2.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Objective
To enable the students to gain knowledge of electromagnetic waves and its applications.

Syllabus
The Maxwell’s equations - wave equation; Plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum, Conditions
on the wave field - properties of electromagnetic waves: speed, amplitude, phase, orientation
and waves in matter - polarization - Producing electromagnetic waves - Energy and momentum
in EM waves: Intensity, waves from localized sources, momentum and radiation pressure -
Cell-phone reception. Reflection and transmission of electromagnetic waves from a non-
conducting medium vacuum interface for normal incidence.
2.1. Introduction
Electromagnetic waves are constituted by periodic variation of electric and magnetic fields.
Though these two fields are separate, yet, they are closely related to each other. These waves
propagates in such a way that the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves. Thus the electromagnetic
waves are transverse in nature.
We know that in sound waves, water waves, waves in stretched strings, etc., the particles will
move, whereas in electromagnetic waves, the particles will not move. Therefore, only the field
intensities will change in electromagnetic waves.
In this chapter we are going to discuss about the Maxwell’s equations and the mechanism
involved in the propagation of electromagnetic waves in free space and matter, along with the
law govern these equations. Further discussion were made on energy, momentum, radiation
pressure and properties of electromagnetic waves.
2.1.1 Fundamental Laws and Theorems Governing Electromagnetic field
(i) Gauss law for electric field
1
It states that the total flux through any closed surface is equal to times of the total charge
0
Q
(Q) enclosed in the surface i.e.,  E.ds  
s 0

(ii) Faraday’s law

It states that the induced electromotive force (ε) in a coil is equal to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux (ϕ) linking the coil
d
i.e.,   
dt
The negative sign implies the decrease in magnetic flux.

RR / PHY / VCET 1|Page

(iii) Ampere’s circuit law

It states that the line integral of magnetic field ( B ) surrounding any closed path is equal to 0
times of net current (I) passing through that path.

i.e.,  B.dl   I
line
0

B B
(or) 
line 0
.dl  I , Since H 
0
, we can write the above equation as  H .dl  I
line

(iv)Gauss law for magnetic field

It states that the magnetic flux ( B ) passing through the closed surface is equal to zero

 B.ds  0
S

(v) gradient ()

A differential operator which, operating on a function of several variables, gives the sum of
the partial derivatives of the function with respect to the three orthogonal spatial coordinates.
It is a vector derivative of a scalar field.
 ˆ  ˆ
  iˆ  j k
x y z

(vi) Divergence (dot product)

It is the amount of spreading out of a vector from the point. The divergence of vector F at a
point P is defined as the change of vector (expansion) per unit volume as volume shrinks to
zero about P.

Fx ˆ Fy ˆ Fz

It is applied to a scalar quantity .F  iˆ j k
x y z

It explains the variation of function in x, y and z directions.

(vii) Curl (cross product)

RR / PHY / VCET 2|Page

The measure of twist of the vector with respect to a point is called curl. The curl of a vector
A at a point is defined as the amount of twisting (circulation) per unit area around that point

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
curl A    A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az

Note: The divergence and curl together shall be represented by the vector identity
.( A)  0

(viii) Gauss divergence theorem

It states that “the volume integral of divergence of a vector A is equal to the vector A that
spreads out through the surface which covers the volume (V)”

  . A .dV   A. nˆ ds
V S

Note: Gauss theorem is used to convert volume integral to surface integral and vice versa

(ix) Stoke’s theorem (curl theorem)

It states that “The surface integral of curl of a vector F over the bounded contour region is
equal to the line integral of a vector F around a closed contour (line).”

 ( F). nˆ ds   F . dl
S line

Note: Stoke’s theorem is used to convert surface integral to line integral and vice versa.
(x) Equation of continuity

RR / PHY / VCET 3|Page

Let us consider a closed surface enclosing a charge q. There exists an outward flow of current
q
given by I   J . ds   (1)
S
t

From Gauss divergence theorem, surface integral is converted to volume integral

  J .ds   (. J ) dV (2)

S V

Comparing (1) and (2), we get

q
 (. J ) dV   t
V
(3)

If  is volume charge density, we can write the charge q as

q    dV (4)
V

Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we get


 (. J ) dV    t dV
V V
(5)

The two volume integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal.
Therefore, equation (5) becomes

.J  
t

(or) .J  0 (6)
t
Equation (6) represents the equation of continuity
(xi) Poynting vector
Poynting vector is defined as the amount of energy flow of electromagnetic wave per unit area
per unit time along the wave propagation direction. It is denoted by S and is given by

S  EH
2.2. Maxwell’s equations
In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell framed the theory of electromagnetic radiation through four
equations and explained about the fundamental relations between electric and magnetic fields.
These four equations are called Maxwell’s equations.
Maxwell’s equations are formulated based on the fundamental laws such as (i) Gauss law for
electricity, (ii) Gauss law for magnetism, (iii) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
(iv) Ampere’s law.

RR / PHY / VCET 4|Page

The formulated Maxwell’s equations are,

Equation - 1: .D  

Equation - 2: .B  0

B
Equation - 3:   E  
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t
Derivation of Maxwell’s equation
(i) Maxwell’s first equation from electric Gauss law
Statement: The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed
by it.
Let us consider a dielectric medium of surface s bounded by the volume V. If Q is the total
charge in the dielectric material whose charge density is  then,
Q
According to Gauss law, for electric field we can write  E.ds  
s 0

(or)   E.ds  Q
s
0 (1)

We know that D   E

Since ε = ε0 εr, we can write D   0 r E

As the air is perfect dielectric, then εr = 1

 D  0E (2)

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

 D.ds  Q
S
(3)

Since the total charge Q is equal to the charge density  over the volume V, we can write

Q    .dV (4)

V

Comparing eqn. (3) and (4), we get

 D.ds   .dV

S V
(5)

Equation (5) represents the Maxwell’s first equation in integral form.

Differential form

RR / PHY / VCET 5|Page

The differential form of Maxwell’s first equation shall be obtained from the integral form of
Maxwell’s first equation, by converting the surface integral into volume integral.
Therefore, Applying Gauss divergence theorem to LHS of equation (5), we get

 D.ds   (.D).dV

S V
(6)

From eqn (5) and (6), we can write

 (.D)dv   .dV

V V
(7)

Two volume integrals are equal if these integrals are equal. Therefore, equation (7) becomes

.D   (8)

Equation (5) represents the Maxwell’s first equation in integral form.

. 0 E  
(or ) 0.E  

(or ).E 
0

(ii) Maxwell’s second equation from magnetic Gauss law

Statement: the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is equal to zero.
i.e., ϕ = 0 (9)
We know that the magnetic flux (ϕ) in terms of magnetic induction (B) is

  B.ds
S
(10)

Comparing equations (9) and (10) we get,

 B.ds  0
S
(11)

Equation (11) represents Maxwell’s second equation in integral form.

Differential form
Using Gauss divergence theorem, equation (11) can be written as


Surface
B.ds   (.B)dV  0
V
(12)

Here the surface bound volume is an arbitrary, therefore equation (12) holds good only if the
integral vanishes.

RR / PHY / VCET 6|Page

.B  0 (13)
Equation (13) represents the s second equation in differential form

(iii) Maxwell’s third equation from Faraday’s law

Statement: The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the rate of magnetic
displacement (flux density) through that closed path.
d
According to Faraday’s law,    (14)
dt
Where ε – Electromotive force (EMF) and ϕ – Magnetic flux
We know that

(a) The EMF in terms of electric field (E),    E.dl

l
and (15)

(b) The magnetic flux in terms of magnetic induction (B) is    B.ds

S
(16)

Substitute eqns.(15) and (16) in eqn. (14), we get

d (  B.ds )
 E.dl  
l
S
dt

Here, B alone changes with respect to time, Hence, we can write

B
 E.dl   
l S
t
ds (17)

Equation (17) represents the Maxwell’s third equation in integral form

Differential form
The differential form of Maxwell’s third equation shall be obtained from equation (17) by
converting line integral into surface integral.
Therefore, Applying Stoke’s theorem to LHS of equation (17), we can write

 E.dl   ( E).ds

l S
(18)

Comparing equations (17) and (18), we can write

B
 (  E ).ds   
S S
t
ds (19)

When surface is an arbitrary, the integral must vanish.

RR / PHY / VCET 7|Page

 B
Equation (19) becomes   E   (20)
t
Equation (20) represents the Maxwell’s third equation in differential form.

(iv) Maxwell’s fourth equation from Ampere’s law (Displacement current)

Statement: The line integral of magnetic field intensity H on any closed path is equal to the
current (I) enclose by that path.

From Ampere’s circuit law, we can write  H .dl  I

l
(21)

We know the relation between the current and current density is I   J .ds
S
(22)

Substituting equation (22) in (21), we get  H .dl   J .ds

l S
(23)

From Stoke’s theorem, line integral shall be converted into surface integral

 H .dl   ( H ).ds

l S
(24)

Comparing equation (24) and equation (23), we get  ( H ).ds   J .ds
S S
(25)

As the surface is arbitrary, therefore integral must vanish.

