1.11.

2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

On this page

Thermal Conductivity
In subject area: Engineering

The coefficient of thermal conductivity represents the

uniform flow of heat through a unit thickness of material
between two faces of unit area that are subjected to a unit
temperature difference.

From:
Eco-Efficient Materials for Mitigating Building Cooling
Needs, 2015

On this page

Chapters and Articles

You might find these chapters and articles relevant to this
topic.

Thermal and mechanical properties

of concrete and its constituents at
elevated temperatures: A review
Manisha Malik, ... Sudhirkumar V. Barai, in
Construction and Building Materials, 2021

3.1.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a measure with which heat flows through
a material. In the process of conduction, heat is transferred from
one particle to another through molecular vibration and energy
transfer via free electrons [132]. Thermal conductivity of a
material depends on its lattice arrangement, mineralogical
composition, pore connectivity and size of granules [133-135]
while that of concrete depends upon the mix proportion, type and
source of individual constituents, temperature exposure and the
moisture content [133,136,137]. Thermal conductivity of saturated
concrete and mortar specimens are reportedly 50–70% higher
than that of dry specimens [138-140].

Thermal conductivity may be measured by using steady state or

transient heat flow methods. Some of the techniques are guarded
heat flow method and steady state box method for steady state
conditions and hot wire method, transient plane source method
and heat flow meter for transient conditions [141-144]. Transient
plane source method is the most commonly used one due to its
less testing time and cost of the equipment [145]. Bažant et al.
[146] and Van Geem et al. [147,153] observed that the thermal
conductivity of Normal Strength Concrete (NSC) and High
Strength Concrete (HSC) ranges from 1.6 to 3.6 W/mK at room
temperature based on concrete density and aggregate type. Kodur
V. [115] observed that thermal conductivity of HSC is higher than
that of NSC at room temperature due to the higher density and
presence of different binders in HSC. Conductivity of cement paste

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 1/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
varies from 0.33 W/mK to 0.53 W/mK and that of cement-sand
mortar varies from 0.9 W/mK to 1.1 W/mK based on the variation
in the mix proportion and addition of chemical admixtures [149].
As specified by Hu X. F. et al. [150], thermal conductivity of
siliceous and carbonaceous aggregates at room temperature are
2.54 W/mK and 2.8 W/mK respectively. Quartz, which is the
primary component of siliceous aggregates possesses thermal
conductivity of about 5.15 to 7.7 W/mK depending upon the
source. Granite, a siliceous aggregate, which consists of quartz
and feldspar predominantly, possesses thermal conductivity of
about 3.5 W/mK [147]. Carbonaceous and calcareous aggregates
are majorly composed of limestone and dolomite whose thermal
conductivities range from 2.9 to 3.3 W/mK and 5.3 to 6 W/mK
respectively [151,152].

With increase in temperature, evaporation of physically and

chemically bound water causes thermal conductivity of concrete
containing carbonaceous aggregates and siliceous aggregates to
decrease to 0.79 W/mK and 1.12 W/mK at 1000°C respectively
[150,153,154]. It was also observed that thermal conductivity of
concrete decreases with increase in water binder ratio due to
increased porosity and increases with increase in sand binder
ratio due to decreased porosity [155]. Lightweight concrete and
concrete with low density and high porosity tends to be a poor
conductor of heat and thus the thermal conductivity of aggregate
containing lightweight aggregate concrete is 40–53% lower than
that of the concrete with same mix proportions containing
normal weight aggregate [156]. Ultra lightweight concrete with
thermal conductivity as low as 0.4 W/mK have also been observed
to retain more strength than NSC at elevated temperatures
[157,158]. Fig. 8 shows the variation of thermal conductivity of
different kinds of concrete based on aggregate type exposed to
elevated temperatures. Many studies have recommended the use
of porous concrete as an outer layer of thermal insulation due to
its low conductivity [159,160]. Since porosity is one of the factors
affecting the thermal conductivity to a great extent, porous
concrete may allow the pore pressure to be released through
voids and prevent cracking in the concrete.

Fig. 8. Thermal Conductivity of concrete containing different types

of aggregates [52].

3.1.1.1 Porosity and thermal conductivity

Porosity is one of the major factors affecting thermal conductivity
of concrete [119]. 1% increase in concrete porosity decreases its
thermal conductivity by 0.6% [156]. At elevated temperatures, the
increase in porosity due to physical and chemical changes may
cause crack development and deterioration of concrete. When a
concrete specimen is exposed to fire, the temperature and

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 2/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
pressure in the specimen increase. It was observed by Cioni et al.
[161] that up to 200°C, not much change in structure of cement
mortar and coarse aggregates occur. The physically bound water
may evaporate and get entrapped in the micro pores of the

Read less

Read full article

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061820334024

Thermophysical Properties of
Nanofluids
I.M. Mahbubul, in
Preparation, Characterization, Properties and Application of
Nanofluid
, 2019

4.2 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is an inherent property of a substance, and
is related to heat conduction. The amount of heat
conducted/transferred within a unit temperature gradient
through a unit thickness perpendicular to a unit surface area is
called thermal conductivity. It is denoted by the symbol 𝑘 or 𝜆 and
the unit is W/m·K. Thermal conductivity of suspensions mainly
depends on the particle volume concentrations, particle size and
shape, thermal conductivity of particles and fluids, and fluid
temperature (Chandrasekar, Suresh, & Senthilkumar, 2012;
Ghadimi, Saidur, & Metselaar, 2011). Based on a literature study,
Tawfik (2017) found different parameters, listed in Fig. 4-1,
affecting thermal conductivity of nanofluids. It increases
accordingly with the augmentation of nanoparticle concentration
and temperature. Still, there are contradictions about the effect of
particle size, shape, and cluster size on the thermal conductivity
of nanofluids (Murshed et al., 2008b). This section of the chapter
is organized in the following sequence: thermal conductivity
measurement; effect of particle concentration, temperature,
particle size, particle shape, and ultrasonication period (as effect
of nanofluid preparation method) on thermal conductivity of
nanofluids.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 3/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Figure 4-1. Factors affecting the thermal conductivity of

nanofluids.

