Cogent Food & Agriculture

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GIS-AHP based approach in land evaluation and

suitability assessment for sunflower (Helianthus
annus) production

Emmanuely Z. Nungula, Jayne Mugwe, Boniface H. J. Massawe, Mahmoud F.

Seleiman, Nawab Ali & Harun I. Gitari

To cite this article: Emmanuely Z. Nungula, Jayne Mugwe, Boniface H. J. Massawe, Mahmoud
F. Seleiman, Nawab Ali & Harun I. Gitari (2024) GIS-AHP based approach in land evaluation and
suitability assessment for sunflower (Helianthus annus) production, Cogent Food & Agriculture,
10:1, 2309831, DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2024.2309831

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2309831

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Cogent Food & Agriculture
2024, VOL. 10, NO. 1, 2309831
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2309831

Soil & Crop Sciences  | Research Article

GIS-AHP based approach in land evaluation and suitability assessment
for sunflower (Helianthus annus) production
Emmanuely Z. Nungulaa,b, Jayne Mugwea, Boniface H. J. Massawec, Mahmoud F. Seleimand,
Nawab Alie and Harun I. Gitaria
a
Department of Agricultural Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Enterprise Development, Kenyatta University,
Nairobi, Kenya; bDepartment of Environment and Sustainable Development, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania; cDepartment
of Soil and Geological Science, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania; dPlant Production Department, College of
Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; eDepartment of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering
(BAE), College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study aimed to analyze the appropriateness of land in Tungi Farm based in Morogoro Received 9 September
District, Tanzania for sunflower production using a Geographic Information System (GIS). To 2023
determine appropriate areas for sunflower production, three criteria: soil properties (pH, Revised 12 January 2024
Accepted 19 January
organic carbon, total nitrogen, cation exchange capacity, available phosphorus, potassium, 2024
and soil texture), topography (slope and altitude), and climate (temperature and rainfall) were
selected from the literature and employed in suitability analysis. The Analytic Hierarchy Process KEYWORDS
(AHP) method of the Multi-Criteria Evaluation was used to assign a weight to each criterion Sunflower; land
as per Saaty’s Table. Cumulative weights for each criterion were used in coming up with suitability; analytic
output maps using ArcGIS 10.8. Each criterion was reclassified and assigned a weighted value. hierarchy process; crop
suitability; sunflower
Organic carbon, total nitrogen, cation exchange capacity, and potassium were found to be suitability; ArcGIS;
adequate. Topography and climate were suitable for the sunflower production. The results Tanzania
from land suitability gave S1 (vastly suitable), S2 (relatively suitable), and S3 (minimally
suitable) of about 51% (1022 ha), 34% (671 ha), and 15% (307 ha), respectively. The suitability REVIEWING EDITOR
map in this study could be vital and helpful in management decision options. However, the Manuel Tejada,
criteria considered for land suitability evaluation were mainly based on the biophysical Universidad de Sevilla,
Cristalografía, Mineralogía
environment, and, hence, further studies can be carried out by integrating socioeconomic
y Química Agrícola, SPAIN
parameters to improve the suitability results of the study area.
SUBJECTS
Agriculture &
Environmental Sciences;
Soil Sciences; Earth
Sciences

1. Introduction utilization of land resources by pinpointing the con-

straints and opportunities for specific land use (Kisaka
Land evaluation is one of the important processes et al., 2023). Therefore this process is a necessary
employed towards the reduction of human influence prerequisite in the development of land use plan-
on natural resources’ degradation and in the identifi- ning (Ritung et al., 2007; Verheye et al., 2020).
cation of sustainable land use options (Nungula Therefore, land evaluation is used as a long-term
et al., 2023). Such kind of analysis allows integrated approach that helps in achieving proper
decision-makers to implement the best land man- land use and reducing pressure and competition on
agement strategies hence increasing land productiv- the uses of the same land. Adaptation of land evalu-
ity by identifying the main limiting factors for the ation will ensure the availability of the soil informa-
specified agricultural practice (Achoki & Gichaba, tion that provides a picture of the soil properties
2015; Alhammad et al., 2023; Seleiman et al., 2022). (physical and chemical) and ecological condition
The information obtained through the land evalua- characteristics that assist the land users and farmers
tion process guides decision-making on the best in achieving high land use efficiency, increasing food