Equation (25) becomes   H  J (26)

Applying Gauss divergence theorem on both sides of equation (26), we get

.( H )  .J (27)

From vector identity we can write .( H )  0

Therefore, equation (27) becomes, .J  0 (28)


But, according to equation of continuity, we can write .J  0
t
 
(or) .J   , In this equation we can write, .J  0 only if 0 (29)
t t
From equation (29) we can see that the charge density becomes constant (or) in other words,
we can say that the charge density is static. Thus we concluded that the Ampere’s equation is
valid for steady state conditions and is invalid for time varying fields.
Therefore, Maxwell assumed that equation (26) is incomplete and hence he modified
equation (26) by adding displacement current density Jd to equation (26),

RR / PHY / VCET 8|Page

Hence (26) becomes   H  J  J d (30)

Taking divergence on both sides, we get .(  H )  .( J  J d ) (31)

Using vector identity we can write .( H )  0 , therefore equation (31) becomes

(.J )  (.J d )  0

 
Since, .J   , we can write the above equation as   (.J d )  0
t t

. J d 
t

From Maxwell’s first equation, we know .D   . Therefore, the above equation becomes

 (.D )
. J d 
t

D
(or) . J d  .
t

D
(or) J d  (32)
t

D
Substituting equation (32) in equation (30), we get   H  J  (33)
t
Equation (33) represents the Maxwell’s fourth equation in differential form.
Further the integral form of Maxwell’s fourth equation from Ampere’s law can be written as

 D 
 H .dl    J  t  ds
S S

Statement: The magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to sum of the conduction
current and displacement current enclosed by the path.
2.3. Characteristics of Maxwell’s equation

Equation - 1: .E 
0

It explains Gauss law in electrostatics

It is time independent (or) steady state equation
The flux of the lines of electric force depends upon charge density
Charge acts as a source or sink for the lines of electric force.

RR / PHY / VCET 9|Page

Equation - 2: .B  0
It express that isolated magnetic poles do not exist
Total magnetic flux entering and leaving a given volume is equal
There is no source or sink for lines of magnetic force
It is a time independent equation
It explains Gauss law in Magnetostatics.

B
Equation - 3:   E  
t

It relates the electric field vector E and magnetic induction vector B

It is a time dependent or time varying equation
It explains the well-known Faraday’s laws and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction

E is generated by the time variation of B

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t

It gives relation with the magnetic field vector B with displacement vector D and the current
density J
It is also a time dependent equation
It explains Ampere’s circuit law

Sl.No Law Differential Form Integral Form

1. Gauss law in Electric field .D    D.ds   .dV

S V

2.
Gauss law in Magnetic
field .B  0  B.ds  0
S

B dB
3. Faraday’s law  E  
t
 E.dl   
l S
dt
ds

D  D 
4. Ampere’s law  H  J 
t
 H .dl 
l
S  t  ds
 J 

2.4. Electromagnetic wave equation

The general electromagnetic wave equation can be derived using the Maxwell’s equations.
Let us consider a homogeneous linear medium of permittivity ε, permeability , conductivity
σ and charge density ρ =0.
We know that the Maxwell’s equations for any medium are

RR / PHY / VCET 10 | P a g e
Equation - 1: .D  

Equation - 2: .B  0

B
Equation - 3:   E  
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t
The above Maxwell’s equation becomes

Equation - 1: . E  0  .E  0 (1)

Equation - 2: .B  0 (2)

B
Equation - 3:   E   (3)
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t

B
Since J   E ; D   E ; B   H (or ) H  ;  0

The above Maxwell’s equation becomes

. E  0 (or) .E  0

B  E
Equation (4) becomes.   E 
 t

E
(or)   B   E   (4)
t
The wave equation in terms of electric field
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3), we get

 B 
  (  E )      
 t 

 (  B )
(or)   (  E )   (5)
t
Substituting equation (4) in equation (5) we get,

 E 
  (  E )     E   
t  t 

RR / PHY / VCET 11 | P a g e
 E 2E
(or)   (  E )     2 (6)
t t
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( E)  (.E)  2 E (7)

Comparing equation (6) & (7), we get

E 2E
(.E )   E  
2
  2
t t
Substituting equation (1) in the above equation, we get,

E 2E
(0)   2 E     2
t t

E 2E
(or)  2 E     2  0 (8)
t t
Equation (8) represents the wave equation in terms of electric field.
The wave equation in terms of magnetic field
Taking curl on both sides of equation (4), we get

 E 
  (  B)      E   
 t 

 (  E )
 
(or)   (  B )    E  
t
 (9)

 B    B 
(or)   (  B)          
 t  t  t 

B 2B
(or)   (  B )     2 (10)
t t
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( B)  (.B)  2 B (11)

Comparing equation (10) and (11), we get

B 2B
(.B)   2 B     2 (12)
t t
Substitute equation (2) in (12), we get

B 2B
(0)   2 B     2
t t

RR / PHY / VCET 12 | P a g e
 B 2B
 B  
2
  2
t t

B 2B
(or)  2 B     2  0 (13)
t t
Equation (13) represents the wave equation in terms of the magnetic field in a homogeneous
linear medium (with ρ = 0)
2.5. Boundary conditions on the wave field
Boundary conditions are used to explain the behaviour (discontinuous or continuous) of
electromagnetic field vectors at the boundary (interface) between two different kinds of
material medium.
Medium 1
In general, field vectors will have two components, viz., 𝑛1
1ε1
ds
(i) Normal components, which is perpendicular to the interface and
h ds
(ii) Tangential components, which is parallel to the interface
ds
Normal components of the wave field Medium 2
2ε2 𝑛2
Let us consider a small cylinder having area of cross section ds and extending
height h/2 on either side of the boundary as shown in figure.

(i) Field vector ( D )

According to Maxwell’s first equation .D   (1)

Integrating equation (1) over the volume of the cylinder we get,

 (.D)dv   .dV

V V
(2)

Using Gauss Divergence theorem, i.e.,  (.D)dv   D.ds , we can write
V S

the equation (2) as  D.ds   .dV

S V

If s1 and s2 are the upper and lower curved surfaces of the cylinder and if s3
and s4 are the curved surfaces in meium-1 and medium-2 respectively, then
The surface of the cylinder shall be splited up into the following way

 D .ds   D .ds   D .ds   D .ds  

S
1 1
S
2 2
S
3 3
S
4 4 V
.dV
(3)

If the height of the cylinder h tends to zero, then ds3 and ds4 will become zero.
Therefore equation (3) becomes

 D .ds   D .ds   .dV

S
1 1
S
2 2
V

RR / PHY / VCET 13 | P a g e
 D1.nˆ1.ds1    nˆ2 .ds2  0 [ ds  nds
ˆ ] (4)
S S

From figure we can write nˆ2  nˆ1 and ds1 = ds2 = ds.

Equation (4) shall be written as

 D .nˆ .ds   D .nˆ .ds   .dV

S
1 1 1
S
2 1 2
V

(or) D1N ds  D2 N ds  phds

Here, surface charge density s = ph , we can write

(D1N – D2N )ds = s ds
(or) D1N – D2N = s (5)

(ii) Field vector B

According to Maxwell’s second equation, .B  0 (6)

Integrating equation (6) over the volume of the cylinder, we get

 (.B)dV  0
V
(7)

Using Gauss-divergence theorem i.e.,  (.B)dV   B.ds

V S

Equation (7) can be written as  B.ds  0

S
(8)

The surface of the cylinder shall be splited up into the following way

i.e.,  B .ds   B .ds   B .ds   B .ds

S
1 1
S
2 2
S
3 3
S
4 4 0 (9)

If the height of the cylinder h tends to zero, then ds3 and ds4 will be equal to
zero. Therefore equation (9) becomes

 B .ds   B .ds
S
1 1
S
2 2 0

(or)  B .nˆ ds   B .nˆ ds

S
1 1 1
s
2 2 2 0 ( ds  nˆ ds) (10)

From figure, we can write nˆ2  nˆ1 and ds1 = ds2 = ds.

Therefore, Equation (10) can be written as

 B .nˆ ds   B .nˆ ds
s
1 1 1
s
2 2 2 0

RR / PHY / VCET 14 | P a g e
(or) B1N ds  B2 N ds  0

(or) ( B1N  B2 N )ds  0

(or) B1N  B2 N  0

(or) B1N  B2 N (11)

Tangential components of the wave field

Let us consider a rectangular loop having length l (ab =cd)and extending
height h/2 (bb’=b’c=dd’=d’a) on either side of the boundary as shown in
figure

(i) Field vector ( E )

According to Maxwell’s third equation

B
 E   (12)
t
Integrating equation (12) over the surface of the rectangular loop we get

B
 ( E ).ds    t .ds
s s
(13)

Using Stoke’s theorem, i.e.,  ( E).ds   E.dl

S l
equation (13) can be written as

B
 E.dl   
l S
t
.ds

The closed line (abcd) shall be splited upon into the following terms
b' d'
B
b c d a

 E1.dl   E1.dl   E1.dl   E1.dl   E1.dl   E1.dl    t ds (14)

a a b' c d d' S

If the height h tends to zero, then the side of the closed loop bc and ad also tends to zero.
Hence the terms 2, 3, 5 and 6 of equation (14) is equal to zero and the surface area ds also
becomes zero.
Therefore equation (14) becomes
b d

 E1T .dl   E2T .dl  0

a c
(15)

From Figure, we can see that the direction of cd is opposite to that of ab

RR / PHY / VCET 15 | P a g e
 b c
Therefore, equation (15) becomes, E
a
1T .dl   E2T .dl  0
d

(or) E1T .dl  E2T .dl  0

(or) E1T  E2T  0

(or) E1T  E2T (16)

(ii) Field vector ( H )

