Topic 3: Solar radiation and thermal bridging

Session Objectives
• To investigate the contribution of solar radiation to heat gain,
and get familiarized with its quantification

• To consider the effect of overhang as one of the external

shadings for mitigation and passive control of excess solar
heat gain

• To introduce a simple model to account for thermal bridge

CIVE3820 1
3.1 Solar radiation and solar heat gain
• Solar radiation contributes greatly to building summer peak loads (i.e.
peak cooling loads), and annual energy consumption

• For peak cooling load, the solar contribution can be very important,
and often the characteristics of solar radiation is examined on a short
time scale, normally hourly to daily

• To determine the solar contributions to annual building energy

consumption, much longer time scales are relevant, often a whole
year that is also representative of the average

• Sky and sun-paths have been introduced in Daylighting in BP1

2
Solar heat gain
• Solar heat gain depends on the following factors:

– Geographical latitude of the site

– Season of the year
– Local cloud conditions
– Orientation of the building on the site
– Angles between the sun and the building surfaces

– Nature of the window glass and whether it absorbs or reflects any radiation
– Nature of the roof and walls (heavyweight materials behave differently to
lightweight materials)

3
 Earth’s orbit
• The earth goes one revolution about the sun per year (=365.25 days);
• The earth’s orbit is slightly ecliptic; shortest distance around 21 December,
and longest distance close to 21 June; 7% more radiation on earth in
December than in June.
• The earth rotates
about its polar axis
once every day,
• The polar axis is
inclined at 23.45° from
the normal of the
earth’s orbital plane

Geometry of the earth’s orbit and

inclination of polar axis (a) and solstices (b)

4
 Solar Declination
For solar energy calculation, it is convenient to use coordinates fixed in the
earth, as if the sun moves around the earth. From this point of view, the
sun traverses one circular orbit around the earth on each day.
There are 3 relevant parameters that can determine the relation between
the sun and a point of observation (P) on earth: solar declination,
latitude and hour angle.
• Solar declination, 𝜹, is the angle between the earth-sun line and the
earth’s equatorial plane. It experiences a day-by-day variation as a
result of the earth’s axis.
360°× 𝑛+10
sin 𝛿 = − sin 23.45° × cos
365.25
– 𝑛 is day of year

Illustration of solar declination

at summer solstice

* https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-the-solar-declination-angle_fig3_328262488

5
Solar Declination

Table 4.1

6
Basic sun-earth angles
• The latitude 𝝀, is the angular distance of a point (P) north (or south) of
the equator.

• Hour angle, 𝝎, is the angle in the earth’s equatorial plane, between the
projection of OP (O representing the centre of the earth) and the
projection of the earth-sun line.
– A definition based on the apparent motion of the sun, with respect to solar soon.
– Different from, but related to the standard time and daylight-saving time (civil time)

7
Sun path
The movement of the sun with respect to a local observer, or buildings, is
more relevant for solar radiation calculations.
• The position of the sun at any instant is uniquely defined by two angles,
solar zenith, 𝜽𝒔 and solar azimuth, 𝝓𝒔 , for any specific location (P).
– solar zenith, 𝜃𝑠 is the incidence angle on a horizontal surface, which is the angle
between the normal of the surface and the line from the point to the sun
– solar azimuth, 𝜙𝑠 is the angle of the projection of the line from the point to the sun on
the earth’s surface from due south, in clockwise direction.

• Sometimes solar altitude, 𝜶 is used

(e.g. CIBSE guide).

𝛼 = 90° − 𝜃𝑠

Solar zenith and solar azimuth

8
Cylindrical projection sun-path diagram
Solar altitude angle

(example) Solar time is used; Latitude = 50° (Leeds ~ 53.8°N, -1.55°E, London ~ 51.5°N)
9
Relation to sun-earth angles
• The solar zenith and solar azimuth angles are related to the basic sun-
earth angles as follows
cos 𝜃𝑠 = cos 𝜆 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝜆 sin 𝛿
cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔
sin 𝜙𝑠 =
sin 𝜃𝑠
𝛿 – solar declination
𝜆 – latitude
𝜔 – hour angle
𝜃𝑠 - solar zenith
𝜙𝑠 - solar azimuth

10
Worked example 6
• The latitude is close to 53° (𝜆) at Leeds. Find the solar zenith and solar
azimuth at solar noon (i.e. when solar angle, 𝜔 is zero) on the 21st day
of October.

