ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

● Ingestion- taking food
Note: This reviewer is exclusively for the
● Digestion- breaking food into nutrient
students of the Psychology Department at
OLFU-QC. Kindly refrain from sharing this molecules
material outside the program or the ● Absorption- movement of nutrients
university, as it constitutes our intellectual into the bloodstream
property. Thank you. ● Defecation- excretes to rid the body
of indigestible waste
Disclaimer: We disclaim any responsibility
if the content of this reviewer does not TWO MAIN GROUP OF ORGANS
appear in the actual exam. Please refer to
your professor’s materials, such as Alimentary Canal ● Mouth
textbooks or presentation slides, for further
● Pharynx
information.
● Esophagus
● Stomach
● Small Intestine
TOPIC OUTLINE ● Large Intestine
● The Digestive System ● Anus
● The Urinary System
● The Reproductive System Accessory ● Teeth
● The Endocrine System Digestive Organs ● Salivary gland
● Pancreas
● Liver
● gallbladder
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

TERMINOLOGIES
ORGANS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

Alimentary Canal- Gastrointestinal or

Mouth
GI, tract. Organs included in these
Mastication (chewing) of food
does ingest, digest, absorb and
defecate.
Parts of the Mouth
Accessory Digestive Organs- Assist
● Mouth (oral cavity)- mucous
digestion in various ways.
membrane-lined cavity
Oropharynx- posterior to oral cavity
● Lips (labia)- protect the anterior opening
Laryngopharynx- below the
● Cheeks- form the lateral walls
oropharynx and continuous with the
● Hard Palate- forms the anterior roof
esophagus
● Soft Palate- forms the posterior roof
Visceral Peritoneum- innermost layer
● Uvula- fleshy projection of the soft palate
that is continuous with the outermost
● Vestibule- space between lips externally
layer
and teeth and gums internally
Parietal Peritoneum- outermost layer
● Oral cavity proper- area contained by the
that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by
teeth
way of the mesentery
● Tongue- attached at hyoid bone and
Salivary amylase- begins starch
styloid processes of the skull, and by the
digestion
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
Lysozymes and antibodies- inhibit
● Tonsils
bacteria
● Palatine- located at posterior end of oral
Insulin and Glucagon- hormones
cavity
produced by the pancreas
● Lingual- located at the base of the tongue

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Pharynx Large intestine

Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at
and air 1.5 m, than the small intestine

Esophagus Subdivisions
Runs from pharynx to stomach through the ● Cecum- saclike first part of the large
diaphragm intestine
Conducts food by peristalsis (slow ● Appendix- Hangs from the cecum.
rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that
Passageway for food only (respiratory sometimes becomes inflamed
system branches off after the pharynx) (appendicitis)
● Colon:
LAYERS OF TISSUE IN THE ALIMENTARY Ascending- travels up right side of
CANAL ORGANS abdomen and makes a turn at the right
colic (hepatic) flexure
Mucosa Innermost, moist Transverse- travels across the abdominal
membrane cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic)
Submucosa Just beneath the mucosa flexure
Muscularis Made up of smooth Descending- travels down the left side
Externa muscle Sigmoid S shaped region; enters the pelvis
Serosa outermost layer of the ● Rectum
wall; contains ● Anal Canal
fluid-producing cells
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
Stomach
C-shaped organ located on the left side of Teeth
the abdominal cavity Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller
Temporary storage tank for food fragments
Site of food breakdown
Deciduous ● A baby has 20 teeth by
Parts of the Stomach
(baby or age 2
● Cardial (cardia)- near the heart and
milk) teeth ● First teeth to appear are
surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter
the lower central incisors
● Fundus- expanded portion lateral to the
Permanent ● Replace deciduous teeth
cardiac region
teeth between ages 6 and 12
● Body- midportion
● A full set is 32 teeth (with
● Greater curvature- convex lateral surface
the wisdom teeth)
● Lesser curvature- concave medial
surface
CLASSIFICATION OF TEETH ACCORDING
● Pylorus- funnel-shaped terminal end
TO SHAPE AND FUNCTION
Small intestine
Incisors cutting
The body’s major digestive organ
Longest portion of the alimentary tube Canines (eyeteeth) Tearing or piercing
(2–4 m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person) Premolars Grinding
(bicuspids)
Subdivision Molars grinding
● Duodenum
● Jejunum Crown exposed part of tooth above the
● Ileum gingiva (gum)
Enamel Covers the crown