D
According to Maxwell’s fourth equation, we know   H  J  (17)
t
Integrating equation (17) over the surface of the rectangular loop, we get

 D 
 (  H ).ds    J  t  .ds
S S
(18)

Using Stoke’s theorem, i.e.,  ( H ).ds   H .dl

S l
equation (18) can be written as

 D 
 H .dl    J  t .ds
l S
(19)

The closed line (abcd) shall be splited up into the following terms. i.e.,
b' d'
 D 
b c d a

 H .dl   H .dl   H .dl   H .dl   H .dl   H .dl    J  t .hdl

a
1
a
1
'
1
c
2
d
2
'
1
S
(20)
b d

If the height h tends to zero, then the side of the closed loop bc and ad along tends to zero.
D
Hence the terms 2, 3, 5 an 6 of equation (20) is equal to zero and also becomes zero.
t
b d
Therefore equation (20) becomes,  H1T .dl   H 2T .dl   J h.dl
a c S
(21)

Since, the direction of cd is opposite to that of ab and J h  J s is the surface current density.
b c
Equation (21) becomes  H1T .dl   H 2T .dl 
a d
 J h.dl
S

(or) H1T .dl  H 2T .dl  J s .dl

(or) H1T  H 2T  J s (22)

Conclusion

RR / PHY / VCET 16 | P a g e
 1. If the difference between normal or tangential components of field vector is zero then
the field vector is continuous at the interface of the medium.
i.e., if B1N  B2 N  0 and E1T  E2T  0 , then the field vector is continuous at the
interface of the medium.

2. If the difference between normal or tangential components of field vector is not equal
to zero, then the field vector is discontinuous at the interface of the medium.
i.e., if D1N – D2N = s and H1T  H 2T  J s ; Field vector is discontinuous.

3. Thus the continuity or discontinuity depends on the interface of the medium

Summary of boundary conditions on different kinds of medium interface

Field Medium 1 - Medium 2 Medium 1 - Medium 2 Medium 1 - Medium 2

Sl.No Dielectric - Dielectric Dielectric- Free Space Dielectric - Conductor
Components
1. DNormal D1N  D2 N D1N  D2 N D1N   s ; D2 N  0
2. BNormal B1N  B2 N B1N  B2 N B1N  B2 N  0
3. ETangental E1T  E2T E1T  E2T E1T  E2T  0
4. H Tangental H1T  H 2T H1T  H 2T H1T  J s , H 2T  0

2.6. Maxwell’s equation in different homogeneous medium

We know he Maxwell’s general equations in differential form are:

Equation - 1: .D  

Equation - 2: .B  0

B
Equation - 3:   E  
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t
2.6.1. For Free space

ρ = 0; σ = 0; D   0 E ; B  0 H

By substituting the above conditions, The Maxwell’s equations for free space shall be obtained
as

Equation - 1: .D  

Substituting D   0 E and ρ = 0, we get . 0 E  0 (or) .E  0 (1)

Equation - 2: .B  0 (2)

RR / PHY / VCET 17 | P a g e
 B
Equation - 3:   E   (3)
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t

B
Substituting B  0 H (or) H  ; J  0 and D   0 E , we get
0

 B   ( 0 E )
  
 0  t

E
(or)   B   0 0 (4)
t
Equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) represents the Maxwell’s equations for free space or vacuum.
2.6.2. For dielectric medium

In case of dielectric medium, ρ = 0; σ = 0; D   E ; B   H & Hence, by

replacing 0 and ε0 by , ε, the above equations (1) to (4) is remodified as

Equation - 1: .E  0 (5)

Equation - 2: .B  0 (6)

B
Equation - 3:   E   (7)
t

E
Equation - 4:   B   (8)
t
Equations (5), (6), (7) and (8) represents the Maxwell’s equations for dielectric medium.
Maxwell’s equation Dielectric medium (or)
Sl.No Free Space / vacuum
(General form) non-conductor
1. .D   .E  0 .E  0
2. .B  0 .B  0 .B  0
B B B
3.  E    E    E  
t t t
D E E
4.  H  J    B  0 0   B  
t t t

RR / PHY / VCET 18 | P a g e
2.7. Plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum (or) free space (wave equations & properties
of electromagnetic waves)
If the field vector of electromagnetic wave is constant over any plane that is perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation at any instant of time, then this wave is called plane
electromagnetic wave.
Let us consider a plane electromagnetic wave which propagates in vacuum. Let the
permeability (0) an permittivity (ε0) in free space (or) are constant and conductivity is zero.
If the medium is assumed to be charge free medium, then we can write the charge density
ρ = 0.
The Maxwell’s equations for free space (or) vacuum shall be written as

Equation - 1: .E  0 (1)

Equation - 2: .B  0 (2)

B
Equation - 3:   E   (3)
t

E
Equation - 4:   B   0 0 (4)
t
The wave equation in terms of electric field in vacuum
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3), we get

 B 
  (  E )      
 t 

 (  B )
(or)   (  E )   (5)
t

 E 
(or)   (  E )     0 0 
t  t 

2E
(or)   (  E )   0 0 (6)
t 2
Using vector quantity, we can write

 ( E)  (.E)  2 E (7)

Comparing equation (6) and (7), we get

2E
(.E )   2 E   0 0 (8)
t 2
Substituting eqn. (1) in eqn.(8) we get,

RR / PHY / VCET 19 | P a g e
 2E
(0)   E   0 0 2
2

t

2E
(or)  2 E   0 0 0 (9)
t 2
Equation (9) represents the wave equation in terms of electric field in vacuum (or) free space.
The wave equation in terms of magnetic field in vacuum
Taking curl on both sides of equation (4), we get

 E 
  (  B)      0 0 
 t 

  (  E ) 
(or)   (  B)    0 0  (10)
 t 
Substituting equation (3) in (10), we get

  B 
  (  B)   0 0  
t  t 

2B
(or)   (  B )   0 0 (11)
t 2
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( B)  (.B)  2 B (12)

Comparing equation (11) & (12), we get

2B
(.B)   2 B   0 0 (13)
t 2
Comparing equations (2) in (13), we get

2B
(0)   2 B   0 0
t 2

2B
(or)  2 B   0 0
t 2

2B
(or)  2 B   0 0 0 (14)
t 2
Equation (14) represents the wave equation in terms of magnetic field in vacuum (or) free
space.
2.8.1. Properties – Speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum

RR / PHY / VCET 20 | P a g e
 2E
For electric field,  E   0 0 2  0
2
(1)
t

2B
For magnetic field,  2 B   0 0 0 (2)
t 2
Therefore, we can write the compact single wave equation for both electric and magnetic fields
2 f
as  2
f    0 (3)
t 2
0 0

Where f is a scalar wave function, which represents the electric and magnetic components

(i.e., E  Exiˆ  E y ˆj  Ez kˆ ; B  Bxiˆ  Bx ˆj  Bx kˆ )

We know that the standard form of wave equation which travel with velocity v can be written
1  2
as  2  2 2  0 (4)
v t
Where ψ is a scalar function.
Comparing equations (3) and (4), we get
1
  0 0
v2
1
(or) speed of electromagnetic wave v  (5)
 0 0

We know that ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 C2 N-1m-2 and 0 = 4 x 10-7 N s-2 C-2

Therefore, substituting the value of ε0 and 0 in equation (5), we get
v = 2.998 x 10-9 m s-1. (6)
Thus from equation (6), we can say that the speed of electromagnetic wave in free space (v)
is equal to the speed of light (c).
1
i.e., V  C 
 0 0

1
(or)  0 0  (7)
c2
Substituting equation (7) in equation (1) and (2), we get

1 2E
2 E  0 (8)
c 2 t 2

1 2B
and  2 B  0 (9)
c 2 t 2

RR / PHY / VCET 21 | P a g e
Equations (8) and (9) represents the wave equations of electric and magnetic fields,
respectively in terms of speed in vacuum.
2.8.2. Properties - Orientation of electromagnetic waves in vacuum
The plane wave solution for wave equations (8) and (9) can be written as

E (r , t )  E0ei ( k .r t ) (10)

B(r , t )  B0ei ( k .r t ) (11)

Where Eo and B0 are the complex amplitude of electric and magnetic fields.

