Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-

Integrated Manufacturing

Lecture 5:
Automation and Control Technologies
(Part I)

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Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Basic Elements of an Automated System
o Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without human
assistance (performs the physical tasks without the need for oversight by a human worker).
o Mechanization refers to the use of machinery (usually powered) to assist or replace human
workers in performing physical tasks, but human workers are still required to accomplish the
cognitive and sensory elements of the tasks.
o Basic elements of an automated system:
1. Power - to accomplish the process and operate the system.
2. Program of instructions – to direct the process.
3. Control system – to actuate the instructions.

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 Power to Accomplish the Automated Process

o Power for the process:

• To drive the process itself
• To load and unload the work unit
• Transport between operations
o Power for automation:
• Controller unit
• Power to actuate the control signals
• Data acquisition and information processing

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 Program of Instructions

o Program of Instructions: a set of commands that specify the sequence of steps in the work cycle
and the details of each step.
Example: CNC part program
o During each step, there are one or more activities involving changes in one or more process
parameters.
Examples:
• Temperature setting of a furnace.
• Axis position in a positioning system.
• Motor on or off.

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Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Features of a Work Cycle Program

o Process parameters – how many process parameters must be controlled during each step?
Are they continuous or discrete? Do they change during the step?
o Number of steps in the work cycle –how many distinct steps or work elements are included in
the work cycle?
o Manual participation in the work cycle – is a human worker required to perform certain steps
in the work cycle e.g., loading and unloading workparts?
o Operator interaction – is the operator required to enter processing data for eah work cycle?
o Variations in part or product styles – are the work units identical or different in each cycle?
o Variations in starting work units - some adjustments in process parameters may be required
to compensate for differences in starting units.

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Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Control System
Two types of control systems:
o Closed-loop (feedback) control system –the output variable is compared with an input parameter, and
any difference between the two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input.

o Open-loop control system – operates without the feedback loop, so no comparison is made between the
actual value of the output and the desired input parameter.
• Simpler and less expensive.
• The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the process variable.
• Risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect.

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 Choice of close-loop and open-loop control systems

o When to use an open-loop control system:

• Actions performed by the control system are simple.
• The actuating function is very reliable.
• Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small enough to have no effect on the actuation.
o If these conditions do not apply, then a closed-loop control system should be used.

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Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Advanced Automation Functions
o Safety monitoring
o Maintenance and repair diagnostics
o Error detection and recovery
Safety monitoring: use of sensors to track the system's operation and identify conditions that
are unsafe or potentially unsafe.
Reasons for safety monitoring:
o To protect human workers in the vicinity of the system.
o Possible responses to hazards:
• Completely stopping the automated system.
• Sounding an alarm.
• Reducing operating speed of the process.
• Taking corrective action to recover from the safety violation
o To protect the equipment comprising the system.
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any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 8
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics

o Status monitoring
• Monitors and records status of key sensors and parameters of the system during normal operation.
• Display any of these values and provide an interpretation of current system status.
o Failure diagnostics
• Invoked when a malfunction or failure occurs.
• Purpose: Interpret the current values of the monitored variables and analyze recorded values so the
cause of the malfunction can be identified.
o Recommendation of repair procedure
• Recommends to the repair crew the steps that should be taken to effect repairs.

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Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Error Detection and Recovery

o Error detection – functions:

• Use the automated system’s available sensors to determine when a deviation or malfunction has occurred.
• Correctly interpret the sensor signal.
• Classify the error.
o Error recovery – possible strategies:
• Make adjustments at end of the current work cycle.
• Make adjustments during the current cycle.
• Stop the process to invoke corrective action.
• Stop the process and call for help.

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 Levels of Automation

1. Device level – includes actuators, sensors, and other hardware

components that comprise the machine level.
2. Machine level – includes CNC machine tools and similar
production equipment, industrial robots, powered conveyors, and
automated guided vehicles.
3. Cell or system level – operates under instructions from the plant
level.
4. Plant level – receives instructions from the corporate information
system and translates them into operational plans for production.
5. Enterprise level – concerns with all of the functions necessary to
manage the company.

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 Industrial Control - Defined

Industrial Control: is the automatic regulation of unit operations and their associated equipment,
as well as the integration and coordination of the unit operations in the larger production system.
• Unit operation usually refers to a manufacturing processes.
• Unit operation can also be applied to material handling or other industrial equipment.

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 Process Industries Versus Discrete Manufacturing Industries

Levels of Automation in the Two Industries

• Process industries
• Production operations are performed on amounts of materials.
• Materials: liquids, gases, powders, etc.
• Discrete manufacturing industries
• Production operations are performed on quantities of materials.
• Parts, product units.

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 Variables and Parameters in the Two Industries

o Variables - outputs of the process.

o Parameters - inputs to the process.
o Continuous variables and parameters - they are uninterrupted
as time proceeds.
• Analog – can take on any value within a certain range.
o Discrete variables and parameters - can take on only certain
values within a given range.
• Binary - they can take on either of two possible values, ON or OFF, 1 or 0, etc.
• Discrete other than binary - they can take on more than two possible values but less
than an infinite number of possible values.
• Pulse data - a train of pulses that can be counted.

