Carbohydrates

By Dr Abdul Sattar
PhD (Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology)
 Importance

❑ Provide energy through carbohydrates

metabolism (Glycolysis and TCA cycle)
❑ Form structural components (cellulsose in
plant and Chitin in Animal)
❑ Important component for compounds like
Nucleic Acid, Coenzyme and flavoprotein
❑ Energy stored in the form of Starch (plant)
and Glycogen (Animal)
1. Primary Energy Source
Glucose (simple carbohydrate) is the primary energy source for the body. After eating
carbs, the body breaks them down into glucose, which is used immediately for energy.
For example, glucose from simple carbs like fruits gives quick energy.
2. Fuel for Physical Activity
Glycogen
Carbohydrates are crucial for muscular energy because they provide the fuel your
muscles need to perform, especially during physical activities like exercise or sports.
Here’s how it works:
When you exercise, especially for activities like running or lifting weights, your muscles
use this stored glycogen as quick energy to keep moving
3. Digestive Health
Fiber (a type of complex carbohydrate) plays a crucial role in digestion. Fiber, including
cellulose and pectin, helps regulate bowel movements and supports a healthy gut.
4. Blood Sugar Regulation
Complex Carbohydrates (e.g., starch) release glucose more gradually into the
bloodstream, providing sustained energy. Foods like whole grains and legumes help
maintain stable blood sugar levels.
5. Preventing Fat Breakdown
Carbohydrates, such as starch and glycogen, provide steady energy to the body. When
carbohydrates are available, the body uses them first for energy instead of breaking
down fat stores. This helps prevent excessive fat breakdown and ensures proper
metabolic function.
 Classification

❑ Monosaccharide
o Aldoses
o Ketoses
❑ Disaccharide
❑ Oligosaccharide
❑ Polysaccharide
1. Based on Composition

a. Monosaccharides
Description: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single
sugar unit.
Examples:
•Glucose (blood sugar, provides energy to cells)
•Fructose (found in fruits, sweeter than glucose)
•Galactose (part of lactose, found in dairy)
Characteristics: These are quickly absorbed by the body and used for energy.
b. Disaccharides
Description: These are carbohydrates made up of
two monosaccharide units joined together.
Examples:
•Sucrose (glucose + fructose; common table sugar)
•Lactose (glucose + galactose; found in milk)
•Maltose (glucose + glucose; formed during digestion of
starch)
Characteristics: Disaccharides need to be broken
down into monosaccharides before they can be used
for energy.
c. Oligosaccharides
Description: Carbohydrates made up of 3 to 10
monosaccharide units.
Examples:
– Raffinose (found in beans, cabbage, and whole
grains; made of galactose, glucose, and fructose)
– Stachyose (found in beans and vegetables; made
of two galactose units, one glucose, and one
fructose)
d. Polysaccharides
Description: These are long chains of
monosaccharide units (more than two) linked
together.
Examples:
•Starch (stored energy in plants, found in potatoes, rice,
etc.)
•Glycogen (stored energy in animals, found in muscles
and liver)
•Cellulose (found in plant cell walls, helps with
digestion but not digestible by humans)
Characteristics: Polysaccharides are more complex
and take longer to break down, providing a steady
release of energy
Based on Subunits

a. Monosaccharides (Single Sugar Units)

Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.

b. Disaccharides (Two Sugar Units)

Examples: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), Lactose (glucose + galactose).

c. Oligosaccharides (3-10 Sugar Units)

Examples: Raffinose (galactose + glucose + fructose), Stachyose (two galactose +
glucose + fructose).

d. Polysaccharides (Many Sugar Units)

Examples: Starch (multiple glucose units), Glycogen (stored glucose in
muscles/liver), Cellulose (structural glucose in plants).
Summary:
•Monosaccharides: Single sugar unit (e.g.,
glucose, fructose).
•Disaccharides: Two sugar units (e.g., sucrose,
lactose).
•Oligosaccharides: 3-10 sugar units (e.g.,
raffinose, stachyose).
•Polysaccharides: Many sugar units (e.g., starch,
glycogen, cellulose).
 Isomerism