2
We know that the wave vector k  nˆ

Here n̂ is the unit vector along the direction of wave propagation and k is the magnitude of
wave vector. i.e., k  knˆ
2 v  
(or) k  nˆ (or) k  nˆ (or) c 
v c k
Where ω = 2  v and c =  v
We know the Maxwell’s equation for free space are

.E  0 (12)

.B  0 (13)

B
 E   (14)
t

E
  B   0 0 (15)
t

The field vector of wave equations for free space (or) vacuum suggest that the del operator 

is equivalent to ik and is equivalent to –iω
t

i.e.,   ik and  i
t
Therefore, Equation (12) becomes

.E (r, t )  0

(or) ik .E  0

(or) k .E  0 (16)
Similarly, Equation (13) becomes

RR / PHY / VCET 22 | P a g e
.B(r, t )  0

(or) ik .B  0

(or) k .B  0 (17)

B
Likewise, Equation (14) becomes   E (r , t )  
t

ik  E  (iB)

(or) ik  E  i B

(or) k  E   B (18)
Similarly, Equation (15) becomes

E
  B (r , t )   0 0
t

(or) ik  B   0 0[i E ]

(or) ik  B  i ( 0 0 ) E

(or) k  B  ( 0 0 ) E

k  B  ( 0 0 ) E (19)

Conclusion

 From (16) & (17), the wave vector k is perpendicular to electric E and magnetic B
fields.
 From (18), the magnetic field vector B is perpendicular to wave vector & electric vector
 From (19), the electric field vector E is perpendicular to magnetic field vector & wave
vector.
 Hence, the electric & magnetic field vectors are transverse in nature and E , B & k are
mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in figure.
Y

Therefore equation (18) becomes, kz  Ex   By (20)

𝐵
Likewise, equation (19) becomes kz  By  (0 0 ) Ex
O 𝐸
X
k z  By  0 0 Ex (21) 𝑘

 
Therefore, E , B, k   X , Y , Z  are right handed triad vector. Z

RR / PHY / VCET 23 | P a g e
2.8.3. Properties - Amplitude and phase of electromagnetic waves in vacuum
From equation (18), we know that the vector product of wave vector and electric field vector
is k  E   B

Since k  knˆ , we can write the above equation as knˆ  E   B


(or) n̂  E  B
k

We know that c  , Hence the above equation becomes,
k
1
n̂  E  cB (or) B  nˆ  E (22)
c
The magnitude of magnetic field vector can be written as
1
B  E
c
1
(or) B  E (23)
c
1 E
Since B  0 H , (23) becomes, 0 H  E (or)  0c (24)
c H
1
We know that the velocity of free space is V  C  (25)
 0 0

Substituting (25) in (24), we get

E 0 E 0
 (or)  (26)
H  0 0 H 0

Intrinsic impedance
The ratio of magnitude of electric field to magnetic field is called intrinsic impedance

E 0
0   (27)
H 0

We know that ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 C2 N-1m-2 and 0 = 4 x 10-7 N s-2 C-2

Therefore, substituting the value of ε0 and 0 in equation (27), we get η0 = 376.6  (28)
From equation (28), the intrinsic impedance is real and positive.
Equation (28) represents that the electric and magnetic field vectors are in same phase as
shown in figure.
Amplitude

RR / PHY / VCET 24 | P a g e
Amplitude of the electromagnetic wave in vacuum shall be obtained from the intrinsic
impedance.
Therefore, from equation (27) we can write E =η0 H (29)
Thus from equation (29), we can conclude that the amplitude of electric field vector is η0 times
that of the magnetic field vector.

Y 𝑘 Z

From figure, the electric and magnetic field vectors have same relative magnitude at every
plane, which is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at any instant of time.
Summary
 EM wave can travel with a speed of light in vacuum.
 EM wave field vectors E and B are perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation, which confirms that the electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
 Field vectors E and B are in same phase. They have same relative magnitude at every
phase, which is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at any instant of
time.
2.9. Electromagnetic waves in matter
Anything having mass and occupy the space is called matter. Matter will be in different phases
such as solid, liquid and gas phases.
The behaviour of EM wave propagation is not same in all the material medium (Matter). It
varies based on the characteristics of the material medium through which it propagates.
Most of the regularly used material medium (objects) are conductor (or) non-conductor
(dielectric medium).
Therefore, let us discuss about the behaviour of wave propagation and its properties in any
one of the material medium such as a dielectric (non0conducting) medium.

2.10. Plane electromagnetic waves in matter – non-conducting medium (dielectric)

Let us consider a plane electromagnetic wave which propagate through a linear isotropic and
homogeneous dielectric medium.

RR / PHY / VCET 25 | P a g e
Since the medium is linear and homogeneous, the permeability (), permittivity (ε) and
conductivity (σ) will have constant value. For an isotropic dielectric medium, , ε are scalars
and σ = 0 (for a perfect dielectric). If we assume that the medium is charge free, then ρ = 0.
The Maxwell’s equations for free space (or) vacuum shall be written as

.E  0 (1)

.B  0 (2)

B
 E   (3)
t

E
  B   (4)
t
The wave equation in terms of electric field in dielectric medium
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3), we get

 B 
  (  E )      
 t 

 (  B )
(or)   (  E )   (5)
t

  E 
(or)   (  E )     
t  t 

2E
(or)   (  E )   (6)
t 2
Using vector quantity, we can write

 ( E)  (.E)  2 E (7)

Comparing equation (6) and (7), we get

2E
(.E )   2 E   (8)
t 2
Substituting eqn. (1) in eqn.(8) we get,

2E
(0)   2 E  
t 2

2E
(or)  E   2  0
2
(9)
t
Equation (9) represents the wave equation in terms of electric field in vacuum (or) free space.
The wave equation in terms of magnetic field in dielectric medium

RR / PHY / VCET 26 | P a g e
Taking curl on both sides of equation (4), we get

 E 
  (  B)      
 t 

  (  E ) 
(or)   (  B)     (10)
 t 
Substituting equation (3) in (10), we get

  B 
  (  B)    
t  t 

2B
(or)   (  B )   2 (11)
t
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( B)  (.B)  2 B (12)

Comparing equation (11) & (12), we get

2B
(.B)   B   2
2
(13)
t
Comparing equations (2) in (13), we get

2B
(0)   2 B  
t 2

2B
(or)  2 B  
t 2

2B
(or)  2 B   0 (14)
t 2
Equation (14) represents the wave equation in terms of magnetic field in dielectric medium.
2.11.1. Properties – Speed of electromagnetic waves in dielectric medium
We know that the vector wave equation in terms of electric and magnetic fields in a dielectric
medium are

2E
For electric field,  2 E   0 (1)
t 2

2B
For magnetic field,  2 B   0 (2)
t 2

RR / PHY / VCET 27 | P a g e
Therefore, we can write the compact single wave equation for both electric and magnetic fields
2 f
as  2 f   2  0 (3)
t
Where f is a scalar wave function, which represents the electric and magnetic components

(i.e., E  Exiˆ  E y ˆj  Ez kˆ ; B  Bxiˆ  Bx ˆj  Bx kˆ )

We know that the standard form of wave equation which travel with velocity v can be written
1  2
as  2  2 2  0 (4)
v t
Where ψ is a scalar function.
Comparing equations (3) and (4), we get
1
 
v2
1
(or) speed of electromagnetic wave v  (5)


Substitute    0 r and   0 r , equation (5) can be rewritten as

1 c
v (or) v (6)
 0 r 0 r  r r

1
Where c 
 0 0

Thus from equation (6), we can say that the speed of electromagnetic wave in dielectric
medium is less than the speed of light (c).
Comparing equation (5) and (6), we can write
1 c
i.e., 
  r r

squaring on both sides

1 c2
(or) 
  r r

 r r
(or)   (7)
c2
Substituting equation (7) in equation (1) and (2), we get

 r r  2 E
2 E  0 (8)
c 2 t 2

RR / PHY / VCET 28 | P a g e
  r r  2 B
and  B 2
0 (9)
c 2 t 2
Equations (8) and (9) represents the wave equations of electric and magnetic fields,
respectively in terms of speed in dielectrics.
2.11.2. Properties - Orientation of electromagnetic waves in dielectric medium
The plane wave solution for wave equations (8) and (9) can be written as

E (r , t )  E0ei ( k .r t ) (10)

B(r , t )  B0ei ( k .r t ) (11)

Where Eo and B0 are the complex amplitude of electric and magnetic fields.

2
We know that the wave vector k  nˆ

Here n̂ is the unit vector along the direction of wave propagation and k is the magnitude of
wave vector. i.e., k  knˆ
2 v  
(or) k  nˆ (or) k  nˆ (or) c 
v c k

Where ω = 2  v and c =  v
We know the Maxwell’s equation for free space are

.E  0 (12)

.B  0 (13)

B
 E   (14)
t

E
  B   (15)
t

The field vector of wave equations for free space (or) vacuum suggest that the del operator 

is equivalent to ik and is equivalent to –iω
t

i.e.,   ik and  i
t
Therefore, Equation (12) becomes

.E (r, t )  0

(or) ik .E  0

RR / PHY / VCET 29 | P a g e
(or) k .E  0 (16)
Similarly, Equation (13) becomes

.B(r, t )  0

(or) ik .B  0

(or) k .B  0 (17)

B
Likewise, Equation (14) becomes   E (r , t )  
t

ik  E  (iB)

(or) ik  E  i B

(or) k .E   B (18)
Similarly, Equation (15) becomes

E
  B (r , t )  
t

(or) ik  B  [i E ]

(or) ik  B  i( ) E

(or) k  B  ( ) E (19)

Conclusion

 From (16) & (17), the wave vector k is perpendicular to electric E and magnetic B
fields.
 From (18), the magnetic field vector B is perpendicular to wave vector & electric field
vector
 From (19), the electric field vector E is perpendicular to magnetic field vector & wave
vector.
 Hence, the electric & magnetic field vectors are transverse in nature and E , B & k are
mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in figure.
Y
Therefore equation (18) becomes, kz  Ex   By (20)
𝐵
Likewise, equation (19) becomes kz  By  ( ) Ex
O 𝐸
(or) k z  By   Ex (21) X
𝑘

RR / PHY / VCET 30 | P a g e
  
Therefore, E , B, k   X , Y , Z  are right handed triad vector.