CONTACT Emmanuely Z. Nungula [email protected] Department of Agricultural Science and Technology, School of Agriculture
and Enterprise Development, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unre-
stricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the
posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

security, and alleviating poverty (Msanya et al., 2018; and outcomes since a researcher may repair little
Otieno et al., 2023). mistakes more rapidly and obtain more accurate
Globally, 3.2 billion poor people, as well as rural results. Nowadays, there is a considerable number
communities and smallholder farmers, are affected by of studies on-site suitability studies utilizing
land degradation (Alkharabsheh et al., 2023). As such, GIS-AHP integration, including site suitability
the world population is expected to rise to 9.7 billion assessment for cultivation and suitability analysis
by 2050, with rising demands for agricultural products for various crops (Jamil et al., 2018; Kihoro et al.,
(FAO, 2017). Particularly in Tanzania, 80% of the popu- 2013), land management, and land-use suitability
lation resides in rural areas and depends on land (Halder et al., 2020). GIS-AHP integration is benefi-
resources for its livelihood (Nungula et al., 2023). cial since one can make informed decisions for
Currently, it is estimated that more than 51% of land in planning and managing agricultural land in both
rural areas is degraded due to human activities, which complex and dynamic agricultural systems (Romeijn
is mainly triggered by the lack of proper land manage- et al., 2016).
ment (Mugo et al., 2021; Nungula et al., 2024). This The edible oil subsector in Tanzania, particularly
implies food insecurity because of the high demand sunflower production, offers a lot of potential oppor-
for sustainable intensive cultivation and the opening tunities in improving livelihood, by producing valu-
up of new areas of land to satisfy the fast-growing able and highly needed oils with big domestic
population. Employing sustainable land management (internal) and external markets (Kihoro et al., 2013).
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technol- It is approximated that there are about 4 million
ogy as a land management tool is a major solution in smallholder farmers cultivating sunflower in Tanzania
the future. GIS can bring about various opportunities (Chappa et al., 2023). The crop performs well in
for improving agriculture production by utilizing vari- many regions across the country as it can withstand
ous spatial data to increase productivity potentials and drought stress and is minimally affected by diseases.
improve data access for decision-making (El Baroudy, It grows well in semi-arid areas such as the
2016). GIS has been designed to efficiently capture, central zone, which includes Dodoma, Tabora and
store, update, manipulate, and analyze forms of geo- Singida, and the southern coast area (Kimaro &
graphically referenced data that are needed to map Hieronimo, 2014).
the suitability of the land (Hamzeh et al., 2014; Demand for edible oil continues to increase annu-
Nduwumuremyi et al., 2013). GIS offers a lot of benefits ally for both domestic consumption and industrial
to land-use planners and land managers by combining uses (FAO, 2017; Chappa, 2023). Among the edible
with the multiple-criteria decision-making tools in inte- oil crops, sunflower is the main source of edible oil
grating and managing multiple factors in making deci- in Tanzania, thus playing a central role in supply of
sions and mapping the land for a certain use edible oil (Kumar et al., 2019). Despite Tanzania hav-
(Mwendwa et al., 2019; Torrieri & Batà, 2017). Such ing plenty of vast arable land and favourable agro-
techniques offer a framework for achieving a sustain- ecological zones, still, such opportunities have not
able land-use management practice (Maitra et al., 2023; been fully exploited for agricultural production due
Musakwa, 2018). to the lack of soil information on the suitability of
The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method sunflower in different regions (Kimaro & Hieronimo,
is the most commonly used multiple-criteria 2014). Literature suggests that land suitability evalu-
decision-making (MCDM) technique in GIS-based ation and assessment could improve agricultural pro-
land evaluation assessment due to its efficiency in ductivity and lead to food commodities’ self-sufficiency
making decisions using heterogeneous factors for countries that have a comparative advantage in
ranked based on expert’s judgment (Mwendwa agriculture commodities’ production like Tanzania
et al., 2019; Otieno et al., 2023; Qureshi et al., (Chappa et al., 2023; Kimaro & Hieronimo, 2014).
2018; Torrieri & Batà, 2017). It enables the evalua- Thus, assessing sunflower suitability beyond the cen-
tion of group decisions and is used to choose the tral region of Tanzania is long overdue and may help
best alternative among the determined alterna- in improving productivity of edible oil production
tives for a specific land use. A combination of GIS hence bridging the large edible oil deficit
and AHP always decide on selecting acceptable (Nungula, 2024).
and well-suitable locations for agriculture purpose Studies on land evaluation and suitability assess-
(Sánchez-Lozano et al., 2013). According to Kihoro ment for different crops were conducted in some
et al. (2013), using a GIS-AHP is a powerful strat- parts of Tanzania which resulted in the develop-
egy for obtaining, researching, and assessing data ment of information on the real distribution of soil
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 3