Property of two different compounds having

same molecular formula and these
compounds are called isomers
❑Structural isomers
o Chain isomers
o Functional group isomers
❑Stereoisomer
o Geometrical isomers
o Optical isomers
Isomerism refers to the phenomenon where two or more compounds
have the same chemical formula but different structures or
arrangements of atoms. These compounds are called isomers.
Isomerism occurs in many types of molecules, including carbohydrates,
where different forms of the same basic formula can have distinct
physical and chemical properties.
There are two main types of isomerism:
1. Structural Isomerism
Description: Isomers that have the same molecular formula but differ
in the way their atoms are connected or arranged.
Examples in Carbohydrates:
– Glucose and Fructose: Both have the formula C₆H₁₂O₆, but glucose is
an aldehyde sugar (with an aldehyde group), while fructose is a ketone
sugar (with a ketone group). The way their atoms are connected
makes them structurally different.
2. Stereoisomerism
Description: Isomers that have the same molecular formula and
connectivity of atoms but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms or
groups.
Types of Stereoisomerism:
– Geometrical Isomerism: Occurs when there is a difference in the
spatial arrangement of atoms or groups around a double bond or ring
structure (e.g., cis and trans forms).
– Optical Isomerism: Involves isomers that are non-superimposable
mirror images of each other. These are called enantiomers and occur
when molecules have chiral centers (asymmetrical carbon atoms).
Example in Carbohydrates:
– D-glucose and L-glucose: These are optical isomers (enantiomers).
They have the same chemical formula (C₆H₁₂O₆) but are mirror images
of each other. In nature, D-glucose is the form most commonly found
in biological systems
Optical Isomers are mirror images
 Asymmetric Carbon or Chiral
carbon
Carbon atom to which four different substitutes are
attached
For example Glucose has four asymmetric carbon
atoms. To calculate isomers we use this Formula
2n
 Enantiomers

A pair of isomers, mirror images of each other

and having the ability to rotate the plan
polarized light
➢ How are monosaccharide represented
➢ How are ring structure produced
➢ Hemiacetal and Hemiketal
➢ Pyranose and Furanose
➢ Ficsher’s and Haworth’s projection
➢ Anomeric Carbon
 Hemiacetal Ring

The ring is formed in aldehydic sugers when aldehydic group of an aldose

reacts with alcoholic group of same suger generating a new asymmetric
center
 Pyranose

Stable ring structure of monosaccharide's, which have six members, that is

five carbon and one oxygen
 Hemiketal Ring

The ring is formed in ketoses when ketonic group of sugar reacts with
alcoholic group of same sugar generating a new asymmetric center
 Furanose

Stable ring structure of monosaccharide's, which have five members, that is

four carbon and one oxygen
 Ficsher’s and Haworth’s
projection

Ficsher’s projection is the

rectangular representation of
monosacccharides and Haworth’s
projection on the other hand is
chain like configuration
 Anomeric Carbon

Beta
Alpha

As hemiacetal and hemiketal rings results in the formation of an additional

asymmetric carbon atom
In Aldoses Carbon 1 and in ketoses carbon 2 is anomeric carbon
➢ Glycoside formation
➢ Types of glycosides
➢ What are disaccharides
➢ How disaccharide formed
➢ Types and examples of disaccharide
 Glycoside linkages

Glycosides are formed when condensation

reaction between a monosaccharide and OH
group of second compound which can be
carbohydrate or non carbohydrate moiety
A glycoside formed between a monosaccharide and OH group of other compound is
called O-glycoside. Example is when two monosaccharides are linked
 N-glycosidic linkages

A glycoside formed between a monosaccharide and NH3 group of A-glycon (non

carbohydrate) compound is called N-glycoside. Example is when Ribose sugar react
with Nitrogenous base in DNA
 Disaccharides

Compounds of two monosaccharide's unit

joined through glycosidic linkages
How the disaccharide is formed?
When glycosidic linkage is formed between
anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide and
OH group or anomeric carbon of second
monosaccharide unit with the removal of
water
 Types of disaccharides
Reducing sugar Non reducing sugar
Reducing disaccharides non-reducing
are the sugars which have disaccharides are the
free anomeric carbon sugars which do not have
atom and so can reduce free anomeric carbon
other substances atom (glycoside linkage is
formed between both
anomeric carbon of
monosaccharides) and so
loosing its reducing
activity
Maltose as reducing disaccharides
Lactose
Lactose as reducing disaccharides
Sucrose
Sucrose as non reducing
disaccharides, both reducing
ends or anomeric carbon
involved in glycosidic formation.
Sucrose is 1-2 alpha linkage
 Polysaccharide/ Glycan
Polymer of hundreds or more monosaccharide
joined by glycosidic linkages
 Examples of polysaccharide