2.11.3. Properties - Amplitude and phase of electromagnetic waves in dielectric medium

From equation (18), we know that the vector product of wave vector and electric field vector
is k  E   B

Since k  knˆ , we can write the above equation as knˆ  E   B


(or) n̂  E  B
k

For dielectrics, v  , Hence the above equation becomes,
k
1
n̂  E  vB (or) B  nˆ  E (22)
v
The magnitude of magnetic field vector can be written as
1
B  E
v
1
(or) B  E (23)
v
1 E
Since B   H , (23) becomes,  H  E (or)  v (24)
v H
1
We know that the velocity of dielectric medium is V  (25)


Substituting (25) in (24), we get

E  E 
 (or)  (26)
H  H 

Intrinsic impedance
We know the relative permeability ε = ε0εr and the relative permittivity =0r, Then above
equation will be rewritten as

E 0 r

H  0 r

0 E 
Since the intrinsic impedance of vacuum, 0  , we can write  0 r
0 H r

RR / PHY / VCET 31 | P a g e
 r
(or)   0 (27)
r

Where η is intrinsic impedance (real quantity) of dielectric medium given by

E
 (28)
H
Therefore, equation (27) represents the electric and magnetic field vectors are in same phase
as shown in figure
Amplitude
Amplitude of the electromagnetic wave in dielectric medium shall be obtained from the
intrinsic impedance.
Therefore, from equation (27) we can write E =η H (29)
Thus from equation (29), we can conclude that the amplitude of electric field vector is η times
that of the magnetic field vector.

Y 𝑘 Z

From figure, the electric and magnetic field vectors have same relative magnitude at every
plane, which is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at any instant of time.
Summary
 EM wave can travel with a speed less than the speed of light.
 EM wave field vectors E and B are perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation, which confirms that the electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
 Field vectors E and B are in same phase. They have same relative magnitude at every
phase, which is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at any instant of
time.
2.11.4. Plane electromagnetic waves propagating through conducting medium (Matter)

Equation - 1: . E  0  .E  0 (1)

Equation - 2: .B  0 (2)

RR / PHY / VCET 32 | P a g e
 B
Equation - 3:   E   (3)
t

D
Equation - 4:   H  J 
t

B
Since J   E ; D   E ; B   H (or ) H  ;  0

Hence equation (4) becomes

E
  B   E   (4)
t
The wave equation in terms of electric field
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3), we get

 B 
  (  E )      
 t 

 (  B )
(or)   (  E )   (5)
t
Substituting equation (4) in equation (5) we get,

 E 
  (  E )     E   
t  t 

E 2E
(or)   (  E )     2 (6)
t t
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( E)  (.E)  2 E (7)

Comparing equation (6) & (7), we get

E 2E
(.E )   2 E     2
t t
Substituting equation (1) in the above equation, we get,

E 2E
(0)   E  
2
  2
t t

E 2E
(or)  2 E     2  0 (8)
t t

RR / PHY / VCET 33 | P a g e
Equation (8) represents the wave equation in terms of electric field.
The wave equation in terms of magnetic field
Taking curl on both sides of equation (4), we get

 E 
  (  B)      E   
 t 

 (  E )
 
(or)   (  B )    E  
t
 (9)

 B    B 
(or)   (  B)          
 t  t  t 

B 2B
(or)   (  B )     2 (10)
t t
Using vector identity, we can write

 ( B)  (.B)  2 B (11)

Comparing equation (10) and (11), we get

B 2B
(.B)   2 B     2 (12)
t t
Substitute equation (2) in (12), we get

B 2B
(0)   2 B     2
t t

B 2B
 2 B     2
t t

B 2B
(or)  2 B     2  0 (13)
t t

The product σ is called magnetic diffusivity

Equation (13) represents the wave equation in terms of the magnetic field in a homogeneous
linear medium (with ρ = 0)
2.11.5. Properties – Speed of electromagnetic waves in conducting medium
We know that the vector wave equation in terms of electric and magnetic fields in a dielectric
medium are

E 2E
For electric field,  2 E     2  0 (1)
t t

RR / PHY / VCET 34 | P a g e
 B 2B
For magnetic field,  B     2  0
2
(2)
t t
The solution of attenuated wave equations (1) and (2) can be written as

E (r , t )  E0ei ( k .r t )
'
(3)

B(r, t )  B0ei ( k .r t )

'
(4)

Where Eo and B0 are the complex amplitude of electric and magnetic fields and k’ is the
complex propagation (or) wave vector..

The field vector of wave equations suggest that the del operator  is equivalent to ik and
t
is equivalent to –iω

i.e.,   ik and  i
t
Therefore, Equation (1) becomes

(ik ' )2 E   (i ) E   (i )2 E  0

(or) (k ' )2 E  i E   2 E  0

(or) (k '2  i   2 ) E  0 (5)

Similarly, Equation (2) becomes

(k '2  i   2 ) B  0 (6)

Equation (5) (or) (6) holds good for any arbitrary E (or B )

Therefore, in equation (5) and (6) E ≠0 and B ≠ 0

k '2  i   2  0

(or) k '2  i   2

(or) k '2  i   2 (7)

Let k '    i

Squaring on both sides, we get

k '2  (  i )2

(or) k '2   2  (i )2  2i

RR / PHY / VCET 35 | P a g e
(or) k '2   2   2  2i (8)

Comparing real and imaginary parts of equation (7) and (8), we get

 2   2   2 (Real part)

2   (Imaginary part)

Where
1

   2  
2

   1    1 (9)
2    2 2  
 
1

   2  
2

   1   1  (10)
2    2 2  
 
Equations (3) and (4) can be written in terms of α and β as

E (r , t )  E0ei (( i ) nˆ.r t )

E (r , t )  E0e  nˆ.r ei ( nˆ.r t ) (11)

Similarly, B(r, t )  B0e  nˆ.r ei ( nˆ.r t ) (12)

From equations (11) and (12), it si predicted that the amplitude of field vectors are spatially
attenuated due to e  nˆ.r term. The quantity β is a measure of attenuation and is called attenuation
constant (or) absorption coefficients.
The quantity α is called phase constant and k is replaced by α in measurement of speed.
Therefore, the speed of EM wave propagating through conducting medium shall be written as

v (13)

Substituting equation (9) in equation (13), we get

v 1

      2 2

  1  2 2   1 
2      
 
1

2   2  
2

(or) v   1  2 2   1  (14)
      
 

1 1 c2
Since,  
 0 0  r r r r

RR / PHY / VCET 36 | P a g e
Therefore, equation (14) can be written as
The speed of waves in conducting medium,
1

2   2  
2

vc  1  2 2   1  (15)
 r r      
 
2.11.6. Skin depth (or) penetration depth
When an electromagnetic wave enters into the conducting medium, then its amplitude will
decrease (damped) based on the attenuation constant as shown in figure. After certain depth,
the amplitude of the wave goes to zero

Definition
At a particular depth in a conductor, the amplitude of wave will be damped to 1/e times of its
value at the surface. This depth is called skin depth (or) penetration depth (δ)
It is also defined as the reciprocal of attenuation constant (β) or absorption coefficients.
1
Therefore, skin depth of a conductor can be written as   (16)

Substituting equation (10) in equation (16), we get
1
 1

   2  
2

  1  2 2  1 
2      
 
1

2   2  
2

(or)    1   1  (17)
 2    2 2  
 


For good conductor, 1


RR / PHY / VCET 37 | P a g e
  2  2 
 1  2 2   
     
2 2


Here is higher value, hence 1 is negligible

1 1
 
  2   2

   1  
  
Hence, equation (17) becomes
1

2  2

   
2 

2  2
(or)     (18)
 2
 

Equation (18) predicts that, the skin depth (δ) decreases when the conductivity (σ) of the
material medium increases. Due to this behaviour conducting sheets are used as
electromagnetic shields.
2.11.7. Orientation of electromagnetic waves in conductive medium

The field vector of wave equations suggest that the del operator  is equivalent to ik and
t
is equivalent to –iω

i.e.,   ik ' and  i
t
Therefore, Maxwell’s Equations (1 - 4) becomes

.E (r, t )  0

(or) ik ' .E  0

(or) k ' .E  0 (19)

Similarly, Maxwell’s Equation (2) becomes

.B(r, t )  0

(or) ik ' .B  0

(or) k ' .B  0 (20)

B
Likewise, Maxwell’s Equation (3) becomes   E (r , t )  
t

ik '  E  (i B)

RR / PHY / VCET 38 | P a g e
(or) ik '  E  i B

(or) k '  E   B (21)

Similarly, Maxwell’s Equation (4) becomes

E
  B(r , t )   E  
t

(or) ik '  B  (  i ) E

ik '  B  i(  i ) E

k '  B  (  i ) E (22)

Conclusion

 From (19) & (20), the wave vector k is perpendicular to electric E and magnetic B
fields.
 From (21), the magnetic field vector B is perpendicular to wave vector & electric vector
 From (22), the electric field vector E is perpendicular to magnetic field vector & wave
vector.
 Hence, the electric & magnetic field vectors are transverse in nature and E , B & k are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
2.11.8. Amplitude and phase of electromagnetic wave in conductive medium
From equation (21), the vector product of wave vector and electric field vector shall be written
as k '  E   B

(or) (  i )nˆ  E   B

(  i )
(or) nˆ  E  B (23)


Since B   H , we can write the equation (23) as

(  i )
H nˆ  E

Consider the magnitude alone, the above equation becomes
(  i )
H E


H (  i )
(or)    (24)
E 
Here the wave intrinsic impedance η is a complex quantity

RR / PHY / VCET 39 | P a g e
From the above result, we can say that electric and magnetic field vectors are not in same phase.
Here, the magnetic field vector lags behind electric field vector
Substituting α and β in equation (24), we get
1
H    2 4
  1   (25)
E    2 2 