Reprinted from Tawfik, M. M. (2017). Experimental studies of nanofluid

thermal conductivity enhancement and applications: A review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75, 1239–1253, copyright
(2016), with permission from Elsevier.

4.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Measurement

The measurement of thermal conductivity of liquids is a
challenging task. In general, Fourier’s law of heat conduction is
exploited for the measurement of thermal conductivity.

The thermal conductivity of nanofluids can be measured by

different methods, including transient hot-wire (THW; also called
the transient line heat source method), which are further
categorized into a basic transient hot-wire method, insulated wire
method, and liquid metal wire method (Beck, 2008; Tavman &
Tavman, 1998; Vadász, 2008). A detailed explanation of the
transient hot-wire method in measuring the thermal conductivity
of nanofluids is given by Lee, Choi, Li, and Eastman (1999). Among
the stated techniques, the steady-state parallel plate method used
by Wang, Xu, and Choi (1999) seems to be least affected by the
particle sedimentation for their thickness if the loaded sample
fluid is less than one mm. The sedimentation of nanofluids can
affect the THW method used by Lee et al. (1999). An increment of
the temperature gradient within the vertical hot wire may be
caused by nonhomogeneous nanoparticle concentration, which
might be a source of measurement errors. This is also true for the
temperature oscillation technique by Das, Putra, Thiesen, and
Roetzel (2003b), where the thermocouple that measures the fluid
temperature oscillation lies in the upper half of the nanofluid
chamber (Oh, Jain, Eaton, Goodson, & Lee, 2008). The 3ω method
is exploited by the small number of investigators; a thin-film
heater is powered by an AC power source so there is an oscillating
heat transfer rate through the material, whose thermal
conductivity is to be measured. [This paragraph is adapted from
Ghadimi et al. (2011), copyright (2011), with permission from
Elsevier.]

Since the THW method was first suggested by Stalhane and Pyk
(Horrocks & McLaughlin, 1963) in 1931 to measure the absolute
thermal conductivity of powders, many researchers have
modified the method to make it more accurate. With the
development of modern electronic instrumentation and use of the
proper theoretical basis, this method has evolved into an accurate
means of determining the thermal conductivity of fluids.
Attempts have been made by several researchers to extend the
THW method to measure the thermal conductivity of electrically
conducting media. Nagasaka and Nagashima (1981) performed
thermal conductivity measurements of electrically conducting

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 4/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
liquids by considering the electrical insulation layer effect on heat
transfer in their experimental facility. No significant negative
effect of insulation layer was found. Although several studies
reported the use of the steady-state technique (Wang et al., 1999;
Wang, Zhou, & Peng, 2003), temperature oscillation technique
(Das et al., 2003b), and the 3ω-wire method (Yang & Han, 2006) to
determine the effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids, these
techniques are not as accurate as the THW method. The
temperature oscillation technique measures the thermal
diffusivity and derives the thermal conductivity from this
measured value and the volumetric specific heat of sample.
Similar to the hot-wire method, the 3ω-wire method uses a metal
wire suspended in a liquid. A sinusoidal current at frequency ω
passes through the metal wire and generates a heat wave at
frequency 2ω, which is deduced by the voltage component at
frequency 3ω. The 3ω-wire method may be suitable to measure
temperature-dependent thermal conductivity. The THW method
has proved to be one of the most accurate techniques for
determining the thermal conductivity of a fluid (Horrocks &
McLaughlin, 1963; Nagasaka & Nagashima, 1981). The advantage
of this method lies in its near elimination of natural convection
effects. In addition, this method is very fast compared to other
techniques. The conceptual design of the hot-wire apparatus is
also simple when compared to other techniques. [This paragraph
is adapted from Murshed et al. (2008b), copyright (2008), with
permission from Elsevier.]

A summary of the apparatus/techniques utilized by the

researchers to measure the thermal conductivity of nanofluids is
presented in Table 4-2.