(Kaaya et al., 1994; Kimaro & Hieronimo, 2014). are useful in guiding stakeholders and the govern-
Nevertheless, it is noteworthy to mention that ment in strategic planning for sustainable agricul-
such studies mainly focused on obtaining soil ture development. Mapping suitable areas for
information and coming up with suitability maps sunflower production is key in contributing to the
without giving the same weight to other criteria production of sunflowers, and it aids in attaining
such as topography, climate, and socioeconomic maximum yields hence increasing the crop’s pro-
attributes levels which is essential for suitability duction potential. This will help address the
assessment (Kimaro et al., 2001). In addition, the demand for edible oil in the region.
studies were traditionally based in that they paid
much attention to empirical expert judgments
with less focus on computer-based (GIS-based) 2. Methodology
land evaluation, which produces a database that 2.1. Study area description
can be used anywhere regardless of farm size
(Kimaro et al., 2001; Msanya et al., 2018; Otieno The study was conducted on Tungi Farm centered at
et al., 2022). Therefore, this study focused on filling latitude 6° 44’15” and longitude 37° 42’07” in Morogoro
this gap by involving GIS-AHP computer-based District, Tanzania (Figure 1). The farm size is 2000 ha,
land evaluation to determine the suitability of the under cultivation by smallholder farmers (particularly
Tungi Farm for sunflower production. It is expected for maize). The area receives two rainfall seasons per
that stakeholders will use the information from year with the shorter and lighter season starting from
this study in recommending and advising farmers November to January whereas the longer and heavier
on areas best suited for sunflower production and season runs from early March to May with high inten-
the limitations that exist. This also forms a base for sity in April (Kihoro et al., 2013). According to the data
further research. In addition, the results obtained from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA)

Figure 1. Study area map. Satelite picture source: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov.

4 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

station in Morogoro, the annual average rainfall is including soil color, vegetation cover type, and
770 mm, and the annual mean temperature is 25.1 °C. land use type were recorded to differentiate the
The dominant texture of the areas is sandy to loam sampling units. In generating sampling units, areas
texture. The most common vegetation type on the showing the same properties were grouped as the
farm is grass, bushes, shrubs, scattered woodlands, same sampling unit where six sampling units were
and lower forest cover. Agricultural production is the identified (Figure 4).
major socio-economic activity for which maize is the Soil sampling was performed using the zigzag
key crop grown in this area. method to collect composite samples from each map-
ping unit (Figure 4). Using a quartile procedure, a com-
posite soil sample of about 0.5 kg was obtained, packed
2.2. Soil survey and soil sampling in a ziplock bag to avoid leakages, labeled, and then
taken to the soil laboratory at Kenyatta University, for
A reconnaissance survey was conducted to estab- analysis. The samples were processed, air-dried ground,
lish the location and broad landform features of and sieved using appropriate sieves ready for physical
the farm. GARMIN extrex 20 Global Positioning and chemical analyses. Soil properties analyzed were
System (GPS) device was used to record landmark textural class, pH, TN, OC, Av. P, K, and CEC. A handheld
feature points and key leads to farm boundaries. A GPS was used to mark the sampling points.
base map was established using a Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) at 90 m spatial resolution extracted
from the Google Earth Pro processed in a GPS 2.3. Laboratory analysis
visualizer and interpolated in ArcGIS 10.8 geosta-
tistical software. Elevation (Figure 2), Slope gradi- Soil Texture class of the soil was determined follow-
ent (Figure 3), and observable land properties ing the Hydrometer method (Kalala et al., 2017). Soil

Figure 2. Digital elevation model map.

 Cogent Food & Agriculture 5

Figure 3. Slope map.

Figure 4. Soil sampling points in the six sampling units.

6 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

pH was determined using a pH meter following a consistent matrix is one in which for each entry aij
1:2.5 ratio of soil/water (Ryan et al., 2001). The total (the entry in the ith row and jth column), aij = akj = aki.
nitrogen Kjeldahl digestion method was used for Note that the ratio in entry aij is the ratio of wi to wj
total nitrogen determination and Soil Organic Carbon (Equation 2)
(SOC) analysis was performed by the Walkley-Black  w1/ w1 w1/ w 2 … w1/ wn   w1  w1
method (Chappa et al., 2023; Nelson & Sommers, w1/ w 2 w 2 / w 2 …w 2 / wn w 2  = n w 2 (2)
    
1996). The Mehlich-3 method using ICP-OES was w1/ wn wn / w 2 …wn / wn  wn  wn 
used for the extraction of phosphorus (Mehlich, 1978;
Otieno et al., 2023). Available phosphorus was mea-
A reciprocal matrix is one in which for each entry
sured by UV–vis spectrophotometer. The Flame
aij, aji = 1/aij because all consistent matrices are
Photometry method was used for Exchangeable
reciprocal matrices (Equation 3)
potassium (REF). Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) was
 1 a12 …1 / a1n 
measured by the Ammonium acetate method