11
Incidence angle on arbitrary planes
• The orientation of the plan can be specified in terms of plane tilt, 𝜃𝑝 and
plane azimuth of the surface normal, 𝜙𝑝 .
– Plane tilt, 𝜽𝒑 (or plane zenith) is the angle of the plane from the horizontal
– Plane azimuth, 𝝓𝒑 is the angle between projection of normal and due south,
positive for orientation west of south
• The incidence angle, 𝜽𝒊 of the sun on the plane (angle between
normal of plane and line to sun) is related to above as follows
cos 𝜃𝑖 = sin 𝜃𝑠 sin 𝜃𝑝 cos 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙𝑝 + cos 𝜃𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑝

• In the case of vertical walls, 𝜃𝑝 = 90°

cos 𝜃𝑖 ቚ = sin 𝜃𝑠 cos 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙𝑝

𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡

Plane zenith and plane azimuth, and

angle of incidence of sun on this plane

12
Solar irradiance
• Irradiance, 𝑰 is the amount of radiative power of the sun, in 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . It is
also sometimes called solar flux.
• The radiative energy during a certain period of time, such as an hour or a
day is called irradiation, 𝑯, in 𝐽Τ𝑚2 .

• The solar constant, 𝑰𝒔𝒄 is the total solar irradiance received on a unit area
of surface normal to the solar ray, placed outside the earth’s atmosphere at
the mean sun-earth distance. It is taken as 1353-1367 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 .

• For a vertical wall placed outside the earth’s atmosphere, the irradiance on
it

𝐼0 = 𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 × cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝐸0 × cos 𝜃𝑖

– 𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 is the extra-terrestrial irradiance normal to solar rays

360×𝑛
– 𝐸0 is eccentricity correction factor (𝐸0 = 𝑟0 Τ𝑟𝑛 2
or 𝐸0 = 1 + 0.033 × cos
365.25
)
– 𝜃𝑖 is the incidence angle.

13
Effect of atmosphere
• Attenuation due to scattering, absorption and reflection, caused by air
molecules, water vapour, and other particles such as dust in the
atmosphere, and radiation exchange between clouds and the ground

• Effect of air mass (clear sky assumption)

o Atmosphere is assumed a layer of air of
constant density and constant
thickness
o The attenuation due to air mass is
proportional to the traversed path of
the solar rays, which depends on the
zenith angle, 𝜃𝑠
o For zenith angle between 0° and 70° at
sea level, air mass ratio follows the
approximation,
1
𝑚= Attenuation of solar radiation as it
cos 𝜃𝑠
passes through the atmosphere
14
Component of solar radiation
• Three types of solar radiation
– Beam radiation, 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 - on a surface normal to the solar ray; its projection on
the surface is direction radiation, 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ,
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑖
– diffuse sky radiation emanating from the rest of the sky, 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ;

– diffuse ground radiation reflected from the ground; accounted for differently
• Direction radiation can be
significantly modified by shading
nearby, including buildings and
landscape features.
• Diffuse radiations will be affected
less by shading.
• These have significant implication to
the use of shading to control solar
heat gain.
Different radiation components on a tilted surface
15
ASHRAE clear-sky irradiance model
• The beam irradiance normal to solar rays, 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 exp −𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑚𝑎𝑏
• The diffuse horizontal irradiance measured on horizontal surface, 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 exp −𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝑚𝑎𝑑
– 𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 is the extra-terrestrial irradiance normal to solar rays

– 𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 are the beam and diffuse optical depths, location specific
parameters; values found from tables (ASHRAE Climatic Design Conditions 2017,
http://ashrae-meteo.info/v2.0/)

– 𝑎𝑏 and 𝑎𝑑 are the beam and diffuse air mass exponents (2017 ASHRAE HOF)
• 𝑎𝑏 = 1.454 − 0.406𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 0.268𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 0.021𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓

• 𝑎𝑑 = 0.507 + 0.205𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 0.080𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 − 0.190𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓

16
Worked example 7
Find the clear-sky beam normal and diffuse horizontal solar irradiance in location P,
for 21 June at solar noon (𝜔 = 0°). For location P, 𝜆 = 33.3° (North Algeria), 𝛿 =
23.45°, also 𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.322 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 2.386.