Table 4-2. Apparatus/Techniques Used for Measuring the Thermal

Conductivity of Nanofluids

Particle
(Diameter Measurement
Base Fluid in nm) Device/Technique References

Ethylene Boehmite KD2 Pro thermal Timofeeva,

glycol– alumina properties analyzer Routbort, and
water (AlOOH) (Decagon) Singh (2009)
mixture

Ethylene CuO (10– Transient hot-wire Kwak and Kim

glycol 30) method (2005)

Water CuO (30) Transient hot-wire Pantzali, Kanaris,

technique Antoniadis,
Mouza, and Paras
(2009)

Deionized Al2O3 (30 ± Transient hot wire Lee et al. (2008)

water 5) system

Water– MWCNT KD2 Pro thermal Kumaresan and

ethylene properties analyzer Velraj (2012)
glycol (Decagon)
mixture

Distilled Al2O3 (43) KD2 Pro thermal Chandrasekar,

water properties analyzer Suresh, and
(Decagon) Chandra Bose
(2010)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 5/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Particle
(Diameter Measurement
Base Fluid in nm) Device/Technique References

Water TiO2 (21) Transient hot-wire Duangthongsuk

technique and Wongwises
(2009)

Water Fe3O4 (20), Transient hot-wire Li, Xuan, and

Fe (26) method Wang (2005)

Deionized TiO2 (15), Transient hot-wire Murshed, Leong,

water Al2O3 (80) technique and Yang (2008a)

Deionized Ag (<100) Transient hot-wire Godson, Raja, Lal,

water technique and Wongwises
(2010)

Ionic MWCNT KD2 Pro thermal Nieto de Castro

liquids properties analyzer et al. (2012)
(Labcell Ltd., UK)

Deionized Al2O3 (50) Standard cut-bar Ganapathy and

water apparatus Sajith (2013)

Distilled Al2O3 (40– TPS500 (Transient Pandey and

water 50) Plane Source Nema (2012)
Company)

Deionized Al2O3 (110– KD2 thermal Kim, Bang,

water 210), ZrO2 conductivity probe Buongiorno, and
(110–250) Hu (2007)
and SiO2
(20–40)

Ethylene ZnO (1– KD2-Pro thermal Moosavi,

glycol; 100) properties analyzer Goharshadi, and
Glycerol (Decagon) Youssefi (2010)

Aviation Al2O3 (50) Transient hot-wire Sonawane et al.

turbine technique (2011)
fuel

Deionized MWCNT KD2-Pro thermal Rashmi (2012)

water (20) properties analyzer
(Decagon)

R141b Al2O3 (13) KD2-Pro thermal Mahbubul (2015)

refrigerant properties analyzer
(Decagon)

Distilled Cu2O KD2-Pro thermal Wei, Zhu, Kong,

water properties analyzer and Wang (2009)
(Decagon)

Distilled Al2O3 (13) KD2-Pro thermal Mahbubul et al.

water properties analyzer (2015)
(Decagon)

Car Al2O3 (13) KD2-Pro thermal Elias et al. (2014)

radiator properties analyzer
coolant (Decagon)

Methanol Al2O3 (13); KD2-Pro thermal Mostafizur,

properties analyzer Bhuiyan, Saidur,
SiO2 (5–15);
(Decagon) and Abdul Aziz
TiO2 (21) (2014)

Distilled SWCNT KD2-Pro thermal Sabiha, Saidur,

water properties analyzer Hassani, Said,
(Decagon)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 6/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Particle
(Diameter Measurement
Base Fluid in nm) Device/Technique References

and Mekhilef
(2015)

Ethylene SnO2 KD2-Pro thermal Mariano et al.

glycol (<100) properties analyzer (2013)
(Decagon)

It is clear from Table 4-2 that most researchers have used the
THW method and KD2-Pro thermal properties analyzer to
measure the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. A specific
example of nanofluid thermal conductivity measurement is
introduced here from Mahbubul et al. (2015) and shown in Fig. 4-
2 where a KD2 Pro thermal properties analyzer (Decagon, USA)
was used. This device has three sensors and the KS-1 sensor
(length 60 mm and diameter 1.3 mm) is suitable for the
measurement of thermal conductivity of liquids/suspensions
(whose thermal conductivity values are within the range of 0.02–
2.00 W/m·K). The accuracy/sensor performance of the KD2 Pro
device was measured with glycerol (recommended and supplied
by manufacturer) and plotted in Fig. 4-3. It can be seen in Fig. 4-3
that the accuracy of the device was within ±1.5%. The thermal
conductivities of the nanofluid samples were studied (on the
same day of nanofluid preparation) at 10–50°C temperatures with
the aid of an advanced digital refrigerated water bath that has a
temperature stability of ±0.01°C (Model AD07R-40-12E,
Polyscience, USA). About 45 ml of sample was poured into a closed
bottle, and KD2 Pro sensor was fully submerged into the sample.
The sample with the sensor was submerged in the thermal bath.
The precisions of temperature measurements were considered up
to ±0.5°C. The experiment for each parameter (each temperature
of each sample) was repeated at least 15 times to get values that
were more precise, and the average value was considered for
analysis. Approximately 10% of data was omitted, considering
them as outliers. The uncertainties in the measurement of
thermal conductivity were calculated, and average uncertainty
was found to be ±4.49%. [This paragraph is adapted from
Mahbubul et al. (2015), copyright (2015), with permission from
Elsevier.]

Figure 4-2. Schematic illustration of nanofluid thermal

conductivity measurement.

Reprinted from Mahbubul, I. M., Shahrul, I. M., Khaleduzzaman, S. S.,

Saidur, R., Amalina, M. A., and Turgut, A. (2015). Experimental
investigation on effect of ultrasonication duration on colloidal dispersion
and thermophysical properties of alumina–water nanofluid. International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 88, 73–81, copyright (2015), with
permission from Elsevier.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 7/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Figure 4-3. Accuracy of the KD2 Pro thermal properties analyzer

(Decagon, USA) compared by the sample (glycerin) supplied by
the manufacturer.
4.2.2 Effect of Particle Concentration
Many researchers have already shown that thermal conductivities
of most nanofluids are higher than the base fluids. The nano-sized
solid particles with high thermal conductivity dispersed in the
medium enhance the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The
greater the nanoparticle concentration, the more the enhanced
thermal conductivity of the suspension. Fig. 4-4 shows the
relation of thermal conductivity of nanofluid against nanoparticle
concentrations. It can be seen in Fig. 4-4 that the relationship of
nanoparticle concentration with the thermal conductivity of the
nanofluid is a linear trend. There are different models/correlations
developed in support of the relation of particle concentration and
thermal conductivity of nanofluids, which are listed and discussed
in Chapter 7.