A = ( aij ) nxn = 1 / a12 1 …1 / a2n (3)
(Chapman, 1965).
1 / a1n 1 / a2n … 1 

2.4. Ranking of identified criteria for growing

Note that for a standard scale ratio matrix »max = n
sunflower
The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method of the  1 a12 …1/ a1n   w1  w1
Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) was used in assigning 1/ a12 1 …1/ a2n w 2  = λmax w 2 (4)
  

the weights to the different criteria by employing a 1/ a1n 1/ a2n … 1  wn  wn 
pair-wise preference matrix to compare one criterion
to each other described by Saaty (2014) (Table 1). The eigenvector corresponding to λmax in this
Weight value represents the intensity of importance equation is essentially the underlying standard scale
assigned to the chosen criteria implying the impor- and thus gives the ranking of each element in the
tance of one criterion to other criteria that are under ratio matrix. The last step includes the eigenvalue
consideration, in which the one with the highest estimation and matrix (A) creation which finalizes the
weight is more important than others (Kumar vector W (Equation 5)
et al., 2019).
The AHP was computed using the following math- AW = λmaxW(5)
ematical model (Equation 1).

 w1 / w1 w1 / w 2 … w1 / wn  Where A denoted the n × n matrix which also com-

prises (aij). W represents a nonzero eigenvector, 1 × n
A = ( aij ) nxn = w1 / w 2 w 2 / w 2 …w 2 / wn (1)
in size. The criteria weight was calculated from the
w1 / wn wn / w 2 …wn / wn 
pairwise comparison matrix undertaken and
Eigen-vector values based on the formula below.
Where A is the consistent matrix, having a set of n
objects with weights w1, w2 ……wn (Equation 1). A 1/ n
 W1 W1 W1 
∑ i 1 W 2 x W 2 x ……Wn  (6)
n
=
Eigenvector ( λmax ) =
Table 1. The Saaty’s rating scale.  n  W1 W 1 W1  
1/n

Σ  ∑ i = 1 x x ……  
Intensity of   W2 W2 Wn  
importance Definition Explanation
1 Equal Two factors contribute equally to the
importance objective Consistency Ratio (CR) was calculated using
3 Somewhat more Experience and judgment slightly (Equation 7). During the judgment, the judgment
important favour one over the other
5 Much important Experience and judgment strongly matrix is only considered consistent if the ratio is <
favour one over the other (0.1). A CR of 0.1 or less is more reasonable
7 Very much Experience and judgment very
important strongly favour one over the other (Triantaphyllou & Mann, 1995).
9 Absolutely The evidence favouring one over the
important other is of the highest possible CI
validity
CR = (7)
RI
2, 4, 6, and Intermediate When compromise is needed
8 values
where CI = Consistency Index; RI = Random Index.
Source: Saaty (2014).
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 7

The Consistency Index (CI) value was calculated suitable. Equal numbers of class units were
using the eigenvalue (λmax) value obtained in the assigned to each parameter used.
AHP calculator and the number of criteria (n) in the
AHP calculator using Equation (8) and Random Index
was simply obtained from Random Consistency Index 2.7. Production of sunflower suitability map
table postulated by Saaty (2014) (Table 2). To come up with the suitability map of the area for
sunflower production, sunflower crop requirements
max  n (8) were matched with land qualities. This was followed
Ci  by the integration of the reclassified layers for each
n 1
parameter which are physical and chemical soil prop-
erties and topography as derived from weights pro-
2.5. Suitability level assessment duced by the AHP process with GIS. Weighted layers
for each criterion were overlayed by employing the
In assessing the suitability level of the Tungi Farm for weighted overlay analysis using the raster calculator
sunflower production, the modified FAO framework was tool in the spatial analysis tool extension of ArcGIS
adopted for rating. Utilizing modified suitability criteria 10.8 using the (Equation 9) as described by Tashayo
for sunflowers (FAO, 1976), land requirements were et al. (2020).
matched with the land qualities to assign each compos-
ite sample with the related scoring rate (Table 3). n
S = ∑Wixi(9)
i=1

2.6. Reclassification where S = Suitability score; Wi = Weight of the ith cri-

Reclassification was done by using produced ras- teria; Xi = Weight of the ith sub-criterian; = Total num-
ter maps for different soil properties and those ber of criteria
raster maps were reclassified using ratings for The overall suitability map for sunflower produc-
sunflowers (Roy et al., 2006). The classification tion was classified as; vastly suitable soil (S1), rela-
was very low, low, medium, and high with 1, 2, 3, tively suitable soil (S2) minimally suitable soil (S3),
and 4 as class values, respectively. For each soil and Currently unsuitable soil (N) with 4, 3, 2, and 1
mapping unit, soil characteristics were rated from as the value, respectively (Table 5). Overall the study
1 to 4 (Table 4). A higher value is assigned when followed a systematic workflow from the acquisition
the parameter is highly suitable and a low of necessary data for sunflower production, followed
assigned value is when the parameter is low by a series of interconnected steps that included

Table 2. Random consistency index (RCI).

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RI 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.51
Source: Saaty (2014).

Table 3. Land requirement for Sunflower production.