Equation (25) shows that, amplitude of magnetic field vector is greater than that of electric
field vector.
Summary

 EM wave field vectors 𝐸 and 𝐵 are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation. Hence it is confirmed that the EM waves are
transverse in nature
 EM wave field vectors 𝐸 and 𝐵 are damped exponentially while penetrating through
the conducting medium
 Field vectors 𝐸 and 𝐵 are not in same phase. Magnetic field vector lags behind electric
field vector. Amplitude of 𝐵 is greater than𝐸 .
 Skin depth depends on conducting medium.
Properties of Electromagnetic waves
1. EM waves are produced by accelerated charges
2. They do not require any material medium for propagation
3. In an EM wave, the electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to each other
and also to the direction of propagation of EM wave.
4. EM waves are transverse in nature
5. The electric and magnetic field vectors are in phase with each other in free space
6. They travel with the speed of light in free space (or) vaccum
7. The energy in EM wave is equally divided by electric and magnetic field vectors
8. EM wave are chargeless and hence it is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
2.12. Polarization
Polarization refers to a relationship between orientation of electric (or) magnetic field vector
and the direction of electromagnetic wave propagation.
Polarization vectors
Let us consider an electromagnetic wave propagating along Z-axis, which implies that the
electric and magnetic field vectors does not move along X and Y axis.
Therefore, plane wave solutions of electric and magnetic field vectors can be written as

E ( z , t )  E0ei ( kz . z t ) (1)

B( z, t )  B0ei ( kz . z t ) (2)

RR / PHY / VCET 40 | P a g e
Where Eo and B0 are called polarization vector of electric and magnetic field respectively.

Since, the electromagnetic wave propagation is along Z-axis, the Z-component of electric and
magnetic field polarization vectors are zero.
Therefore, the polarization vectors of electric and magnetic fields can be written as
ˆ 0 X  ˆjE0Y
E0  iE (3)

ˆ 0 X  ˆjB0Y
B0  iB (4)

From equations (3) and (4), we can see that the polarization vector varies along X-axis (or)
Y-axis (or) XY plane.
The general solution for polarized wave can be written by substituting Eqn.(3) in Eqn.(1),
ˆ 0 X  ˆjE0Y )ei ( kz . z t )
Therefore, we get E ( z, t )  (iE

ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE0Y ei ( kz . z t )

(or) E ( z, t )  iE (5)

Similarly, by substituting equation (4) in equation (2), we get

 
ˆ 0 X  ˆjB0Y ei ( kz . z t )
B ( z , t )  iB

ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjB0Y ei ( kz . z t )

(or) B( z, t )  iB (6)

From the above equations we can say that the plane of YZ represents the plane of polarization
and the plane XZ represents the plane of vibration for E as shown in figure

𝐸
Plane of Vibration
O Z
Plane of Polarization
𝑘
Y
Thus, based on the values of polarization vector components i.e., E0X and E0Y in Equation (5)
and based on the phases of electric and magnetic vectors, we can predict whether the wave is
plane polarised (or) circularly polarized (or) elliptically polarised are as follows:
Plane polarise wave
For uniform plane polarized wave E0X and E0Y are real numbers and the electric and
magnetic vectors are in same phase.
Let us discuss the polarization vector components for various cases as follows:
Case 1:

RR / PHY / VCET 41 | P a g e
If the polarization vector components E0Y = 0 and E0X ≠ 0, then equation (5) can be rewritten
ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆj (0)ei ( kz . z t )
as E ( z, t )  iE

ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )
i.e., E ( z, t )  iE (7)

Thus from equation (7) we can say that the wave is said to be polarized in x-direction as
shown in figure

X
𝐸 (𝑥)

O Z
𝑘

Case 2:
If the polarization vector components E0X = 0 and E0Y ≠ 0, then equation (5) can be rewritten
as E ( z, t )  iˆ(0)ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE0Y ei ( kz . z t )

i.e., E ( z, t )  ˆjE0Y ei ( kz . z t ) (8)

Thus from equation (7) we can say that the wave is said to be polarized in y-direction as
shown in figure

O Z
𝐸 (𝑦) 𝑘

Case 3:
If the polarization vector components E0X ≠0, E0Y≠0 then the resultant of these two
E 
components will make a constant angle   tan 1  0 X  with X-axis. Therefore equation (5)
 E0Y 
ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE0Y ei ( kz . z t )
can be written as E ( z, t )  iE

RR / PHY / VCET 42 | P a g e
 ˆ 0 X  ˆjE0Y )ei ( kz . z t )
(or) E ( z, t )  (iE (9)

Thus from equation (9) we can say that the wave is said to be linearly polarized with an angle
θ as shown in figure

𝐸 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Circularly and elliptically polarized waves

If the electric and magnetic field vectors are not in the same phase. i.e., if the phase

difference is  , then we get circularly (or) elliptically polarized waves.
2
Circularly polarized wave
If the polarization vector components are equal (E0X = E0Y = E0’), then equation (5) becomes

i ( k z . z t  )
ˆ '0ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE '0e
E ( z, t )  iE 2

 
 i 
ˆ '0ei ( k z . z t )  ˆjE '0ei ( k z . z t )e
(or) E ( z, t )  iE 2

 
 i 
Since, e 2
 i , we can write E ( z, t )  ( E '0iˆ  iE '0 ˆj )ei ( kz . z t ) (10)

Equation (10) represents the circularly polarized light.

Elliptically polarized light
If the polarization vector components are unequal (E0X ≠ E0Y), then equation (5) can be

i ( k z . z t  )
ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE0Y e
written as E ( z, t )  iE 2

RR / PHY / VCET 43 | P a g e
  
 i 
ˆ 0 X ei ( kz . z t )  ˆjE0Y ei ( kz . z t )e
(or) E ( z, t )  iE 2

 
 i 
Since, e 2
 i , we can write E ( z, t )  ( E0 X iˆ  iE0Y ˆj )ei ( kz . z t ) (11)

Equation (11) represents the elliptically polarized wave.

2.13. Production (producing) of electromagnetic waves

We know that a stationary charge particle produces an electric field which exerts force on
nearby charged particles.
If a charged particle is moving, then it can produce magnetic field which exerts force on
nearby moving charges.
Further, if a charged particle is oscillating with respect to an equilibrium position, then it is
known as accelerating charged particle.
Thus an accelerating charged particle produces electromagnetic wave of its own frequency f .
In otherwords, we can say that an accelerating charges will produce changing electric and
magnetic field and the changing magnetic field will generate electric field as shown in figure
X 𝐸 𝐸 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵
Z
Y

Oscillating charges
This relationship of induced electric field and magnetic fields lead to the production and
propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves can be delivered by carrying energy to charged particles at a long
distance away from the source without any help of the material medium.
Here, the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic wave will travel through the free
space with the speed of light
Therefore, the wavelength  of electromagnetic wave is given by  = c / f..

2.14. Energy in electromagnetic waves

Energy content in electromagnetic waves is the sum of time average of the energy density in
electromagnetic waves due to electric field and magnetic field.

Total Energy content in Energy content due Energy content due to

electromagnetic waves (U) = to electric field (UE) + magnetic field (UB) (1)

RR / PHY / VCET 44 | P a g e
Energy content due to the electric field
1
We know that energy density due to electric field U E   0 E 2 (2)
2

Substituting the solution of wave equation in cosine form as E  E0 cos(kz  t   ) in

1
equation (2), we get U E   0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz  t   )
2
In order to find the energy content of electromagnetic wave, let us take the time average of
energy density
T
1 1
i.e., Energy (UE) = 
T 02
 0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz  t   )dt

T
1 1
(or) Energy (UE) =  0 E0 2  cos 2 (kz  t   )dt
2 T0
T
1 1 1 1
Since,
T0 cos 2 (kz  t   )dt  , we can write the above equation as  0 E0 2
2 2 2

1
Therefore, Energy (UE) =  0 E0 2 (3)
4
Equation (3) represents the energy content in EM waves due to electric field.

Energy content due to the magnetic field

1 2
We know that energy density due to magnetic field U B  B (4)
2 0

Substituting the solution of wave equation in cosine form as B  B0 cos(kz  t   ) in

1
equation (2), we get U B  B0 2 cos 2 (kz  t   )
2 0

In order to find the energy content of electromagnetic wave, let us take the time average of
energy density
T
1 1 E0 2  E0 
i.e., Energy (UB) = 
T 0 2 0 c 2
cos 2 (kz  t   )dt  B0  
 c 
T
1 1
(or) Energy (UB) = E0  cos 2 (kz  t   )dt
2

2 0 c 2
T0
T
1 1 1
Since,
T0 cos 2 (kz  t   )dt  , &  0 
2 0 c 2
we can write the above equation as

RR / PHY / VCET 45 | P a g e
 1 1
Energy U B   0 E0 2
2 2
1
Therefore, Energy (UB) =  0 E0 2 (5)
4
Equation (5) represents the energy content in EM waves due to electric field.
From (3) & (5), the energy content in EM waves due to electric and magnetic fields are equal.
Total energy content due to both fields
Total energy content in EM waves due to electric and magnetic fields is obtained by
summing equation (3) and (5) in equation (1), Hence, we get
1 1
U   0 E0 2   0 E0 2
4 4
1
Therefore, Total energy content in EM wave U   0 E0 2 (6)
2
2.15. Intensity of electromagnetic waves
Definition
The magnitude of time average of poynting vector is called intensity of electromagnetic wave.
Derivation