Figure 4-4. Thermal conductivity of the f-MWCNT–Fe3O4/EG

hybrid nanofluids against solid volume fraction at different
temperatures.

Reprinted from Sarbolookzadeh Harandi, S., Karimipour, A., Afrand, M.,

Akbari, M., and D’Orazio, A. (2016). An experimental study on thermal
conductivity of F-MWCNTs–Fe3O4/EG hybrid nanofluid: Effects of
temperature and concentration. International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer 76, 171-177, copyright (2016), with permission from
Elsevier.

Nanoparticles randomly move within the liquid. This random

motion is called Brownian motion. Continuous collisions between
the particles and molecules of bulk liquid result in enhanced
thermal conduction. The literature indicates that adding a small
amount of solid particles into the fluid can cause a tremendous
enhancement of thermal conductivity which linearly increases
with the increase in volume concentration (Das, Putra, & Roetzel,
2003a; Murshed et al., 2008a; Xie et al., 2002b). Interfacial layer
and aggregation of particles are mechanisms that have been
considered by researchers for this large enhancement of thermal
conductivity (Ghadimi et al., 2011). Some researchers considered a
nanofluid as a two-phase flow mixture and utilized theories of a
two-phase mixture or properties of nanofluid, like Maxwell’s

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 8/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
theory (Maxwell, 1891) and the Hamilton and Crosser approach
(Hamilton & Crosser, 1962). These models are based on an
effective medium theory that presumes well-dispersed particles
in a fluid medium (Ghadimi et al., 2011). However, in most cases,
aggregation and clustering have also been observed by the
researcher. Abnormal and nonlinear thermal conductivities of
nanofluids are the reasons for clustering and nanoparticle
alignment (Zhu, Zhang, Liu, Tang, & Yin, 2006). Suspension of
solid particles into the fluid creates a solid-like layer, which is
called a nanolayer. These layers play a vital role by working as a
bridge between the solid particle and the based fluid and enhance
the thermal conductivity of nanofluids (Leong, Yang, & Murshed,
2006; Yu & Choi, 2003; Yu & Choi, 2004). However, some
researchers argued that the contribution of Brownian motion for
the enhancement of thermal conductivity of nanofluids has a very
small effect and this is not responsible for high thermal
conductivity (Evans, Fish, & Keblinski, 2006; Keblinski, Phillpot,
Choi, & Eastman, 2002). Rather, the role of Brownian motion is
more effective at higher temperature (Koo & Kleinstreuer, 2004).

Table 4-3 shows the thermal conductivity enhancement (%)

observed by researchers for different nanoparticle types and sizes
and volume concentrations with different base fluids.

Table 4-3. Volume Fraction-Dependent Thermal Conductivity of

Nanofluids

T
Particle Volume C
Size Fraction E
References Base Fluid Particle Name (nm) (%) (

Kumar Das, Water Al2O3 38.4 4 9

Putra,
Thiesen, and
Roetzel
(2003)

Putra, Water Al2O3 131 4 2

Roetzel, and
Das (2003)

Wang et al. Water Al2O3 28 5.5

(1999)

Lee et al. Water Al2O3 38.4 4.3

(1999)

Chon, Kihm, Water Al2O3 11 1

Lee, and
Choi (2005)

Chon et al. Water Al2O3 47 1–4

(2005)

Chon et al. Water Al2O3 150 1 4

(2005)

Li and Water Al2O3 36–47 6 2

Peterson
(2007)

Zhang, Gu, Water Al2O3 20 5

and Fujii
(2007)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 9/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

T
Particle Volume C
Size Fraction E
References Base Fluid Particle Name (nm) (%) (

Yiamsawasd, Water Al2O3 120 1–8 5

Dalkilic, and
Wongwises
(2012)

Timofeeva et Water Al2O3 11–40 5 7

al. (2007)

Buschmann Water Al2O3 42 1–3

(2012)

Buschmann Water Al2O3 30–80 12.98 9

(2012)

Xie et al. Water Al2O3 60.4 0.05 5

(2002b)

Mahbubul et Water Al2O3 13 0.5 7

al. (2015)

Wang et al. EG Al2O3 28 5 2

(1999)

Lee et al. EG Al2O3 38.4 5

(1999)

Xie et al. EG Al2O3 60.4 0.05

(2002b)

Vajjha and EG–water Al2O3 1–10

Das (2009a)

Yiamsawasd EG–water Al2O3 20 1–4 5

et al. (2012) (20:80)

Elias et al. Car radiator Al2O3 13 0.2–1

(2014) coolant

Xie et al. Pump Oil Al2O3 60.4 0.05 2

(2002b)

Mahbubul, R141b Al2O3 13 0.5–2 2

Saidur, and
Amalina
(2013b)

Buschmann Water TiO2 30–80 12.7

(2012)