Factor rating
Criteria Unit S1 S2 S3 N
Soil factors
Textural class class sl, l, ls scl, sil cl, sicl s, sc, sic, c
CEC cmol kg-1 > 24 16–24 16–6 <6
OC g kg-1 >2 2–1 0.5–1 > 0.5
pH water 6.0–7.0 5.5–6.0, 7.0–7.5 5.0–5.4, 7.0–8.0 < 5, > 8
Av. P mg kg-1 > 22 7–22 3–7 <3
Total N g kg-1 >2 2–1 0.5–1 < 0.5
Extractable K cmol kg-1 > 0.50 0.20–0.50 0.10–0.20 < 0.10
Climatic factors
Temperature C 20–25 20–18 18–15 < 15
Rainfall mm/year 500–800 800–1000 1000–1500 > 1500
Topography factors
Elevation m 460–560 560–760 760–1100 > 1100
Slope % 0–3 3–8 8–16 > 16
Key: sl = sandy loam, l = loam, ls = loam sand, scl-sand clay loamy, sil = silt loam, c = clay, cl = clay loam, sicl = silt clay
loam, s = Sand, sic = silt clay, sc = sand clay.
Source: Modified from Kaaya et al. (1994).
8 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

Table 4. Sub-rating of the physical and chemical character- production (Table 6). The assigned values of 1 and 2
istics of the soils. imply that criteria are considered to be equal to each
Factor Unit Values Rate other and with much more importance with score values
Textural class sl, l, ls 4 of 3 and 5 when compared in pair-wise preference (Table
scl, sil 3
cl, sicl 2 6). During the ranking, CR for soil was 0.032 and 0 for
s, sc, sic, c 1 climate and topography, respectively, implying that the
6.0–6.5 4
Soil reaction pH 5.5–6.0, 6.5–7.0 3 judgment was justifiable for sunflower production since
5.0–5.5 2 in all criteria CR < 0.1.
7.0–8.2 2
< 5.0, > 8.2 1
Weighting criteria for sunflower shows that soil
> 2.0 4 criterion was ranked first, scoring 0.62, then soil,
Organic Carbon g kg−1 1.0–2.0 3 and climate at 0.29 and the lowest priority was for
0.5–1.0 2
< 0.5 1 topography with a score of 0.09 (Table 6). Soil crite-
>2 4 rion ranked first among other criteria for growing
Total Nitrogen g kg−1 1–2 3
0.2–1 2 sunflower as it provides essential nutrient and cre-
< 0.2 1 ate a conducive setting for the growth, develop-
> 22 4
Avail. Phosphorus mg kg−1 7–22 3 ment, and productivity of sunflower. Soil chemicals
3–7 2 including pH, OC, TN, Av. P, K, CEC, and soil texture
<3 1
> 0.5 4
are important due to their limiting habit in sun-
0.2–0.5 3 flower production accompanied by continuous cul-
Ext. K cmol kg−1 0.1–0.2 2 tivation without adding fertilizer, which decreases
< 0.10 1
> 24 4 the production potential of the land (Chikuvire
CEC cmol kg-1 16–24 3 et al., 2007). Weighting soil sub-criteria for sun-
6–16 2
<6 1 flower production, the pH received a high weight of
Rainfall 500–800 4 0.27 as considered a main indicator for suitability
mm year-1 800–1000 3
1000–1500 2 requirement for sunflower production followed by
> 1500 1 OC which scored 0.021 due to their importance in
Temperature 20–25 4
o
C 18–20 3
influencing soil chemical and physical properties.
15–18 2 Soil texture also received a low weight score of 0.06
< 15 1 among the group criteria, however, soil texture is
Elevation 460–560 4
M 560–760 3 an important factor in growing sunflower since it
760–1100 2 strongly influences the water-retaining capacity of
> 1100 1
Slope 0–3 4 soil and nutrient retention (Chappa et al., 2023; Li &
% 3–8 3 Heap, 2008).
8–16 2
> 16 1 Soil texture can also affect crop production when
Key: sl = sandy loam, l = loam, ls = loam sand,scl-sand clay loamy, sil = silt the soil does not strongly hold water and nutrients
loam, c = clay, cl = clay loam, sicl = silt clay loam, s = Sand, sic = silt clay, for a long time (Table 7). Climate criteria including
sc = sand clay.
temperature and rainfall also influence sunflower
Table 5. Suitability classes. production. Temperature received a weight of 0.75
Corresponding compared with rainfall with a weight of 0.25, an
Suitability level Percentage (%) value Symbol indication that sunflower does not need a lot of
Currently unsuitable 0–25 1 N rainfall, but rather adequate temperature to mature
Minimally suitable 25–50 2 S3
Relatively suitable 50–75 3 S2 and hence they perform well in semiarid areas due
Vastly suitable soil 75–100 4 S1 to their ability to withstand drought. Topography
Source: FAO (1976). criteria in the studied area had a low influence on
sunflower production compared to soil and climate
field activities and laboratory analysis, and finally where it received a weight of 0.09. In topography,
drawing of suitability maps (Figure 5). the slope receives a high weight of 0.75 (Table 7) as
it influences sunflower production due to the occur-
3. Results and discussion rence of water erosion during the rainy season in
the sloping area causing nutrient depletion and
3.1. Ranking of criteria for sunflower production crop damage in the study area and reduced produc-
The comparison decision matrix reveals that soil proper- tion. Therefore, flat land is better than the slop-
ties outweighed climate and topography in sunflower ing land.
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 9

Figure 5. Methodology workflow for the production of suitability map.