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 Continuous Versus Discrete Control
o Two types of variables and parameters to characterize production operations:
• Process industries tend to emphasize the control of continuous variables and parameter.
• Manufacturing industries for discrete parts and products tend to emphasize discrete variables and parameters.
o Two basic types of control:
• Continuous control - variables and parameters are continuous and analog.
• Discrete control - variables and parameters are discrete, mostly binary discrete.

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 Continuous Control Systems
o Usual objective is to maintain the value of an output variable at a desired level:
• Parameters and variables are usually continuous.
• Similar to operation of a feedback control system.
• Most continuous industrial processes have multiple feedback loops.
o Types of continuous process control:
• Regulatory control – to maintain process performance at a certain level or within a given tolerance band of that level.
• Feedforward control – to anticipate the effect of disturbances that will upset the process by sensing them and
compensating for them before they affect the process.
• Steady-state optimization – to make adjustments in the process parameters to drive the process toward the optimal
state.
• Adaptive control – to compensate for its changing environment by monitoring its own performance and altering some
aspect of its control mechanism to achieve optimal or near-optimal performance.
• On-line search strategies – to address a special class of adaptive control problem in which the decision function
cannot be sufficiently defined.
• Other specialized techniques – other strategies are currently evolving in control theory and computer science, i.e.
learning systems, expert systems, neural networks, artificial intelligence methods.

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 Regulatory Control
o Objective - maintain process performance at a certain level or within a given tolerance band of that level.
• Appropriate when performance relates to a quality measure.
o Performance measure is sometimes computed based on several output variables.
• Performance measure is called the Index of performance (IP).
o Problem with regulatory control is that an error must exist in order to initiate control action.

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 Feedforward Control
o Objective - anticipate the effect of disturbances that will upset the process by sensing and compensating for
them before they affect the process.
o Mathematical model captures the effect of the disturbance on the process.
o Complete compensation for the disturbance is difficult due to variations, imperfections in the mathematical model
and imperfections in the control actions.
• Usually combined with regulatory control
o Regulatory control and feedforward control are more closely associated with process industries.

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 Steady-State Optimization
o Class of optimization techniques in which the process exhibits the following characteristics:
1. Well-defined index of performance (IP)
2. Known relationship between process variables and IP
3. System parameter values that optimize IP can be determined mathematically
o Open-loop system.
o Optimization techniques include differential calculus, mathematical programming, etc.

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 Adaptive Control
o Because steady-state optimization is open-loop, it cannot compensate for disturbances.
o Adaptive control measures the relevant process self-correcting form of optimal control that includes feedback
control.
• Variables during operation (feedback control)
• Uses a control algorithm that attempts to optimize some index of performance (optimal control)
o Three Functions in Adaptive Control
1. Identification function – current value of IP is determined based on measurements of process variables
2. Decision function – decide what changes should be made to improve system performance
• Change one or more input parameters
• Alter some internal function of the controller
3. Modification function – implement the decision function
• Concerned with physical changes (hardware rather than software)

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 On-Line Search Strategies

o Special class of adaptive control in which the decision function cannot be sufficiently defined.
• Relationship between input parameters and IP is not known, or not known well enough to implement the previous form of
adaptive control.

o Instead, experiments are performed on the process.

• Small systematic changes are made in input parameters to observe effects.

o Based on observed effects, larger changes are made to drive the system toward optimal performance.

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 Discrete Control Systems

o Process parameters and variables are discrete.

o Process parameters and variables are changed at discrete moments in time.
o The changes are defined in advance by the program of instructions.
o The changes are executed for either of two reasons:
1. The state of the system has changed (event-driven changes)
2. A certain amount of time has elapsed (time-driven changes)
o Two Types of Discrete Control:
1. Logic control – is used to control the execution of event-driven changes.
• Outputs at any moment depend exclusively on the values of the current inputs.
• Parameters and variables = 0 or 1 (OFF or ON).
2. Sequence control – is used to manage the time-driven changes.
• Uses internal timing devices to determine when to initiate changes in output variables.

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 Event-Driven Changes

o Executed by the controller in response to some event that has caused the state of the system to be altered.
o Examples:
• A robot loads a work part into a fixture, and the part is sensed by a limit switch in the fixture.
• The diminishing level of plastic molding compound in the hopper of an injection molding machine triggers a low-level
switch, which opens a valve to start the flow of new plastic into the hopper.
• Counting parts moving along a conveyor past an optical sensor.

Time-Driven Changes
o Executed by the controller either at a specific point in time or after a certain time lapse has occurred.
o Examples:
• The factory “shop clock” is set to sound a bell at specific moments to indicate start and end of shift, break start and stop
times, etc.
• Heat treating operations must be carried out for a certain length of time.
• In a washing machine, the agitation cycle is set to operate for a certain length of time.
• By comparison, filling the laundry tub with water is event-driven.