Yiamsawasd Water TiO2 21 1–8 2

et al. (2012)

Turgut et al. Water TiO2 21 3 7

(2009)

Murshed, Water TiO2 15 2–5 2

Leong, and
Yang (2005)

Pak and Cho Water TiO2 27 2 5

(1998)

Yoo, Hong, Water TiO2 25 0.1–1

and Yang
(2007)

Masuda, Water TiO2 27 1–4.3 2

Ebata,

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 10/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

T
Particle Volume C
Size Fraction E
References Base Fluid Particle Name (nm) (%) (

Teramae,
and
Hishinuma
(1993)

Wen and Water TiO2 34 0.29–

Ding (2006) 0.68

Zhang et al. Water TiO2 40 0.6–2.6

(2007)

He et al. Water TiO2 21 0.24–

(2007) 1.92

Yiamsawasd EG–water TiO2 21 4

et al. (2012) (20:80)

Buschmann Water SiO2 30 31.1

(2012)

Eastman, Acid added Cu 10 0.3 4

Choi, Li, Yu, EG
and
Thompson
(2001)

Yu, Xie, EG Graphene 0.7– 5 8

Wang, and Nano sheets 1.3 nm
Wang (2011) thickness

Kole and EG Graphene <50 nm 0.05 wt.% &

Dey (2012b) oxide

Yu, Xie, and EG Graphene 1–3 µm 5 6

Bao (2010) oxide nano
sheet

Ma et al. Silicone oil Functionalized 1.1– 0.07 wt.%

(2013) graphene 2.3 nm
nano sheets

Baby and DIW f-HEG 45 µm 0.05 7

Ramaprabhu
(2011)

Yu, Xie, and Liquid Graphene 5 7

Chen (2010) paraffin oxide nano
sheets

Balandin Oil MWCNT 1

(2011)

Balandin Epoxy SWCNT 1–5 wt.%

(2011)

Zheng, Gao, Hexadecane CNT 1

Wang, and
Chen (2011)

CNT, EG, f-HEG, MWCNT, SWCNT, and wt. refer to carbon

nanotube, ethylene glycol, functionalized hydrogen exfoliated
graphene, multiwalled carbon nanotube, single-walled carbon
nanotube, and weight, respectively.

4.2.3 Effect of Temperature

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 11/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Besides the effect of nanoparticle concentration, it is found that
thermal conductivity is increased according to the temperature of
the nanofluids. This would be a good reason to apply nanofluids in
heat exchangers. The thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids
against temperature for various nanofluid samples is depicted in
Fig. 4-5. Fig. 4-5 shows that thermal conductivity augmented
accordingly with an increase in temperature. It is clear from the
figure that there is a linear relation between thermal conductivity
augmentations with temperature rise. High nanofluid
temperature intensifies the Brownian motion of nanoparticles.
With intensified Brownian motion, the contribution of
microconvection in heat transport can also be increased. The
Brownian motion of particles is represented as the Brownian
diffusion coefficient DB, and could be expressed by the Stokes–
Einstein equation (Einstein & Fürth, 1956) as in Eq. (4.1):

Figure 4-5. Thermal conductivity of the f-MWCNT–Fe3O4/EG

hybrid nanofluids with different concentrations against
temperature.

Reprinted from Sarbolookzadeh Harandi, S., Karimipour, A., Afrand, M.,

Akbari, M., and D’Orazio, A. (2016). An experimental study on thermal
conductivity of F-MWCNTs–Fe3O4/EG hybrid nanofluid: Effects of
temperature and concentration. International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer 76, 171–177, copyright (2016), with permission from
Elsevier.

DB = KB T / [3π µ ( dp / 109 ) ] (4.1)

Eq. (4.1) shows that the Brownian diffusion coefficient is

proportional to temperature. It implies that the higher
temperatures will make more collisions among them, which will
lead to higher thermal conductivity (Teng, Hung, Teng, Mo, & Hsu,
2010). It is evidently shown that the thermal conductivity of
nanofluid can be enhanced by increasing the temperature
(Mahbubul et al., 2013b). Moreover, it is clear in Fig. 4-5 that the
effect of temperature on thermal conductivity enhancement is
more noticeable at higher solid volume fractions. This is due to
the fact that in the presence of large amounts of particles, the
effect of temperature on the motion of particles is more
appreciable (Sarbolookzadeh Harandi, Karimipour, Afrand, Akbari,
& D’Orazio, 2016).

4.2.4 Effect of Nanoparticle Size

Particle size plays a great role in enhancing the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids. It represents the most significant
difference between nanofluids and micron-sized suspensions. The
effect of nanoparticle size is not limited to suspension stability
but extends to include thermal properties. The effect of particle
size in enhancing the thermal conductivity of nanofluids has been
studied frequently. It was found by Lee et al. (1999) that the
effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids increases with