Table 6. Pairwise comparison matrix for sunflower production.

Main criteria Subcriteria pH OC TN Av. P K CEC ST CW CR < 0.1 CI
Soil pH 1.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 0.27 0.032 0.04
OC 0.50 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 0.21
TN 0.50 0.50 1.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 0.17
Av. P 0.33 0.50 0.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 0.13
K 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 0.09
CEC 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.07
ST 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.50 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.06
Climate Temperature Rainfall 0.00 0.00
Temperature 1.00 3.00 0.75
Rainfall 0.33 1.00 0.25
Topography Slope Altitude 0.00 0.00
Slope 1.00 3.00 0.75
Altitude 0.33 1.00 0.25
For soil criteria; Max eigenvalue (»max) = 7.248, n = 7, CI = 0.043. Climate criteria; Max eigenvalue (»max) = 2, n = 2, CI = 0 and Topography criteria;
Max eigenvalue (»max) = 2, n = 2, CI = 0.

Table 7. Main Criteria ranking for sunflower production.

Main criteria Soil Climate Topography CW Ranking CR <0.1 CI
Soil 1.00 2.00 7.00 0.62 1 0.003 0.002
Climate 0.50 1.00 3.00 0.29 2
Topography 0.14 0.33 1.00 0.09 3
Max eigenvalue (»max) = 3.003, n = 3, CI = 0.002.
10 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

3.2. Soil suitability the availability of nutrients in the soil and its uptake
by plants and also provides prior information about
Soil pH is an indicator of the level of acidity and
suitability for crop production in a particular area
alkalinity status of the soil. Soil pH highly influences
(Mugo et al., 2016). In the current study, soil pH val-
ues of the area ranged from moderately acidic (5.5)
Table 8. Summary of parameter, suitability level, and area to neutral (7.2) with a mean pH value of 6.3 (Slightly
coverage for sunflower production.
acidic). Suitability analysis of soil pH for sunflower
Area coverage
production shows that 60.2% was vastly suitable
Parameter Level of suitability Ha %
(S1) and 39.8% relatively suitable (S2) with 1204 ha
Texture Vastly suitable (S1) 1564.4 78.22
Relatively suitable (S2) 122 6.10 and 796 ha of the farm, respectively (Figure 6 and
Currently not suitable (N) 313.6 15.68 Table 8).
Soil pH Vastly suitable (S1) 1203.6 60.18
Relatively suitable (S2) 796.4 39.82 Soil Organic Carbon plays a vital role in the soil
OC (g kg-1) Vastly suitable (S1) 1950.8 97.54 by controlling the infiltration rates, water holding
Relatively suitable (S2) 49.2 2.52
TN (g kg-1) Vastly suitable (S1) 1952.27 97.61 capacity, and improving soil aggregate buildup
Relatively suitable (S2) 47.73 2.39 (Nyawade et al., 2019a). OC acts as a bank to store
CEC (Cmol kg-1) Minimally suitable (S3) 1921.4 96.07
Currently not suitable (N) 78.6 3.93
nutrients and slowly release them to the plants but
Available P. (mg Relatively suitable (S2) 16.6 0.83 also supply nutrients and energy to the soil
kg )
-1
Minimally suitable (S3) 1983.4 99.17 microbes (Zdruli et al., 2004). It is also one of the
K (Cmol kg-1) Vastly suitable (S1) 507.51 25.38
Relatively suitable (S2) 1481.13 74.06 most important considerations in determining the
Minimally suitable (S3) 11.36 5.68 best-suited land for agricultural purposes (Kalala
Slope (%) Vastly suitable (S1) 1911 95.55
Relatively suitable (S2) 89 4.45 et al., 2017). Soil organic carbon (OC) of Tungi Farm
Elevation (Meter) Vastly suitable (S1) 2000 100 varied from low (1.2 g kg−1), to medium (4.9 g kg−1)
Rainfall (mm year-1) Vastly suitable (S1) 2000 100
Temperature (°C) Vastly suitable (S1) 2000 100 with an average of 3.5 g kg−1 rated as medium.