We know that the poynting vector S  E  H

(or) S  E H sin nˆ

Since E and H vectors are normal to each other & hence θ = 90 ̊ . Hence the above equation
becomes S  E H sin90 nˆ

(or) S  E H nˆ (1)

B B
Since B  0 H (or) H  , The equation can be rewritten as S  E nˆ (2)
0 0

We can write the solution of EM waves in cosine form as

E  E0 cos(kr  t   ) (3)

B  B0 cos(k .r  t   ) (4)

Substituting equation (3) and (4) in (2), we get

B0
S  E0 cos(kr  t   ) cos(kr  t   )nˆ
0

RR / PHY / VCET 46 | P a g e
 E0
Since B0  , we can write the above equation as
C
E0 E0
S nˆ cos 2 (kr  t   )
0 c

E0 2
(or) S  nˆ cos 2 (kr  t   ) (5)
0c
Therefore, the time average of the poynting vector shall be written as
T
1 E0 2
T 0 0c
Stime avg .  nˆ cos2 (kr  t   )dt

T
E02 1
(or) Stime avg .  nˆ  cos2 (kr  t   )dt
0 c T 0

1
T
1 E0 2 1
T 0
Since, cos (kr  t   )dt 
2
, we can write S  nˆ
2
time avg .
0c 2

E0 2
(or) Stime avg .  nˆ (6)
2 0c

1
We know   0 0
c

E0 2 0
We can write the equation (6) as Stime avg .  nˆ (7)
2 0

Therefore Intensity (or) magnitude of time average of poynting vector is given by

E0 2 0 0
I S  
2 0  0

1
I   0cE0 2 (8)
2
Power P
Also, the intensity of localised source is I   (9)
Area 4 r 2

2.16. Electromagnetic waves from localized sources

Any stationary charge produces electric field. When charge move with uniform velocity, it
produces steady current. This give rise to magnetic field around the conductor in which charge
flows If this charge particle accelerates, it produces magnetic field + electric field

RR / PHY / VCET 47 | P a g e
Both 𝐸 & 𝐵 are time varying fields EM waves are transverse in nature and hence 𝐸 & 𝐵
are perpendicular to wave propagation. Oscillatory motion accelerates the charges (oscillating
molecular dipole) about mean position to produce EM wave
The ratio between amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields in oscillating wave is equal to
speed of light (for free space) / less than speed (for matter)

There are many localized sources through which the electromagnetic waves can be generated.
Some of the localized sources and the types of electromagnetic waves generated is given in
table below:
Sl.No Localised Sources Types of EM waves generated.
01. Accelerated charges Radio waves
02. Electronic transitions IR, visible and UV waves
03. Fast collisions of electrons X-rays
04. Nuclear decay Gamma rays
05. Sun, Mercury and Hot object. Ultra Violet rays
06. Hot object, moving body and sun IR rays.

2.17. Momentum of electromagnetic wave

Maxwell predicts that the electromagnetic waves which carry energy will also carry
momentum even when no mass is associated with them. However, the effective mass will be
taken into account for finding the momentum of the electromagnetic wave in form of
(i) Energy and (ii) Poynting vector as follows
(i) Momentum in terms of energy
We know E = mc2 (1)
Similarly, the energy u with effective mass of electromagnetic radiation can be written as
u =mc2
u
(or) m  (2)
c2

RR / PHY / VCET 48 | P a g e
We know that the momentum of particle with mass m and velocity v is
p=mv (3)
Substituting (2) in (3), we get
u
Momentum p  v (4)
c2
If the electromagnetic wave, which is travelling along Z-axis with velocity c is represented by
u
c kˆ , then equation (4) becomes, p  2 ckˆ (5)
c

ukˆ
(or) p  (6)
c
u
Therefore, magnitude of momentum is p  (7)
c
Equation (7) represents the momentum of electromagnetic waves in terms of energy u.
(ii) Momentum in terms of Poynting vector

We know the poynting vector S  ( E  H )  uckˆ

S
(or) ukˆ  (8)
c
Substituting equation (8) in (6) we get

1S
p
cc

S
(or) p  (9)
c2
1
Since, c 2  we can write the above equation as
 0 0

S
p (or) p   0 0 S (or) p   0 0 ( E  H ) (10)
 1 
 
  0 0 
Equation (10) represents the momentum per unit volume of the electromagnetic waves, in
terms of poynting vector.

2.18. Radiation pressure of electromagnetic wave

Definition

RR / PHY / VCET 49 | P a g e
When the electromagnetic wave strike the surface, then a force will appear due to the rate of
change of momentum. The amount of pressure exerted per unit area on the surface due to the
force is called radiation pressure.
Derivation
p
From Newton’s II law, the change in momentum is related to force by F  (1)
t
Power Energy / Time
As intensity is defined as I   (2)
Area Area
Then for a flat surface of area A, which is perpendicular to the path of EM wave radiation,
the energy intercepted at a given time ∆𝑡 is U  I .A.t (3)
u u
We know that magnitude of momentum of EM waves is p  (or) p  (4)
c c
I . A.t
Hence, p  and
c
I . A.t I . A
F  (5)
c.t c
This is the total absorption of electromagnetic radiation.
This radiation is due to the direction of change in momentum of the object with the incident
radiation, when object absorbs If the radiation is completely reflected back by the object
along the original path, then
2.I . A
F (4)
c
Further, if the radiation is partly absorbed or completely reflected by the object, the
magnitude of force varies between (𝐼. )/𝑐 and (2𝐼. )/𝑐.
Radiation pressure
The force per unit area on an object due to electromagnetic radiation is the radiation pressure
i.e., Radiation pressure 𝑃r =𝐹/𝐴 (or) Pr = 𝐼/𝑐 (Total absorption of radiation)
𝑃𝑟=2𝐼/𝑐 for total reflection back along the path.
2.19. Cell phone reception
Every region of the electromagnetic spectrum has numerous applications in our regular life.
One of the important application is cell phone communication. The communication from cell
phone to another cell phone is done through radio waves.
Transmission & Reception unit

RR / PHY / VCET 50 | P a g e
Cell phone is a two way communicating radio, consisting of a radio wave transmitter and a
radio wave receiver. Cell phones contain at least one radio antenna in order to transmit (or)
receive radio signals.
Cell phone antenna is a metallic element (such as copper) engineered to be an effective size
and shape for transmitting and receiving definite frequencies of radio waves.
When an antenna converts an electric signal into radio waves then it act as a transmitter and
when it converts the radio waves into an electric signal, then it acts as a receiver.

Reception mechanism
When we make call on cell phone (Cellular A), it converts input voice into an electrical signal,
which is then transmitted via radio waves to the nearest mobile tower
Radio waves transport digitized voice or data in the form of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields (EM wave). Cell phones transmit radio waves in all directions and it carries the
information and travel with speed of light in air.
The network of mobile towers then relays the radio wave to destination tower via Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) and in turn to the other cell phone (Cellular – B), there
in the electrical signal is converted back to sound again.
Modern cell phones additionally consists of Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and GPS antennas for different
purpose of usage.

2.20. Reflection and Transmission of electromagnetic waves from a non-conducting

medium-vacuum interface for normal incidence
Let us consider an electromagnetic wave which travel from a non-conducting medium to
vacuum. Here, at the interface of two medium, one part of the incident wave is reflected into
same medium and another part is transmitted into next medium as shown in figure
We know that the non-conducting medium and vacuum will have different electrical
permittivity (ε1 & ε0) and magnetic permeability ( 1 & 0).

RR / PHY / VCET 51 | P a g e
Let EI and ER corresponds to the magnetic field vectors of the incident and reflected wave
respectively. Let HI and HR corresponds to the magnetic field vectors of the incident and
reflected wave respectively.
Therefore, we can write
EI +ER = ET (1)
HI + HR = HT (2)
Where I represents the incident wave, R represents the reflected wave and T represents the
transmission wave.
The equations (1) and (2) relate the electric and magnetic fields respectively, at both the
medium and the interface between two media. Therefore, these equations shall be used to
deduce the laws governing reflection and transmission of electromagnetic waves at normal
incidence.
Transmission coefficient (T)
Let ηi be the intrinsic impedance of the non-conducting medium and be the η0 be the intrinsic
impedance for vacuum.
E E
We know the intrinsic impedance of non-conducting medium 1  H  (3)
H 1

E E
Similarly, we know the intrinsic impedance of vaccum 0  H  (4)
H 0

EI ER ET
Using (3) and (4) in equation (2) can be written as  
1 1 0

Here, the negative sign indicates that the reflected wave travels in the opposite direction to that
of the incident wave as shown in figure

RR / PHY / VCET 52 | P a g e
 1 ET
(or) ( EI  ER ) 
1 0

1
(or) ( EI  ER )  E (5)
0 T

Adding equation (1) and equation (5), we get

1
EI  ER  EI  ER  ET  E
0 T

  
(or) 2 EI  ET 1  1 
 0 

1  0  1 
(or) EI  ET  
2  0 

 20 
(or) ET    EI (6)
 0  1 

ET  20 
(or)   (7)
EI  0  1 

We know the transmission coefficient is the ratio of intensity of the transmitted wave (It) to the
intensity of the incident wave (Ii).
IT
i.e., T  (8)
II