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 12/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
decreasing particle size. They explain that when particle size
decreases, the surface area of the particle decreases as the square
of the length dimension, while the volume decreases as the cube
of the length dimension. Because of this “square/cube law,” the
surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles is three orders of
magnitude greater than that of microparticles. Therefore, a much
more dramatic improvement in effective thermal conductivity is
expected as a result of decreasing particle size (Lee et al., 1999).
They (Lee et al., 1999) observed this relation through comparing
their results with reported data provided by Masuda et al. (1993)
and suggest that particle size is a dominant factor in enhancing
the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. This fact was confirmed
later by Wang et al. (1999), who compared their results with those
of Masuda et al. (1993) and Lee et al. (1999). Another proof of the
validity of this conclusion comes through comparing the results of
Xuan and Li (2000) with those of Eastman, Choi, Li, Thompson,
and Lee (1996), as the larger particle size of Cu used by Xuan and
Li (2000) led to a drop in the enhancement from 44% to 12%,
despite the relatively higher concentration used by Eastman et al.
(1996). In the same context, achieving a near amount of
enhancement by 100 nm compared to 35 nm, it was required to
raise the concentration from 0.052 to 7.5 vol.%. This inverse
relation between particle size and thermal conductivity
enhancement was proven by many authors (Tawfik, 2017). Eq.
(4.1) shows that the Brownian diffusion coefficient is inversely
proportional to the particle diameter. It implies that the addition
of smaller-diameter particles will make more collisions among
them, which will lead to higher thermal conductivity (Teng et al.,
2010). Therefore, thermal conductivity enhancement also depends
on particle size. Fig. 4-6 shows the thermal conductivity of
nanofluid decreases with increasing particle size due to nanolayer
or interfacial layer consideration. The interfacial layers around the
nanoparticles are enhancement mechanisms that increase the
thermal conductivity of nanofluids as the augmentation effects of
interfacial layers increases by increasing the specific surface area
of nanoparticles (Mahbubul, Fadhilah, Saidur, Leong, & Amalina,
2013a). However, this relation is not always true, especially if
particle shape parameter interferes. Based on the results of Xie,
Wang, Xi, and Liu (2002a) and Hwang et al. (2007), large
cylindrical-shaped and MWCNT nanoparticles can enhance the
conductivity more than smaller spherical-shaped ones if
dispersed in the same base fluid. Moreover, Pak and Cho (1998)
recommended selecting larger particles to enhance heat transfer
performance, based on their results. This finding was confirmed
later by Hwang et al. (2007) and Beck, Yuan, Warrier, and Teja
(2009). The results of Hwang et al. (2007) showed that CuO
(33 nm) enhanced thermal conductivity higher than SiO2 (12 nm)
for the same base fluid and concentration. Beck et al. (2009), who
studied thermal conductivity of Al2O3/water and Al2O3/EG
nanofluids for particle sizes ranging from 8 to 282 nm, also found
that the enhancement of thermal conductivity decreases as the
particle size decreases below about 50 nm. They attributed this to
a decrease in the thermal conductivity of the nanoparticles as a
result of increased phonon scattering effect. [This paragraph is
adapted from Tawfik (2017), copyright (2016), with permission
from Elsevier.]

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 13/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Figure 4-6. Thermal conductivity ratio as a function of particle

size.

Adapted from Mahbubul, I. M., Fadhilah, S. A., Saidur, R., Leong, K. Y., and
Amalina, M. A. (2013a). Thermophysical properties and heat transfer
performance of Al2O3/R-134a nanorefrigerants, International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer 57, 100–108, copyright (2012), with permission
from Elsevier.

4.2.5 Effect of Nanoparticle Shape

The effect of nanoparticle shape was studied by Xie et al. (2002a).
Their results indicated that the cylindrical-shaped nanoparticles
showed higher enhancement than spherical-shaped ones for the
same base fluid, despite their larger average size. This conclusion
was confirmed later by the results of Ding, Alias, Wen, & Williams
(2006), Hwang et al. (2006), Liu, Ching-Cheng Lin, Huang, and
Wang (2005), Murshed et al. (2005), and Xie, Lee, Youn, and Choi
(2003). Moreover, the increase in the length-to-diameter ratio of
the dispersed nanotubes leads to the increase of the thermal
conductivity enhancement (Assael, Metaxa, Arvanitidis,
Christofilos, & Lioutas, 2005; Zhang et al., 2007). In the same
context, the effective thermal conductivity measured by Choi,
Zhang, Yu, Lockwood, and Grulke (2001) showed that nanotubes
(MWCNT) yield an anomalously nonlinear increase in the
conductivity compared to predicted linear behavior. On the other
hand, fullerenes, which are carbon molecules in the form of a
hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes (Kharisov,
Kharissova, & Ortiz-Mendez, 2016), showed lower enhancement.
This result was concluded by Putnam, Cahill, Braun, Ge, and
Shimmin (2006) who dispersed C60–C70 fullerenes in toluene
and compared their effect on enhancement of thermal
conductivity against dispersing Au nanoparticles. Their results
indicated that fullerenes showed lower enhancement than Au at
loadings <<1 vol.%. However, these data were not confirmed for
higher volumetric loadings. Another lower enhancement of
fullerenes in mineral oil nanofluids was observed by Hwang et al.
(2007) when they compared its enhancement with MWCNTs in
the same base fluid, even at higher concentration. [This paragraph
is adapted from Tawfik (2017), copyright (2016), with permission
from Elsevier.]

Timofeeva et al. (2009) experimentally investigated the thermal

conductivity of various shapes of alumina nanoparticles in a fluid
consisting of a 50:50 mixture of ethylene glycol and water. They
chose four different types of shapes (platelets, blades, cylinders,
and bricks) of alumina nanoparticles and measured the thermal
conductivity at room temperature (21±0.5°C). The results are
shown in Fig. 4-7 as a function of nanoparticle volume fraction
and show that, according to experimental results, the highest
thermal conductivity enhancement was achieved for cylindrical-
shaped nanoparticles. Platelets and blades shapes showed the
lowest thermal conductivity enhancement.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 14/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Figure 4-7. Experimentally measured thermal conductivity of

alumina nanofluids in EG/H2O compared to predictions of
Hamilton–Crosser model for corresponding particle shapes.