17
Worked example 7

18
Isotropic sky model
• Assumes that sky-diffuse and ground-reflected solar components are uniformly
distributed over the sky dome
• For an unshaded, tilted flat surface, with a plane zenith 𝜃𝑝 , the global radiation
is
𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,𝑇 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 𝐹𝑠𝑘𝑦 + 𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑔 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑑
– 𝐹𝑠𝑘𝑦 and 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑑 are conversion factors related to radiation shape factors
1 + cos 𝜃𝑝 1 − cos 𝜃𝑝
𝐹𝑠𝑘𝑦 = , 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑑 =
2 2
– 𝜌𝑔 is the reflectivity of the ground or ground albedo

– 𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 is the global radiation onto a horizontal surface

𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑠 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓

• In the case of vertical surfaces (𝜃𝑝 = 90° )

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑔
𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑖 + +
2 2

19
Reflectivity of exterior surfaces

20
Worked example 8
• Find the clear-sky global irradiance on a south facing vertical wall in location P,
for 21 June at solar noon (𝜔 = 0°). For location P, 𝜆 = 33.3°, 𝛿 = 23.45°, also
𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.322 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 2.386. Assume 𝜌𝑔 = 0.2.

21
Worked example 8

22
Solar heat gain (through glazing)
Of the solar irradiance incident on glazing, a portion is reflected, a portion
is absorbed in the glazing, and a portion is transmitted to the interior.
For the reflectivity, 𝝆, the absorptivity, 𝜶 and the transmissivity 𝝉, there
is
𝜌+𝛼+𝜏 =1
• The optical properties change little till about 45° incidence angle, 𝜃𝑖 .
With increasing 𝜃𝑖 , 𝜏 tends toward zero, while 𝜌 exponentially increase
to unity.
• Values of absorptivity, 𝛼, depend upon the wavelength of the radiation.

• Emissivity of a surface, 𝜀, often takes the value of its absorptivity, i.e.

𝜀≈𝛼

23
Solar heat gain (through glazing)
• The instantaneous heat flow through the glazing is made of
1) Conduction heat gain/loss in the absence of solar radiation
2) Solar radiation striking the glazing, which is transmitted through the
window
3) Portion of the incident solar radiation absorbed by the glazing, and
transferred inward by convection and radiation
• The conduction gain/loss can be found if
thermal conductance is known.
• The solar heat gain occurs through both
glazing and the frame.
• On glazing, the combined effect of 2)
and 3) are treated together by
introducing “solar heat gain coefficient
(SHGC)”

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟,𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
= SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑟 + SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐴

• 𝐼𝑇 is the solar irradiance on the glazing

surface Component of solar gain through a double-pane window

24
Optical properties of glazing window systems

Glazing systems Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)

Incidence angle
Glass thickness 0 40 60 80 Diffuse
(mm)
3.2 Uncoated single 0.86 0.84 0.78 0.42 0.78
glazing
3.2 Uncoated double 0.76 0.74 0.64 0.26 0.66
glazing
6.4 Uncoated double 0.70 0.67 0.58 0.23 0.60
glazing
3.2 Low-e double 0.65 0.64 0.56 0.23 0.57
glazing

• Low-e = low thermal emissivity refers to a surface condition that emits low levels of
radiant thermal (heat) energy, achieved normally by coating. Thermal control is
improved for low-e glazing to keep thermal radiation in, or out.

25
Worked example 9

The components of beam, diffuse and ground reflected solar radiation on a vertical
wall are specified as follows. 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 657.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 102 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ,
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 69.2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . Solar incidence angle on window 𝜃𝑖 = 60°.
Find the solar gains through a low-e double glazed window. Assume the heat gain
through the frame can be excluded.

26
Worked example 9

27
Shading devices
• The use of shading device is an important
aspect of many high-performance building
design strategies.
• It has been proved that use of shading device
could improve building energy performance,
prevent glare, increase useful daylight
availability, between 100-2000 lux, and create
a sense of security.
• Realizing these potential benefits, a varies of
shading configurations have been used,
including fixed, manual and automatic
movable, internal and external shading
device.
• Various simulations tool have functional
implemented to support shading design.

