rough ground
It is a strip of wood embedded flush with wall plaster to receive nails or screws
during fixing of trims.

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Plastic plugs
Plastic raw plug is having very good holding characteristics and not affected by
weather or corrosive conditions. It is made such that when it is inserted into hole
of the wall, and being screwed in to, it expands to tightly fill the hole.
Procedure in applying a plastic plug.
 Put on eye protection
 Drill holes through the trim or fixture and into the base material or wall to
recommended sizes.
 Remove bored dust by using a screw threat or nail head without blowing into
the hole.
 Insert plastic plug into the hole
 Enter the screws through the trim or work piece and into the plug.
 Tighten the screws to hold the trim firm onto the wall.
Type of trims for internal fixing in a building:
 Skirting or plinth
It is the lowest horizontal wood strip in a room fixed along the base of the wall to
mask or cover the joints between floor and wall finishes and as well protect the
wall plaster and floor boards as illustrated below on the following page.

 Cover molding
It is a 9 x 12 narrow strip of timber molded to cover joint between skirting and
floor board or ceiling and wall.
Cover molding prevents air and dust from entering the room through the gaps at
the joints. The gap could develop as a result of shrinkage on the members the
joint. The narrow strip of timber could be molded in to quadrant cover mould and
applied as illustrated above.
 Dado rail
It is a horizontal molded strip of timber fixed in a position just above the skirting
to prevent the wall being damaged by the backs of chairs pushed against them.
Suitable method of fixing a dado rail is by plugging to the wall as previously
illustrated. It may also be fixed by nailing.
 Pictures rails
It is a horizontal molded strip of timber fixed round a room in line with the top
edges a door used for hanging pictures.
 Cornice:
It is a molded strip of wood in a decorative pattern used to mask the joint
between ceiling and wall. Fixing method is the same as that of dado rail.
Preparation of Wood for Polishing and Painting
After construction or making a structure out of wood for use, its surface needs to
be protected and beautified.
There are four main reasons for applying wood finishes on woos surface;

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
 To give surface protection against dirt, grease and moisture.
 To make wood surface easier to clean and more hygienic.
 To seal wood grain against distortion of the board.
 To improve on the grain appearance and the color.
 To give variable surface gloss, stain or matt-(desired dull color)
Wood surface preparation;
It is the pretreatment given to the wood surface by flatting, smoothing and
removal of other irregularities and blemishes (dirty appearance) to obtain good
finish before commencing with polishing or painting.
Wood surface polishing:
Three main stages are mainly followed in wood polishing;
 Wood grain filling
 Staining.
 Final wood finishes application
Wood grain filling
Surfaces of open-grain or coarse timber need to be filled in order to obtain high
gloss of the following wood finish coats. Wood grain filling materials is wood filler
or sealer. The wood sealer is in oil form of varying colors and is applied by means
of rag or brush following the manufacturing instructions.
Sealer is used for closing wood pores.
Staining
Staining is the material used for staining the pretreated wood surface after wood
sealer. It is used to give a desired color effect to the wood surface in the
appearance. Wood stain is the oil containing color pigment. The oil content or
liquid is also known as VEHICLE.
Pigment
Is the very finely grounded material powder dissolved in the vehicle to give color.
Types of wood stains:
Available three common types in use are:
 Water stain
 Oil stain
 Methyl spirit stain
Wood water stain
Is thinned by water, wood oil stain and methyl spirit stain is thinner.
Procedure of staining the wood surface
1) Shake the container thoroughly before opening
2) Test the color on scrap pieces of wood
3) Apply the stain by use of brush or cloth
4) Wipe off surplus stain with cloth
5) Allow the stain to dry before applying the other following coats.
Final wood finishes application
After staining the wood surface, other following wood finishes containing glossy
materials are applied after the stain are shellac, lacquer, varnish and wax finish.
Shellac

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 CARPENTRY & JOINERY YEAR ONE SEMESTER II- DTCE-124
It is an alternative finishing material in wood polishing. It is a natural resin
produced by insect that are found on tree of India. Shellac is obtained and
thinned by methyl-hydrate ready for used.
Lacquer
It a glossy liquid material for coating and decorating wood surface. It is thinned
by thinner.
Vanished
It is from resin or asphalt.
Resin/glue is obtained from plants or organic compounds.
Asphalt is produced from chemical industries.
Vanished is available in oil vanish or spirit varnish. They are applied on unpainted
wood surface or mixed with paint and applied and or even applied over a dry
paint to increase its gloss. Vanish dries in air to a brilliant transparent protective
film.
Wax polish
It is made from bees wax by dissolving it in turpentine.
Its paste is applied by rubbing on top of the last coat of shellac or varnish to
finally bring dull but much favored color.
All the above wood surface finishes are applied by means of
 Rubbing,
 Brushing,
 Brush-rolling or
 Spraying.
The used brushes are cleaned by Methyl-hydrate or Thinner.

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