Reprinted from Timofeeva, E.V., Routbort, J.L., and Singh, D. (2009).

Particle shape effects on thermophysical properties of alumina
nanofluids. Journal of Applied Physics 106, 014304, with the permission of
AIP Publishing.

4.2.6 Effect of Nanofluid Preparation

In the case of thermal conductivity, there are three types of
outcome that have been reported for the effect of ultrasonication.
Some researchers found that the thermal conductivity of
nanofluids was enhanced with increasing ultrasonication
duration. Among them, Amrollahi, Hamidi, and Rashidi (2008)
analyzed the thermal conductivity of MWCNT–EG nanofluid for
an ultrasonication time of up to 24 h. Their study reports that
longer sonication time gives a higher thermal conductivity ratio,
which is more noteworthy for higher concentrations and thermal
conductivity ratio rapidly increased for the first 3 h of
ultrasonication (Mahbubul et al., 2015). Ruan and Jacobi (2012)
investigated the effects of sonication on the thermal conductivity
of MWCNT–EG–gum arabic (GA) nanofluid. First, they measured
thermal conductivity for different sonication modes (continuous
and pulse mode) and found no significant impact on results. They
again studied the effect of prolonged ultrasonication duration (up
to 22 h) on thermal conductivity and indicated that the maximum
enhancement of thermal conductivity was obtained using longer
sonication times and it continuously increased with sonication
time. Moreover, for the first 160 min of ultrasonication, it
increased rapidly. The authors compared their results with those
of Amrollahi et al. (2008), which were also for MWCNT–EG and
found 5% higher thermal conductivity ratio and they claimed that

Read less

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128132456000046

Thermal conductivity measurement

techniques for characterizing
thermal energy storage materials –
A review
Anabel Palacios, ... Camila Barreneche, in
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2019

4 Thermal conductivity definition

Thermal conductivity can be defined as the rate at which heat is
transferred by conduction through a unit cross-section area of a
material, when a temperature gradient exits perpendicular to the
area [38–40]. According to this definition and assuming the

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 15/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
material is isotropic and homogeneous [41], for a given
unidirectional heat flow, the thermal conductivity of the material
is calculated following Fourier's law (Eq. (1)) [42–44]:

𝑄 = − 𝜆𝐴
dT (1)
dx

where Q is the heat flow rate of thermal conduction (W), λ is the

thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K), A is the cross-
section area that the heat flows through (m2), dT is the
differential temperature across the sample and dx is the
differential thickness of the test sample (m).
In other words, thermal conductivity is the property of a material

Read more

Read full article

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032119301625

Optimisation of Compressed Earth

Blocks (CEBs) using natural origin
materials: A systematic literature
review
Chiara Turco, ... Ricardo Mateus, in
Construction and Building Materials, 2021

3.2.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity refers to the intrinsic ability of a material to
transfer or conduct heat. It is defined as the amount of heat per
unit of time and unit area that can be conducted through a plate
of a given material with a unit of thickness when the difference of
temperatures between the opposite surfaces is one unit of
temperature. The reviewed studies measure this quantity in
several ways but, in general, it is assessed on a Guarded Hot Plate
using Eq. (6):

𝜆 = 𝐴Δ𝑇
qL (6)

where q is the rate of heat transfer, L is the thickness, A is the area

of heat transfer normal to the direction of the heat flow and ΔT is
the temperature gradient between the warm and cold surface.

A typical hollow brick has a thermal conductivity value of

0.36 W/mK, whereas the thermal conductivity of a non-optimised
CEB is 0 60W/mK [85] Other values to know are the thermal
Read more

Read full article

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061821028841

Thermal properties
J.Y. Hu, ... K.W. Yeung, in Clothing Biosensory Engineering,
2006

11.5 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a property of materials used to describe
the thermal transfer behavior of the heat flow through a fabric
due to a combination of conduction and radiation where the
convection within a fabric is negligible. The conduction loss can
be determined by the thickness of the fabric and its thermal
conductivity. As defined by ASTM, thermal conductivity is the
time rate of unidirectional heat transfer per unit area, in the
steady state, between parallel planes separated by unit distance,
per unit difference of temperature of the planes.2 Another

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 16/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
relevant concept is thermal conductance (C), also defined by
ASTM as the time rate of heat flux through a unit area of a body
induced by unit temperature difference between the body
surfaces.2 Normally, thermal conductivity can be expressed in
equation (11.4)

𝑘=
𝑄/𝐴 [11.4]
Δ𝑇 / Δ𝐿

where Q is the amount of heat passing through a cross-section, A,

and causing a temperature difference, ΔT, over a distance of ΔL.
Q/A is therefore the heat flux which is causing the thermal
gradient ΔT/ΔL The measurement of thermal conductivity

Read more

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781855739253500113

Unconventional gas
James G. Speight Ph.D., D.Sc., in
Natural Gas (Second Edition), 2019

3.2.4.3 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance or
material to conduct heat. Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in
materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high
thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of the substance
or material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of
thermal conductivity is the thermal resistivity.