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Dentin found deep to the enamel and When fatty food enters the duodenum, the
forms the bulk of gallbladder spurts out stored bile
the tooth, surrounds the pulp
cavity
Pulp contains connective tissue, blood THE URINARY SYSTEM
Cavity vessels,
and nerve fibers (pulp)
TERMINOLOGIES
Root where the pulp cavity extends Detrusor muscle- wall of the bladder
Canal into the root Diuresis- The secretion of large amounts
Cement covers outer surface and of urine
attaches the tooth to the
Glomerulus- Cluster of capillaries that are
periodontal membrane (ligament)
part of the renal corpuscles in the
nephrons
SALIVARY GLAND
Hilum- Concave notch on medial side of
kidney; where blood vessels, the ureters,
Parotid Glands ● Found anterior to the
and nerves enter and leave the kidney
ears
Loop of Henle- U-shaped portion of the
● Mumps affect these
renal tubule
salivary glands
Micturition- Urination
Submandibular Both submandibular and
Nephrons- The filtration units of the
Glands & sublingual glands empty
kidney
Sublingual saliva
Peritubular capillaries- Network of
Glands into the floor of the
capillaries surrounding the renal tubules
mouth through small
Renal corpuscles- One of the main
ducts
components of nephrons, consisting of a
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule, that
Saliva filters blood plasma
Mixture of mucus and serous fluids Renal cortex- Outer region of the kidney;
Helps to moisten and bind food together site of urine production
into a mass called a bolus Renal medulla- Inner region of the kidney;
Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted site of urine collection
Renal tubules- Series of tube-like
Pancreas structures within the nephron; where urine
Soft, pink triangular gland is formed
Produces a wide spectrum of digestive Renin- Enzyme released by the kidneys in
enzymes that break down all categories of response to a drop in blood pressure that
food causes the conversion of angiotensinogen
into angiotensin
Liver Specific gravity- Measurement that
Largest gland in the body indicates the amount of solid matter in a
Digestive role is to produce bile liquid
Bile is yellow-green, watery solution Tubular resorption- Process whereby
containing: Bile salts and bile pigments chemicals are removed from filtrate in the
(mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of renal tubules and returned to the blood
hemoglobin) Tubular secretion- Process whereby
Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats chemicals are added to the filtrate in the
renal tubules
Gallbladder
While in the gallbladder, bile is FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
concentrated by the removal of water ● Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

● Nitrogenous wastes THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● Toxins
● Drugs TERMINOLOGIES
● Excess ions Gonads- Primary sex organ. Produces
● Kidneys’ regulatory functions include: gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
● Production of renin to maintain blood
Testes- Males
pressure
● Production of erythropoietin to stimulate Ovaries- Female
red blood cell production
Sperm- Male gametes
● Conversion of vitamin D to its active form
Ova (eggs)- Female gametes
ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Tunica albuginea- capsule that surrounds
Kidneys ● The kidneys are situated each testis
against the dorsal body wall Septa- extensions of the capsule that
in a retroperitoneal position extend into the testis and divide it into
(behind the parietal lobules
peritoneum) Duct system- The duct system transports
● An adult kidney is about 12
sperm from the body
cm (5 in) long and 6 cm (2.5
in) wide Ampulla- End of the ductus deferens,
● One-quarter of the total which empties into the ejaculatory duct
blood supply of the body Ejaculatory duct- Passes through the
passes through prostate to merge with the urethra
● the kidneys each minute
Ejaculation- Smooth muscle in the walls
Ureters ● Slender tubes 25–30 cm
(10–12 inches) attaching the of the ductus deferens create peristaltic
waves to squeeze sperm forward
kidney to the urinary bladder
● Stores urine temporarily Vasectomy- Cutting of the ductus
● males, the prostate deferens at the level of the testes prevents
surrounds the neck of the transportation of sperm (form of birth
urinary bladder control)
Urinary ● Walls are thick and folded in Prostatic urethra-Surrounded by prostate
Bladder an empty urinary bladder gland
● A moderately full bladder is
about 5 inches long and Membranous urethra- Prostatic urethra
holds to penis
● about 500 ml of urine Spongy (penile) urethra- Runs the length
● Capable of holding twice
that amount of urine of the penis to the external urethral orifice
Urethra ● Thin-walled tube that carries Mucus- Cleanses the spongy (penile)
urine from the urinary urethra of acidic urine prior to ejaculation.
bladder to the outside of the Mucus serves as a lubricant during sexual
body by peristalsis intercourse
Hymen- Partially closes the vagina until it
is ruptured
Vestibule- Enclosed by labia majora.
Contains external openings of the urethra
and vagina

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Greater vestibular glands- Secretions

Urethra
lubricate vagina during intercourse
Extends from the base of the urinary
Oogenesis- The process of producing ova bladder to the tip of the Penis
(eggs) in a female Carries both urine and sperm

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE Seminal Glands (Vesicles)