Figure 6. pH Suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

 Cogent Food & Agriculture 11

Suitability analysis of OC of Tungi Farm for sun- Potassium values ranged from low (0.14 cmol
flower production shows that 97.5% was vastly suit- kg−1) to medium (0.84 cmol kg−1), with an average
able (S1) and 2.5% relatively suitable (S2) with of 0.44 cmol kg−1 (Marx et al., 1999). Suitability
coverage of 1950 ha and 49 ha of the farm, respec- analysis of Potassium shows that 25.38%, 74.06%,
tively (Figure 7 and Table 8). and 5.68% of the Tungi Farm was vastly suitable
Total nitrogen (TN) ranged from low (1.0 g kg−1), (S1), relatively suitable (S2), and minimally suitable
to medium (5.0 g kg−1) with an average of 3.5 g kg−1 (S3) with respective farm coverage areas of 507.51,
rated as medium. The lower levels of nitrogen as 1481.13, and 11.36 ha, respectively (Figure 10 and
revealed in this study imply that there has been poor Table 8).
fertilization due to inadequate fertilizer addition to Cation Exchange Capacity measures the ability
replace the N lost due to humus losses linked with of the soil to hold nutrients, hence providing
frequent cultivation, crop harvest removal, and leach- information on soil fertility and production
ing by water (Hailu et al., 2015; Nyawade et al., potential of the land (Heydarzadeh et al., 2023;
2019b; Shao et al., 2023). Suitability analysis based Kalala et al., 2017). Soil with low CEC soil implies
on the total nitrogen of Tungi Farm for sunflower low organic matter content which also shows
production shows that 97.6% and 2.4% are vastly the low water-holding capacity. This calls for
suitable (S1) and relatively suitable, respectively with supplemental addition of more organic fertilizers
respective area coverage of 1952 ha and 48 ha (Figure (Faridvand et al., 2021; Heydarzadeh et al., 2023;
8 and Table 8). Nduwimana et al., 2020). The CEC value of Tungi
Available phosphorus for the area ranged from low Farm ranged from 5.13 to 8.29 cmol kg −1 rated
(3.34 mg kg−1), to medium (14.34 mg kg−1) with a as low with an average value of 6.67 cmol kg −1
mean value of 6.28 mg kg−1, rated as low (Marx et al., (Marx et al., 1999). Suitability analysis of CEC of
1999). Suitability analysis of available phosphorus of Tungi Farm for sunflower production shows that
Tungi Farm for sunflower production shows that 0.83% 3.9% was minimally suitable (S3) and 96.1%
was relatively suitable (S2) and 99.17% was minimally Currently not suitable (N) with the farm area
suitable (S3) with farm area coverage of 16.6 ha and coverage of 78.6 and 1921.4 ha (Figure 11 and
1983.4 ha, respectively (Figure 9 and Table 8). Table 8).

Figure 7. Organic Carbon (OC) suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.
12 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

Figure 8. Total Nitrogen (TN) suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

Figure 9. Available phosphorus suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 13

Figure 10. Potassium suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

Figure 11. CEC suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.
14 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

Soil texture is a vital soil physical property with The slope of an area greatly influences soil ero-
great influence on soil structure, water holding sion intensity and is one of the factors to pay atten-
capacity, infiltration, and porosity (AbdelRahman tion to in the determination of suitable areas for
et al., 2017; Elsheikh et al., 2013; Gitari et al., 2019). sunflower (Moges & Ajanaw, 2020; Nyawade et al.,
Soil texture influences soil pH, EC, soil mineral com- 2019a). Digital Elevation Model results showed varia-
position, and microbial population (Bhunia et al., tions in slope with differences in ranges ranging
2016). Generally, texture ranged from sandy clay to from 0 to 1.5%, 1.5 to 2.4%, 2.4 to 3.3%, and 3.3 to
sand texture class at Tungi Farm. According to Brady 4.5%. Suitability based on slope shows that 95.6 and
and Weil (2017) and Saglam and Dengiz (2014), the 4.5% of the area were vastly suitable (S1) (1911 ha)
observed soil textures support sunflower production and relatively suitable (S2) (89 ha), respectively (Figure
by allowing root movement, aeration, water infiltra- 14 and Table 8).
tion, and better drainage. Suitability based on soil
texture shows that 78, 6 and 16% of the area was 3.3. Climate suitability
vastly suitable (S1) (1564 ha), relatively suitable (S2)
(122 ha), and currently not suitable (N) (314 ha), Based on the amount and length of rainfall, sunflower
respectively (Figure 12 and Table 8). water requirement varies from 600 to 1000 mm per
year. Water use for any crop is dependent on the
growth stage, with 20% of water being utilized during
3.3. Topography suitability the vegetative period, 55% in the flowering stage,
and 25% in the yield formation and ripening periods
The Digital Elevation Model result shows variations in
(Andrew et al., 2013; Goher et al., 2023; Ochieng’
altitude with differences in elevation ranges. The
et al., 2023). Based on Egeru (2012) medium to good
information in DEM showed an elevation range from
pattern of about 600 to 1000 mm per year during the
523 to 550 masl. Suitability based on elevation shows
growing season is appropriate for sunflower produc-
that 100% of the area was vastly suitable (S1)
tion. This implies that the area received adequate
(2000 ha) (Figure 13 and Table 8).
rainfall since the rainfall at the Tungi Farm ranges