By way of a reference point, the thermal conductivity, λ, of water

is approximately equal to that of methane hydrate, so the thermal
conductivity beneath permafrost or in marine settings is
essentially independent of methane hydrate content (Ross et al.,
1978; Stoll and Bryan, 1979; Cook and Leaist, 1983; Ashworth et
al., 1985; Tse and White, 1988). Methane hydrate is generally
found in abundance below, rather than in, permafrost, but the
presence of methane hydrates in ice-dominated permafrost can
measurably increase the geothermal gradient because the thermal
conductivity of ice is approximately four times that of methane
hydrate.

In contrast with most well-defined crystalline structures, in which

the thermal conductivity falls with increasing temperature
following a T−1 dependence (for T>100 K), the thermal
conductivity of clathrate hydrates increases slightly with
increasing temperature (Tse and White, 1988). The thermal
conductivity of clathrate hydrates is five times lower than that of
ice near the melting point, and even lower (by a factor >20) at
lower temperatures. The temperature dependence of thermal
conductivity in clathrate hydrates is characteristic of an
amorphous material (Tse and White, 1988).

In sediment bearing hydrates the thermal conductivity reflects

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128095706000035

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 17/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Characterization of Encapsulant
Properties
Haleh Ardebili, Michael G. Pecht, in
Encapsulation Technologies for Electronic Applications,
2009

4.2.2 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the material's intrinsic capability to
diffuse heat. Alternatively, in an electrical analogy (used
frequently), the inverse of thermal conductivity (i.e., the thermal
resistivity) is the material's propensity to impede the flow of heat.
More formally, thermal conductivity can be expressed in terms of
the Fourier's law of steady-state heat conduction (in one
dimension along the x-direction):

𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 (4.3)

where Q is the heat flow (measured in watts), k is the thermal

conductivity (units of W/m K), A is the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to which the heat is flowing, and T is the
temperature. Again, to draw an analogy to electrostatics, Q would
signify current, the temperature differential dT corresponds to the
potential difference, while dx/kA is the material's resistance to
current (heat flow).

A commonly used technique for measuring heat conductivity is

Read more

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780815515760500085

Nanofluids: Key parameters to

enhance thermal conductivity and
its applications
Hammad Younes, ... G.P. Peterson, in
Applied Thermal Engineering, 2022

2.3 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity (k) is a physical property of a material,
which indicates the material's ability to transfer heat. It is
mathematically defined as:

𝑄/𝐴
𝑘 = dT / 𝑑𝑥 (1)

where Q is the amount of heat passing through a cross-section A

that causes a temperature difference, dT/dx is the thermal
gradient over a distance of dx. The thermal conductivity can be
expressed in W/(m K), and represents how many watts of heat
can be conducted through a one-meter-thick material with a one
Kelvin temperature difference between the two ends.

2.3.1 Mechanisms of enhanced thermal conductivity

of nanofluids
Suspensions of nanoparticles in conventional heat transfer fluids
exhibit anomalously enhanced thermal conductivity which
cannot be explained and predicted by the typical classical models.
Until recently the mechanisms behind this enhanced thermal

Read more

Read full article

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359431122001648

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 18/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Heat Exchangers
Stephen Hall, in
Branan's Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers (Fifth
Edition)
, 2012

Thermal Conductivity of Metals

Use the values in Table 2-9 when computing overall heat transfer
coefficients (page 45). Thermal conductivity is the quantity of
heat transferred through a unit thickness.

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123877857000025

25th Anniversary Session for ACI

228 – Building on the Past for the
Future of NDT of Concrete
U. Johnson Alengaram, ... Mohd Zamin bin Jumaat, in
Construction and Building Materials, 2013

8.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity indicates the conduction of heat through
materials. Thermal conductivity depends on the density of
concrete specimen. Thus, it does not depend on the condition of
the curing process such as whether it is moist cured or
autoclaved. The thermal conductivity also depends on the pores
inside the concrete [72]. Okpala [3] reported the thermal
conductivity of OPKS and OPKSC of 0.19 W m−1 °C−1 and
0.45 W m−1 °C−1, respectively. Thus the thermal conductivity of
OPKSC lies between 0.05 and 0.69 W m−1 °C−1 of other LWA as
reported by Neville [31], Demirboga and Gul [56] and Zach et al.
[57]. Thermal conductivity of OPKSC as reported by Okpala [3] is

Read full article

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061812006149

Related terms:
Energy Engineering, Latent Heat,

Nanoparticle, Graphene, Carbon Nanotube,

Nanofluid, Phase Change Material,

Expanded Graphite,

High Thermal Conductivity, Fluid Viscosity.

Recommended publications

Journal of Building Engineering

Journal

Fusion Engineering and Design

Journal

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 19/20
1.11.2024 06:50 Thermal Conductivity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Energy

Journal

Computational Materials Science

Journal

Featured Authors

Snyder, Gerald Jeffrey

Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
Citations: 70,675 h-index: 123 Publications: 81

Mai, Liqiang
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Citations: 58,808 h-index: 130 Publications: 173

Sun, Da-Wen
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Citations: 56,708 h-index: 128 Publications: 513

All content on this site: Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V., its licensors, and contributors. All rights are
reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies. For all open
Rabczuk, Timon
access content, the Creative Commons licensing terms apply.

Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Weimar, Germany

Citations: 45,144 h-index: 110 Publications: 403

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermal-conductivity 20/20