SYSTEM
Located at the base of the bladder
● Testes
● Duct System Produce a thick, yellowish secretion (60%
● Accessory Organs of semen)
● External Genitalia
ACCESSORY ORGANS AND SEMEN
Duct System ● Epididymis
● Ductus (vas) Prostate
deferens
Encircles the upper (prostatic) part of the
● Urethra
urethra
Accessory Organs ● Seminal glands
(vesicles) Secretes a milky fluid
● Prostate Helps to activate sperm
● Bulbourethral
glands Bulbourethral Gland
External Genitalia ● Penis Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
● Scrotum Produce a thick, clear mucus

Testes Semen
Milky white mixture of sperm and
Each testis is connected to the trunk via
accessory gland secretions
the spermatic cord, which houses:
-Blood vessels -Nerves Components of accessory gland
-Ductus Deferens secretions
Sperm travels from the rete testis to the Liquid portion acts as a transport medium
epididymis to dilute sperm
Interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules Sperm are streamlined cellular “tadpoles”
produce androgens
such as testosterone EXTERNAL GENITALIA

Epididymis Scrotum
Temporary storage site for immature Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
sperm that houses the testes
Sperm mature as they journey through the Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal
epididymis body temperature
Found along the posterior lateral side of
the testis Penis
During ejaculation, sperm are propelled to Male organ of copulation that delivers
the ductus deferens sperm into the female reproductive tract
Regions of the penis:
Vas Deferens -Shaft -Glans penis (enlarged tip)
Runs from the epididymis via the -Prepuce (foreskin)
spermatic cord through the inguinal canal Often removed by circumcision
and arches over the urinary bladder
Moves sperm by peristalsis into the MALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS
urethra Produce sperm

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Produce a hormone, testosterone Uterus

Situated between the urinary bladder and
Sperm Production rectum
Begins at puberty and continues Size and shape of a pear, in a woman who
throughout life has never been pregnant
Millions of sperm are made every day Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized
Testosterone egg
Most important hormonal product of the Regions of the uterus:
testes - Body—main portion
Stimulates reproductive organ - Fundus—superior rounded region above
development where uterine tube enters
Underlies sex drive - Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into
Deepening of voice the vagina
Increased hair growth Layers of the uterus:
Increased bone growth and density - Endometrium—Inner layer (mucosa) Site
Enlargement of skeletal muscles of implantation of a fertilized egg
-Myometrium—is the middle layer of
ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE smooth muscle that contracts during labor
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS -Perimetrium— (visceral peritoneum) is
● Ovaries the outermost serous layer of the uterus
● Duct System
● External Genitalia Vagina
Passageway that extends from cervix to
Ovaries ● Produce eggs (ova) and exterior of body and is located between
hormones (estrogen and urinary bladder and rectum
progesterone) Serves as the canal that allows a baby or
● Each ovary houses menstrual flow to leave the body
ovarian follicles Receives the penis during sexual
consisting of: Oocyte intercourse
(immature egg)
Duct ● Uterine (fallopian) tubes EXTERNAL GENITALIA
System ● Uterus
● Vagina Mons Pubis
External ● Mons pubis Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
Genitalia ● Labia Covered with pubic hair after puberty
● Clitoris
● Urethral orifice Labia
● Vaginal orifice Hair-covered skin folds
● Greater vestibular glands Enclose the labia minora
Clitoris
Contains erectile tissue
Uterine (fallopian tubes) Corresponds to the male penis
Form the initial part of the duct system
Provide a site for fertilization Perineum
Empty into the uterus Diamond-shaped region between the
Uterine (fallopian) tube structure: anterior ends of the labial folds, anus
- Infundibulum: Distal, funnel-shaped end posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities laterally
- Fimbriae: Fingerlike projections of the
infundibulum

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS Lobules Located within each lobe and

AND CYCLES contain clusters of alveolar
The total supply of eggs is determined by glands
the time a female is born Alveolar Produce milk when woman is
Ability to release eggs begins at puberty Glands lactating (producing milk)
with the onset of the menstrual cycle Lactiferous Connect alveolar glands to
Reproductive ability ends at menopause Ducts nipple
(in female’s fifties) Lactiferous Dilated portion where milk
Sinus accumulates
Estrogens
produced by follicle cells
Cause secondary sex characteristics
Development of breasts ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Composed of glands and cells that secrete
Progesterone hormones
produced by the corpus luteum Critical for maintaining homeostasis
Production continues until LH diminishes growth and development
in the blood metabolism and water balance
Helps maintain pregnancy reproduction and stress responses
Does not contribute to the appearance of
secondary sex characteristics TERMINOLOGIES
Prepares the breasts for milk production Exocrine glands- release secretions
to tissue by ducts
Uterine (menstrual) cycle Endocrine glands- ductless, release
Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about into blood
28 days in length Endocrine glands- Sometimes
Ovulation typically occurs about midway widespread effects
through cycle, on day 14 Chemical signal- molecules that are
Stages of the menstrual cycle released from one location, move to
-Menstrual phase another location, and produce a
-Proliferative stage response
-Secretory stage Intracellular- produce in one of part a
cell and move to another part of same
Mammary Glands cell
Present in both sexes, but function only in Intercellular- released from one cell
females and bind to receptors on another cell
Modified sweat glands Steroid- Lipids synthesized from
Function is to produce milk to nourish a cholesterol
newborn Monoamines- Synthesized from
Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan
estrogens) to increase in size Peptide hormones- Chains from 3 to
more than 200 amino acids
PARTS OF THE MAMMARY GLAND Receptor site- location on a cell
where hormone binds (lock)
Areola Central pigmented area Target tissues- group of cells that
Nipple Protruding central area of respond to specific hormones
areola Specificity- specific hormones bind to
Lobes Internal structures that specific receptor sites
radiate around nipple Growth Hormone- stimulates growth
of bones, muscles, and organs