Starch, Glycogen, Chitin, cellulose, Heparin and

Hyaluronic acid

Significance
Starch/Glucosan and Glycogen as energy source
Cellulose as important structural component of cell
wall in plant
Chitin as exoskeleton in Insects and crabs
Hyaluronic acid as essential component of
connective tissues
Classification
Classification
Peptidoglycan
as heteroploysaccharide
 Peptidoglycan
➢Highly complex compound of N-acetyle
glucoseamine and N-acetylmuramic acid
joined together by β 1,4 linkage and
aminoacids
➢Component of bacterial cell wall and provide
the rigidity and strength to cell wall
 Mucopolysaccharide
as heteroploysaccharide

➢Also called Glycosaminoglycans (GAG)

➢Unbranched heteropolysaccharide
➢ composed of amino sugars like hexose
amines and uronic acid
➢Examples are Hyaluronic acid, Heparin and
Chondriotin sulphate
Experimental analysis of
Carbohydrates
 Molisch Test
Objectives
• To detect the presence of carbohydrates in a
given sample.
• To distinguish carbohydrates from other
biomolecules.
Reagent
• α-naphthol in Ethanol 99% (Condensation)
• Concentrated sulphuric acid (hydrolyze)
• Test sample
Principle
Firstly, Concentrated Sulphuric Acid hydrolyzes
all polysaccharide and disaccharide to
monosaccharide. The monosaccharide's (then
from hydroxymethyl furfural with hexoses (for
example Glucose) and pentoses to form
furfural. Then these hydroxymethyl furfural and
furfural compounds condense with α naphthol
to form a purple colored condensation product
 Iodine Test
Test for Polysaccharide
Iodine Test (Physical Test)
Reagents
Acidic Iodine Solution
Principle (adsorption)
When two reactants molecules are mixed, then
an iodine molecules attach on the surface of
polysaccharide d form a colored complex
depending upon the complexity of molecules
Glycogen (Most complex) gives purple color
Starch (Less Complex) gives blue color
Dextrin (Partially hydrolyzed product) gives red
color

(Different colored complexes are observed due

to complexity of polysaccharide)
Test for Reducing Sugar
Fehling Test
Benedict test
Components of Fehling’s reagent
Fehling Sloution contain CuSO4, Na-K Tratarate
and NAOH
Principle of reaction
Oxidation Reduction principle
Result
Red Precipitates of cuprous oxide are formed
Components of Benedict reagent
Solution contain CuSO4, Sodium carbonate and
sodium citrate
Principle of reaction
Oxidation Reduction principle
Result
Red Precipitates of cuprous oxide are formed
Barfoed’s Test
❖The test for differentiating between reducing
monosaccharide and reducing disaccharide.
❖Composed of copper acetate and glacial acetic
acid
❖End product is cuprous oxide
❖Reducing monosaccharide gives red PPT of
cuprous oxide within 05 min while reducing
disaccharide after 05 min
❖Reduction occurs in acidic medium while Feh/Ben
in Alkaline medium but reaction principal same as
oxidation/reduction process
Saliwanoff’s Test
❖Test for detection ketohexoses and Aldohexoses
❖Reagents include HCL and Resorcinol, HCL
dehydrates keto sugars to form hydroxymethyl
furfural while Resorcinol function as condensing
agent
❖Principle based on Molisch test dehydration and
condensation
❖Aldohexoses gives slight pink color and
Ketohexoses deep red
❖Example Sucrose hydrolysis by HCL into glucose
and fructose and then fructose dehydrated by
HCL and so on…
Foulgers Test
❖Confirmatory and specific test for ketohexoses
❖Reagent composed of Urea and sulphuric acid
❖When ketohexose are heated with foulgers
reagent so they give blue coloration and
aldohexoses gives green color
❖Exact mechanism unknown
Osazone Test
❖Reducing sugars only identified by osazone test
different sugar forms different crystals of
different shape
❖Reagent is phenyhydrazine that has the ability
to form crystals
❖Glucose/Fructose/Mannose Needle shaped
crystal
❖Maltose sunflower shaped
❖Lactose Cotton ball like
❖Galactose Spindle shaped or Rod like
 Thanks

https://www.slideserve.com/gasha/introduction-to-carbohydrates