28
* Buildings for extreme environments: tropical, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2017
29
* HSA – horizontal shading angle; VSA – vertical shading angle

30
External shading - overhangs
• Horizontal overhangs is sometimes used to block direct solar radiation from
entering a window during certain time of the day or the year.
• This may be desirable for two reasons
▪ To reduce the cooling loads
▪ To avoid uncomfortable daylighting in perimeter spaces, resulting in excessive
contract or glare

• For passive solar heating, one would like

the overhang to allow direct insolation in
winter, while blocking it in summer.

31
External shading - overhangs
• Horizontal overhangs is sometimes used to block direct solar radiation from
entering a window during certain time of the day or the year.
• This may be desirable for two reasons
▪ To reduce the cooling loads
▪ To avoid uncomfortable daylighting in perimeter spaces, resulting in excessive
contract or glare

• For passive solar heating, one would like

the overhang to allow direct insolation in
winter, while blocking it in summer.
• For the case of solar noon, 𝜃𝑠,𝑛𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 𝜆 − 𝛿
▪ 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑧 cot 𝜆 − 𝛿 during winter
(𝛿 < 0)
▪ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑧 cot 𝜆 − 𝛿 during summer
(𝛿 > 0)
Fixed horizontal overhangs for south-facing windows

32
Worked example 10
An office building located at the latitude of 42°has windows flush-mounted on its
south facing vertical wall. If the window is 1.4 m high, to ensure the maximum
reduction of solar radiation in summer and the maximum passive solar heat gain in
winter, what are the width (x) of the overhang, and the vertical distance (y1) of the
overhang from the top of the window? For simplification, consider only the case of
solar noon.

33
Worked example 10

34
Worked example 11 (& ex 5 – topic 2)
A single office module is situated on an intermediate floor, facing south, in a building located in
London. Assume a mean-to-peak swing/deviation of 10% for the internal operative temperature.
Estimate the internal peak operative temperature in August.

Data

Mean outside environmental temperature 𝑻 ഥ𝒆𝒐 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗℃

Mean outside air temperature 𝑻 ഥ𝒂𝒐 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖℃
Mean solar gain factor for double glazing clear glass ഥ
𝑺𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕
Mean solar irradiance for south facing surfaces 𝑰ത𝒆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Constant air change rate for office 𝑵 = 𝟑 𝑨𝑪𝑯

35
Worked example 11 (& ex 5 – topic 2)
A single office module is situated on an intermediate floor, facing south, in a building located in
London. Assume a mean-to-peak swing/deviation of 10% for the internal operative temperature.
Estimate the internal peak operative temperature in August.

Assume the components of beam, diffuse and ground reflected

solar radiation on a vertical wall are specified as follows.
𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 657.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ,
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 102 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ,
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 69.2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 .

Solar incidence angle on window 𝜃𝑖 = 60°.

Find the solar gains through a low-e double glazed window.
The heat gain through the frame can be excluded.

Does the room get overheated more easily, in summer or in

winter? Can you show your work using calculations?

36
Worked example 11 (& ex 5 – topic 2)

37
3.2 Thermal bridging
• The insulation of building elements considered so far has been for heat flow
through simple sections, where the construction is uniform and uninterrupted.
• Structural details, such as frames, openings and junctions, interrupt insulating
materials. Dissimilar thermal conductivities and thickness mean that heat flow
are not unidirectional
• As the layout of the element changes (for example from insulation to roof
beam), heat flow increases in that area, then the overall insulation can be
considered “bridged”.
• A thermal bridge is a portion of a structure with higher thermal conductivity
that increases heat flow and lowers the overall thermal insulation of the
structure.
• Rigorous calculation of thermal bridges and their effect on the average U-value
requires 2D- and 3D- heat flow analysis. However, for most constructions,
simpler calculation procedures give satisfactory results.
• If the difference between the thermal resistances of the bridged and non-
bridged layers is less than 0.1 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 Τ𝑊, the effect of thermal bridging is small
and may be neglected.