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 Computer Process Control

o Origins in the 1950s in the process industries.

• Mainframe computers – slow, expensive, unreliable.
• Set point control.
• Direct digital control (DDC) system installed 1962.

o Minicomputer introduced in late 1960s, microcomputer introduced in early 1970s.

o Programmable logic controllers introduced early 1970s for discrete process control.
o Distributed control starting around 1975.
o PCs for process control in early 1990s.

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 Control Requirements

Real-time process control:

o Process-initiated interrupts
• Controller must respond to incoming signals from the process (event-driven changes).
• Depending on relative importance of the signals, controller may need to interrupt execution of a current program
to serve a higher-priority need of the process.
o Timer-initiated actions
• Controller must be able to execute certain actions at specified points in time (time-driven changes).
• Examples:
• (1) scanning sensor values from the process at regular sampling intervals.
• (2) turning on and off switches, motors, and other binary devices associated with the process.
• (3) displaying performance data on the operator’s console at regular times.
• (4) re-computing optimal process parameter values at specific times.

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 Other Computer Control Requirements

o Computer commands to process:

• In addition to receiving incoming signals from the process, the control computer must send control
signals to the process to accomplish a corrective action.
o System- and program-initiated events:
• System initiated events - communications among computers and peripheral devices linked together in
a network.
• Program initiated events – occurs when the program calls for some non-process-related action such
as the printing or display of reports on a printer or monitor.

o Operator-initiated events – to accept input from operating personnel:

Examples:
• entering new programs.
• editing existing programs.
• entering customer data.
• requesting process data.
• calling for emergency stops.

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 Capabilities of Computer Control

o Polling – refers to the periodic sampling of data that indicates the status of the process.
Issues:
1. Polling frequency – reciprocal of time interval between data samples
2. Polling order – sequence in which data collection points are sampled
3. Polling format – alternative sampling procedures:
• All sensors polled every cycle
• Update only data that has changed this cycle
• High-level and low-level scanning

o Interlocks – is a safeguard mechanism for coordinating the activities of two or more devices and preventing
one device from interfering with the others.
1. Input interlocks – signal from an external device sent to the controller; possible functions:
• Proceed to execute work cycle program
• Interrupt execution of work cycle program
2. Output interlocks – signal sent from controller to external device

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o Interrupt system – is a computer-control feature that permits the execution of the current program to be
temporarily suspended to execute another program or subroutine in response to an incoming signal indicating a
higher priority event.
• Internal interrupt – generated by the computer itself, e.g. timer-initiated events, polling, system- and
program initiated interrupts.
• External interrupts – generated external to the computer, e.g. process-initiated interrupts, operator inputs.

o Exception handling – a form of error detection and recovery on an event that is outside the normal or desired
operation of the process or control system, e.g. product quality problem; process variable outside normal operating
range; shortage of raw materials; hazardous conditions, etc.

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 Forms of Computer Process Control

o Computer process monitoring: the use of computer to observe the process and associated equipment.
o Direct digital control (DDC): Certain components in a control system are replaced by the digital computer.
o Computer numerical control and robotics: the use of computer to direct a machine tool through a
sequence of processing steps; or to control a robot arm through a sequence of positions.
o Programmable logic controllers and related equipment: a microprocessor-based controller uses stored
instructions in programmable memory to control machines and processes.
o Supervisory control and data acquisition: control systems to control and collect data from the processes.
o Distributed control systems: multiple microcomputers connected together to share the distribute the
process-control workload.
Features:
• Multiple process control stations to control individual loops and devices
• Central control room where supervisory control is accomplished
• Local operator stations for redundancy
• Communications network (data highway)

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o PCs in process control: PCs are used as operator interface or direct control.
• Widespread familiarity of workers with PCs.
• Availability of high performance PCs.
• Cycle speeds of PCs now exceed those of PLCs.
• Open architecture philosophy in control system design.
• Hardware and software vendors comply with standards that allow their products to be interoperable.
• PC operating systems that facilitate real-time control and networking.
• PC industrial grade enclosures.
o Enterprise-wide integration of factory data: the modern information management and worker
empowerment philosophies.
• Managers have direct access to factory operations.
• Planners have most current data on production times and rates for scheduling purposes.
• Sales personnel can provide realistic delivery dates to customers, based on current shop loading.
• Order trackers can provide current status information to inquiring customers.
• QC can access quality issues from previous orders.
• Accounting has most recent production cost data.
• Production personnel can access product design data to clarify ambiguities.

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 Summary of this lecture

o We learnt about Automation and Control Technologies (Part I).

o In the next lecture, we will continue to learn about Automation and Control Technologies (Part II).

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 Multidisciplinary
The Control Systems Engineer knowledge & Skill Sets

32