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)-

regulates thyroid gland secretions FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)- ● Controls homeostasis
conserve water ● Maintains water balance
Diabetes insipidus- kidneys to ● Controls uterine contractions
produce large amounts of dilute ● Controls milk production
(watery) urine ● Regulates ions (calcium, sodium,
Oxytocin- increases uterine potassium)
contractions during labor ● Regulates metabolism and growth
Thyroid hormones- regulates ● Regulates heart rate and blood
metabolic rates and is needed for pressure
growth ● Monitors blood glucose levels
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- ● Aids the immune system
regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more ● Reproductive functions
than calcitonin)
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine- Endocrine System
released as part of fight or flight Chemical signals only
response Slower to respond and stop
Aldosterone- causes Na+ and H2O to Hormones go everywhere
be retained and K+ to be secreted, Adapts relatively slowly
indirectly involved with blood pressure Sometimes widespread effects
and blood volume
Cortisol- increases breakdown of fat TYPES OF INTRACELLULAR SIGNALS
and protein for energy uses, reduces
inflammatory and immune responses Autocrine released by cells and a
Androgens- Males: secondary sexual have local effect on
characteristics Females: sex drive same cell type
Pancreas- Organ in abdomen Paracrine released by cells that
affect other cell types
Testosterone- aids in sperm and
in close
reproductive organ development and
Neurotransmitter secreted by nerve cells
function and
Estrogen/Progesterone- involved in neuromodulators
uterine and mammary gland Pheromones secreted into
development and menstrual cycle environment and
Thymosin- promotes immune system modify behavior and
development and function physiology of other
individual in same
Melatonin- plays a role in onset of
species
puberty and controls circadian Hormones and secreted into blood and
rhythms. Light affects its function. neurohormone bind to
receptor sites
HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE GLAND
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
Hormones HORMONES
Chemical messengers
Secreted by endocrine glands or tissues Pituitary Gland
into blood Small gland in brain
Affect only target cells, cells with receptors Controlled by hypothalamus
Endocrinology Divided into 2 regions:
Study of endocrine system -anterior -posterior
Diagnosis and treatment of its disorders Secretes at least 6 hormones

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mr. Rolly S. Dadacay, RMT | FINALS

Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections

Thyroid Gland required)
One of largest glands Type II: insulin independent, often found in
Requires iodine to function obese people,
can be treated with diet but can turn into
ABNORMALITIES OF THYROID GLAND type I

Hypothyroidism ● Decreased Glucagon

metabolism Target tissues: liver
● Weight gain, regulates blood glucose levels
reduced appetite, between meals glucose levels drop and
fatigue glucagon is secreted
● Low temp. and glucagon allows glycogen to be broken
pulse down into glucose
● Dry, cold skin
● Myxedema in adults PREPARED AND ARRANGED BY:
● Cretinism in infants

Hyperthyroidism ● Increased
metabolism Kimberly Sheree Mae C. Templo
● Weight loss,
PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OLFU-QC,
increased appetite,
EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
nervousness
l
● Higher temp. and
pulse
● Warm, flushed skin CHECKED BY:
● Graves’ disease
(leads to goiter)
Calcitonin ● Target tissues:
bones
● Functions: secreted
when blood Ca2+
levels are high

Adrenal Glands Liza Mae B. De Guzman

On kidneys
PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OLFU-QC, HEAD OF
2 regions medulla and cortex EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE

Insulin
regulates blood glucose levels
after a meal glucose levels are high and
insulin is secreted
Lian Jill Magallanes
extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen
PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OLFU-QC,
OFFICER-IN-CHARGE OF EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
Diabetes Mellitus
Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin
receptors
Symptoms- exaggerated appetite, excess
urine, dehydration, thirst, fatigue

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