38
Thermal bridging
• Thermal bridging is inevitable, even in well-insulated modern
construction
– Junctions of walls with roofs
– Junctions of walls with floors
– Mortar joints around high-performance concrete wall blocks
– Timber framing between sections of wall insulation
– Timber joists and beams between sections of roof and floor insulation
– Steel lintels above windows and doors
– Window frames and sills
– External door frames and sills
• As insulation standards have improved, the relative important of
thermal bridging has greatly increased.
• For poorly insulated building, the heat loss through thermal bridging
can be negligible in comparison to total heat loss. For good insulated
building, the bridging loss can be significant.
• For modern design, thermal bridges can be a major source of heat loss.

39
Combined method
• The basis of the combined method is to calculate the upper and lower
limits of the thermal resistance of the bridged part of the structure.
• The thermal resistance of the bridged structure, 𝑅𝑏 (𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 Τ𝑊), is given
by
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑈
𝑅𝑏 =
2
• 𝑅𝐿 is the lower limit of thermal resistance, which will impose no
resistance to sideways flow of heat, and 𝑅𝑈 is the upper limit, which will
impose an infinite resistance to sideways heat flow.
• It is suitable for many types of construction element.
• The main exclusion being when an insulation material is bridged by
metal.
• But it is also unreliable when the ratio of the upper to lower limit of
thermal resistance exceeds 1.5.

40
Elements with one bridged layer
Outdoor

Single bridged layer

Indoor

41
Elements with one bridged layer

In the case of no resistance to sideways heat flow:

(temperature values in the sideways remain a constant)

The lower limit of thermal resistance is

1
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅1 + + 𝑅3 … + 𝑅𝑧 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖
𝑃𝑚 Τ𝑅𝑚2 + 𝑃𝑛 Τ𝑅𝑛2 + 𝑃𝑝 Τ𝑅𝑝2

𝑃𝑚 , 𝑃𝑛 and 𝑃𝑝 are the proportions of the total surface area occupied by elements
composed of materials m, n and p.

1 𝑃𝑚 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑝
= + + +⋯
𝑅2 𝑅𝑚2 𝑅𝑛2 𝑅𝑝2

42
No resistance to sideways heat flow
Outdoor
𝑇𝑜𝑠

𝑇𝑚1

𝑇𝑚2

𝑇𝑚𝑧

𝑇𝑖𝑠 Single bridged layer

Indoor

43
 Recap – BP1 (Lecture 3)
R for Composite Walls:
L1 L2 L3 L1 L3 L4

Q Q

𝑇1 > 𝑇2 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 T1
T1 𝐿1 λ3
𝐿1
𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =
λ1 λ1
𝐿2 𝐿2 λ1 λ4
λ1 λ2 λ3 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 =
λ2 λ2
𝐿3 𝐿3
𝑅3 = 𝑅3 =
λ3 λ3
T2 𝐿4 λ2 T2
𝑅4 =
λ4
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = ? L2
3

R1 R2 R3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ෍ 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑖=1
 Recap – BP1 (Lecture 3)
Mixed Arrangement

The layers are arranged in combination of series and parallel, the

L1 L3 L4 individual thermal resistances are:
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4
Q 𝑅1 = ; 𝑅2 = ; 𝑅3 = ; 𝑅4 =
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4
For parallel sections:
T1 𝐴 𝐴2 𝐴3
λ3 𝑄
=−
𝐴
= +
Δ𝑇 𝑅 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑅2 𝑅3
λ1 λ4 A is the total surface area of the wall perpendicular to the direction of heat
flow (𝐴 = 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 )
L2 A2 is the surface area of section 2 perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
A3 is the surface area of section 3 perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
λ2 T2 𝐴 1
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = =
𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴2 1 𝐴3 1
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐴 𝑅2 + 𝐴 𝑅3
1
R3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + + 𝑅4
𝐴2 1 𝐴3 1
𝐴 𝑅2 + 𝐴 𝑅3
R1 R4
R2 Temperatures in layers assumed not be affected by the
use of layers of different 𝝀𝟐 and 𝝀𝟑
Elements with one bridged layer

In the case of infinite resistance to sideways heat flow:

(temperature values in the sideways are different because of distribution of 𝑅)

The upper limit of thermal resistance is

−1
𝑃𝑚 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑝
𝑅𝑈 = + +𝑅
𝑅𝑠𝑒 +𝑅1 +𝑅𝑚2 +𝑅3 …+𝑅𝑧 +𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝑅𝑠𝑒 +𝑅1 +𝑅𝑛2 +𝑅3 …+𝑅𝑧 +𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝑠𝑒 +𝑅1 +𝑅𝑝2 +𝑅3 …+𝑅𝑧 +𝑅𝑠𝑖

• When more than one layer is bridged, and the relative positions of the bridging
within each bridged layer are not generally known, each different heat flow path
(from internal to external environments) must be considered when calculating the
upper limit of thermal resistance. The thermal resistances for each of the paths are
combined in parallel, in proportion to their areas.