E02
we know the intensity of electromagnetic wave is I 
20

Similarly we can write

ET2
(i) The intensity of the transmitted wave as IT  (9)
20

EI2
(ii) The intensity of incident wave as I I  (10)
21

Substituting equations (9) and (10) in equation (8) we get

2
E 2 / 20 2 E 2  E 
T  T2 (or) T  1 T2 (or) T  1  T  (11)
ET / 21 20 ET  0  EI 

Substituting equation (7) in (11), we get

RR / PHY / VCET 53 | P a g e
 2
  20  40 21
T  1  (or) T 
0  0  1  0 0  1 
2

401
(or) T  (12)
0  1 
2

Equation (12) represents the transmission coefficient for EM wave which have normal
incidence on non-conductor and vacuum interface.
Reflection coefficient (R)
Substituting equation (6) in equation (1), we get

 20 
EI  ER    EI
 0  1 

 20 
(or) ER    EI  EI
 
 0 1

 20 
(or) ER    1  EI
 0  1 

 2     
(or) ER   0 0 1  EI
 0  1 

   
(or) ER   0 1  EI
 0  1 

ER  0  1 
(or)   (13)
EI  0  1 

We know the reflection coefficient is the ratio of intensity of the reflected wave (Ir) to the
intensity of the incident wave (Ii).
IR
i.e., R  (14)
II

ER2
Here, the intensity of the reflected wave is I R  (15)
21

Substituting equations (10) and (15) in equation (14), we get

ER2 / 21
R 2
EI / 21

ER2 21
(or) R 
EI2 21

RR / PHY / VCET 54 | P a g e
 2
E 
(or) R   R  (16)
 EI 
Substituting equation (13) in (16), we get
2
   
R 0 1
 0  1 

   
2

(or) R 0 1 2 (17)
0  1 
Equation (17) represents the reflection coefficient for electromagnetic wave which have normal
incidence on non-conductor and vacuum interface.
The sum of T+R
Sum of the transmission and reflection coefficients shall be obtained by adding equation (12)
and equation (17)

401 (0  1 ) 2
T  R  
(0  1 ) 2 0  1 2

401  (0  1 )2
(or) T  R 
(0  1 )2

401  02  12  201

(or) T  R 
(0  1 )2

02  12  201

(or) T  R 
(0  1 ) 2

(0  1 )2
(or) T  R  1
(0  1 )2

Therefore, T + R = 1 (18)
Equation (18) represents the sum of the reflection and transmission coefficient is equal to one.

RR / PHY / VCET 55 | P a g e
 Part - A Questions and Answers ( 2 Marks)
1. Write the Maxwell’s equation in differential and integral forms.

Sl.No Law Differential Form Integral Form

1. Gauss law in Electric field .D    D.ds   .dV

S V

2. Gauss law in Magnetic field .B  0  B.ds  0

S

B B
3. Faraday’s law  E  
t
 E.dl   
l S
t
ds

D  D 
4. Ampere’s law  H  J 
t
 H .dl 
l
S  t  ds
 J 

2. Write the Maxwell’ equation for free space in differential form

(i) .E  0
(ii) .B  0
B
(iii)   E  
t
E
(iv)   B   0 0
t
3. Write the Maxwell’s equations of conducting medium in differential form.
(i) .D  
(ii) .B  0
B
(iii)   E  
t
D
(iv)   H  J 
t
4. Write the Maxwell’s equations of dielectric medium in differential form.
(i) .D  
(ii) .B  0
B
(iii)   E  
t
E
(iv)   B  
t
P
5. What are the characteristics of Maxwell’s first equation   E 
0
 It explains Gauss law in electrostatics
 It is a time independent (or) steady state equation

RR / PHY / VCET 56 | P a g e
  The flux of the lines of electric force depends upon charge density.
 Charge acts as a source (or) sink for the lines of electric force
6. What are the characteristics of Maxwell’s second equation .B  0
 It expresses a well-known observation that isolated magnetic poles do not exist.
 It states that total magnetic flux entering and leaving a given volume is equal.
 There is no source (or) sink for lines of magnetic force.
 It is a time independent equation.
 It explains Gauss’s law in Magnetostatics.
B
7. What are the characteristics of Maxwell’s third equation?   E 
t
 It relates the electric field vector E and magnetic induction vector B .
 It is a time independent (or) time varying equation
 It explains the well-known Faraday’s laws and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.
 E is generated by the time variation of B
D
8. What are the characteristics of Maxwell’s fourth equation?   H  J 
t
 It gives relation with the magnetic field intensity H with displacement vector D
and current density J .
 It is also a time dependent equation
 It explains Ampere’s circuit law.
 H can be produced by J and the time variation of D

9. Write down the expression for velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space.
1
c
0 0
For vacuum or free space 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m and ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1.

10. Write down the relation between the electric field vector E and magnetic field
vector H .
E 0

H 0

11. Define intrinsic impedance

The ratio of magnitude of electric field to magnetic field is called intrinsic impedance
E
The wave impedance (or) intrinsic impedance  
H
12. Write down the magnetic boundary conditions.
(i) B1N  B2 N  0 , the field vector is continuous at the interface of the medium.
(ii) H1T  H 2T  J s , the field vector is discontinuous at the interface of the medium. It
depends on the surface current density.

RR / PHY / VCET 57 | P a g e
 13. Write down the electric boundary conditions.
(i) D1N – D2N = s , the field vector is discontinuous at the interface of the medium. It
depends on the surface charge density
(ii) E1T  E2T  0 , the field vector is continuous at the interface of the medium.

14. Define Poynting vector.

It is defined as the amount of energy flow of electromagnetic wave per unit area per unit
time along the wave propagation direction. It is denoted by S and is given by S  E  H
15. What is radiation pressure?
When the electromagnetic wave strike the surface, then a force will appear due to the
rate of change of momentum. The amount of pressure exerted per unit area on the
surface due to the force is called radiation pressure.

16. What is meant by plane electromagnetic wave?

If the field vector of electromagnetic wave is constant over any plane that is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at any instant of time, then this wave
is called plane electromagnetic wave.

17. Write the wave equation of field vector in free space (or) vacuum.
1 2E
 E 2 2 0
2

(i) Wave equation in terms of electric field is c t

1 2B
(ii) Wave equation in terms of magnetic field is  2 B  0
c 2 t 2
18. Write any two properties of plane electromagnetic waves in free space.
(i) EM wave travel with the speed of light in vacuum.
(ii) EM wave field vectors E and B are perpendicular to eachother and also
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
(iii) Field vectors E and B are in same phase.

19. Write any two properties of plane electromagnetic waves in dielectric medium.
(i) EM wave in dielectric medium travel with the speed less than the speed of light.
(ii) EM wave field vectors E and B are perpendicular to eachother and also
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
(iii) Field vectors E and B are in same phase.

20. What is meant by polarization?

Polarization refers to a relationship between orientation of electric (or) magnetic field
vector and the direction of electromagnetic wave propagation.

RR / PHY / VCET 58 | P a g e
 21. What is meant by linearly polarized wave?
If the polarization vector components E0X ≠ 0, E0Y ≠ 0 then the resultant of these two
E 
components will make a constant angle   tan 1  0 X  and the corresponding wave
 E0Y 
is said to be linearly polarized.

22. What is meant by accelerating charge particles?

The accelerating charged particle is defined as the charged particle oscillating with
respect to an equilibrium position.

23. Define intensity of electromagnetic wave

The magnitude of time average of poynting vector is called intensity of
1
electromagnetic wave. I   0cE0 2 W/m2.
2

24. What is skin depth (or) penetration depth?

At a particular depth in a conductor, the amplitude of wave will be damped to 1/e times
of its value at the surface. This depth is called skin depth (or) penetration depth (δ). It
is also defined as reciprocal of attenuation constant (β) or absorption coefficeints.
25. Write short notes on cell phone reception
Cell phone is a two-way communicating radio, consisting of a radio wave transmitter
and a radio wave receiver. Cell phones contain radio antenna to receive radio signals
and it si a metallic element (such as copper) engineered to be an effective size and
shape for transmitting and receiving definite frequencies of radio waves. Receiver
antenna converts the radio wave to an electric signal, this receiving and converting
function is said to be cell phone reception.

26. Define transmission coefficient

The transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the transmitted
wave (It) to the intensity of the incident wave (Ii).

27. Define reflection coefficient

The reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the reflected wave
(Ir) to the intensity of the incident wave (Ii).

Part – B questions (16 Marks)

1. Obtain the electromagnetic wave equation in free space in terms of electric and
magnetic field vectors. Show that the velocity of wave is equal to velocity of light
in free space.
2. Derive and explain Maxwell’s equation in differential and integral forms.
3. Derive an expression for plane electromagnetic wave equation in matter and
explain the electromagnetic wave properties.

RR / PHY / VCET 59 | P a g e
 4. Obtain the electromagnetic wave equation in dielectric medium in terms of
magnetic and electric fields and explain its properties.
5. Obtain the electromagnetic wave equation in conductive medium in terms of
magnetic and electric fields and explain its properties.
6. Derive an expression for the momentum and the radiation pressure of an
electromagnetic wave.
7. Obtain an expression for reflection and transmission coefficient of
electromagnetic waves normal incident on the interface of non-conductor
medium and free space.
8. Derive an expression for intensity of electromagnetic wave.
9. Obtain the electromagnetic wave equation for conducting medium in terms of
electric and magnetic fields.

RR / PHY / VCET 60 | P a g e