46
Elements with one bridged layer
Outdoor
𝑇𝑜𝑠

𝑇𝑚1

𝑇𝑚2

𝑇𝑚𝑧

𝑇𝑖𝑠 Single bridged layer

Indoor −1
AΔ𝑇 Δ𝑇 AΔ𝑇 AΔ𝑇 𝐴𝑖 /𝐴
𝑄= = ෍ 𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝑈 = = = ෍
𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑖 𝑄 Δ𝑇 𝑅𝑖
σ 𝐴𝑖
𝑅𝑖

47
Worked example 12
A cavity wall construction has inner leaf bridged by mortar joints.

48
Worked example 12

49
Summary

• Introduced solar heat gain due to different components of solar radiation

and the evaluation of them

• Overhang as one type of external shadings can be used to reduce solar heat
gain when designed appropriately

• Used a combined method of upper and lower limits to quantify thermal

resistance when thermal bridge is present

50
51
Worked example 6
• The latitude is close to 53° (𝜆) at Leeds. Find the solar zenith and solar
azimuth at solar noon (i.e. when solar angle, 𝜔 is zero) on the 21th day
of October.

The solar declination, 𝛿, is −11.3° on 21 October (from table)

cos 𝜃𝑠 = cos 53° cos −11.3° + sin 53° sin −11.3° = 0.434,
𝜃𝑠 = 64.3°,
The solar altitude is 𝛼 = 90° − 𝜃𝑠 = 25.7°;
cos 𝛿 sin 0°
sin 𝜙𝑠 = = 0, 𝜙𝑠 = 0° (solar noon)
sin 𝜃𝑠

52
Worked example 7

Calculate clear-sky beam normal and diffuse horizontal solar irradiance in location P,
for 21 June at solar noon (𝜔 = 0°). For location P, 𝜆 = 33.3°, 𝛿 = 23.45°, also
𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.322 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 2.386.

360 × 𝑛 360 × 172

𝐸0 = 1 + 0.033 × cos = 1 + 0.033 × cos = 0.9675
365.25 365.25
𝐼0,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝐸0 = 1367 × 0.9675 = 1322.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
cos 𝜃𝑠 = cos 33.3° cos 23.45° + sin 33.3° sin 23.45° ; 𝜃𝑠 = 9.84°,
cos 𝛿 sin 0°
sin 𝜙𝑠 = = 0, 𝜙𝑠 = 0° (solar noon),
sin 𝜃𝑠
1
𝑚= = 1.01; 𝑎𝑏 = 0.700; 𝑎𝑑 = 0.236;
cos 𝜃𝑠

𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 1322.6 × exp −0.322 × 1.010.70 = 955.3 𝑊 Τ𝑚2

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 1322.6 × exp −2.386 × 1.010.236 = 120.7 𝑊 Τ𝑚2

53
Worked example 8
• Find the clear-sky global irradiance on a south facing vertical wall in
location P, for 21 June at solar noon (𝜔 = 0°). For location P, 𝜆 = 33.3°,
𝛿 = 23.45°, also 𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.322 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 2.386. Assume 𝜌𝑔 = 0.2.

From worked example 7, we know

𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 955.3 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 120.7 𝑊 Τ𝑚2

cos 𝜃𝑖 ȁ𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑠 cos 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙𝑝 = sin 9.84° cos 0° − 0° , 𝜃𝑖 = 80.16°

𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑠 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 955.3 × cos 9.84° + 120.7 = 1061.9 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,ℎ𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑔 120.7 0.2
𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜,𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 = 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑖 + + = 955.3 × cos 80.16° + + 1061.9 ×
2 2 2 2
2
= 329.8 𝑊 Τ𝑚

54
Worked example 9

The components of beam, diffuse and ground reflected solar radiation on a vertical
wall are specified as follows. 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 657.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 102 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ,
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 69.2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . Solar incidence angle on window 𝜃𝑖 = 60°.
Find the solar gains through a low-e double glazed window. Assume the heat gain
through the frame can be excluded.

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟,𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
= SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑟 + SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐴
= SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑟,60° ∙ 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∙ cos 𝜃𝑖 + SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑓

= 0.56 × 657.6 × cos 60° + 0.57 × 102 + 69.2 = 281.7 𝑊 Τ𝑚2

Glazing systems Glazing properties

Incidence angle
Glass thickness 0 40 60 80 Diffuse
(mm)
3.2 Low-e double glazing 0.65 0.64 0.56 0.23 0.57

55
Worked example 10
Consider the case of solar noon, the hour angle (𝜔) is zero. The south facing vertical wall has a plane
azimuth, 𝜙𝑝 , of zero, and the plane zenith, 𝜃𝑝 , is 90 °.

The solar zenith, 𝜃𝑠 , can be found from

cos 𝜃𝑠 = cos 𝜆 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝜆 sin 𝛿 = cos 𝜆 − 𝛿
That is, 𝜃𝑠 = 𝜆 − 𝛿. The solar azimuth, 𝜙𝑠 , is zero, when 𝜔 is zero.

The incidence angle (𝜃𝑖 ) of the sun can be found from

cos 𝜃𝑖 = sin 𝜃𝑠 sin 𝜃𝑝 cos 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙𝑝 + cos 𝜃𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑝 = sin 𝜆 − 𝛿
𝜃𝑖 = 90° − 𝜆 − 𝛿 = 90° − 𝜃𝑠

In summer, the solar declination is maximal

𝜆 − 𝛿 = 42° − 23.4° = 18.6°
𝜃𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 71.4°
𝑦2 = tan 𝜃𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 = tan 71.4 𝑥

In winter, the solar declination is minimal

𝜆 − 𝛿 = 42° − −23.4° = 65.4°
𝜃𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 24.6°
𝑦1 = tan 𝜃𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = tan 24.6 𝑥

tan 71.4 𝑥 − tan 24.6 𝑥 = 1.4𝑚

𝑥 = 0.557𝑚
𝑦1 = tan 24.6 𝑥 = 0.255𝑚

56
Worked example 11 (& ex 5 – topic 2)
The components of beam, diffuse and ground reflected solar radiation
on a vertical wall:
𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 657.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 102 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 =
69.2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 .

For a low-e double glazed window, at an incidence angle of 𝜃𝑖 = 60°

𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 0.56, 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 0.57
Heat gain through the window is determined as follows, the heat gain
through frame being excluded. (similar to ex 9)

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟,𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
= SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑟 + SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐴
= SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑟,60° ∙ 𝐼𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∙ cos 𝜃𝑖 + SHGC𝑑𝑖𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑇,𝑑𝑖𝑓
= 0.56 × 657.6 × cos 60° + 0.57 × 102 + 69.2 = 281.7 𝑊 Τ𝑚2

• Does the room get overheated more easily, in summer or in winter? Can you show
your work using calculations?
Hint: Compare 𝑄 on 21 June (𝛿 = 23.4°) and 21 Dec (𝛿 = −23.4°), at solar noon
(𝜔 = 0°), for a location in London, 𝜆 = 51.5°, also 𝜏𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.333 and 𝜏𝑑𝑖𝑓 =
2.369. Assume 𝜌𝑔 = 0 for an office in some high mid-storey.

57
Worked example 12
A cavity wall construction has inner leaf bridged by mortar joints.
Since the thermal conductivities of brick and mortar are approximately equal, the
outer leaf is regarded as thermally homogenous.

The lower limit of thermal resistance

1
𝑅𝐿 = 0.04 + 0.136 + 0.18 + + 0.072 + 0.13
0.933Τ1.136 + 0.067Τ0.142
= 1.331 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 Τ𝑊

The upper limit of thermal resistance

−1
0.933
𝑅𝑈 = 0.04 + 0.136 + 0.18 + 1.136 + 0.072 + 0.13 = 1.547 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 Τ𝑊
0.067
+
0.04 + 0.136 + 0.18 + 0.142 + 0.072 + 0.13

𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑈 1.331 + 1.547
𝑅𝑏 = = = 1.439 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 Τ𝑊
2 2
𝑈 = 0.69 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾

58