Figure 12. Texture suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

 Cogent Food & Agriculture 15

Figure 13. Elevation suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

Figure 14. Slope suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.
16 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

from 890 to 909 mm. Therefore, the farm was consid- TN, Av. P, and K), Soil texture, and topography (slope
ered vastly suitable (S1) for sunflower production and elevation) were overlaid to generate a sunflower
despite rainfall being not fairly stable (Figure 15 and suitability map (Figure 17). The results from land suit-
Table 8). ability gave S1 (vastly suitable), S2 (relatively suit-
Based on Hollinger and Angel (2009), the tem- able), and S3 (minimally suitable) of about 51%
perature is an important parameter that governs (1022 ha), 34% (671 ha), and 15% (307 ha), respec-
when and how fast a crop will grow and develop in tively (Table 9). The results indicated that most culti-
line with precipitation and solar radiation. Sunflower vated soils are insufficient in TN and available P
is described as a short-day plant with direct-acting resulting from continuous cultivation without fertil-
to daylight length. It survives under different climate izer supplements, crop residue removal, and inten-
conditions including arid areas (though under irriga- sive cultivation (Emiru & Gebrekidan, 2013; Mwadalu
tion) to semi-arid or temperate conditions. Sunflower et al., 2022; Rahimi et al., 2023). Therefore, in achiev-
crop does not withstand frost conditions, and there- ing high economic agricultural production the inte-
fore it thrives well at mean temperatures ranging grated approach which involves agriculture extension,
between 18 °C and 25 °C (Andrew et al., 2013; researchers, land-use planners, and farmers’ commu-
Chappa et al., 2022). Reclassification of the tempera- nities is needed in allocating the right area for sun-
ture shows that the whole area was vastly suitable flower production.
(S1) for sunflower production since it has an average
temperature of 25 °C (Figure 16 and Table 8).
4. Discussion
3.4. Sunflower suitability map Sunflowers are mainly cultivated in some regions of
Tanzania. Due to its low production, there is a high
Based on the selected properties for evaluation of
annual demand for edible oil in Tanzania of more
sunflower production suitability climate (temperature
than 500,000 tons. This demand continues to increase
and rainfall), soil chemical properties (OC, pH, CEC,
at a rate of 3% annually due to population growth

Figure 15. Rainfall suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

 Cogent Food & Agriculture 17

Figure 16. Temperature suitability map for sunflower production of Tungi Farm.

Figure 17. Sunflower suitability map for Tungi Farm.

18 E. Z. NUNGULA ET AL.

Table 9. Suitability and area coverage of Tungi Farm for sun- elevation ranges. Based on elevation characteristics
flower production. and slope, the area was classified into six topographic
Suitability level Symbol Area coverage landforms; upper land, lower flat land, medium flat
Hectare Percentage (%) land, flat land, slopping land, and low land. The areas
Vastly suitable S1 1022.20 51.11 featured a slightly plain area, characterized by soil
Relatively suitable S2 671.20 33.56
Minimally suitable S3 306.60 15.33 organic matter of 2 g kg−1, pH ranging from 6.0 to 6.5,
Currently not N 0 0 loamy to sandy loam texture class, and favorable lev-
suitable
Total 2000.00 100.00 els of N, P, K with optimum average temperatures of
between 25 and 30 °C, which is considered the ideal
range for the crop. This area shows a high suitability
given that only 40% of edible oil is produced by local level of 51% (1022 ha) for sunflower when the three
processors, which does not meet the national cooking criteria (soil, climate, and topography) were integrated
oil requirements (Nungula et al., 2023). Thus this call in ArcGIS. Additionally, the suitability analysis revealed
for expansion of production land due to the potential that 34% (671 ha) and 15% (307 ha) of the land had
benefit of sunflowers. This research was done to eval- relatively and minimally suitable land characterized by
uate the land’s suitability for growing sunflowers in sloping land, pH ranges of 5.5 to 6.0, and deficiency
the study region by considering the multiple factors in available phosphorus and potassium due to leach-
that affect its growth. The study employed the GIS-AHP ing and nutrient washing by rainwater.
technique to simplify the work that could rather be The findings of the study provide recommenda-
done manually, a very tedious exercise. tions to achieve high land productivity by ensuring
Land suitability involves the identification of the regular soil analysis is vital to monitor the amount
most suitable land for raising crops to sustain the of accessible nutrients in the soil at time and space
increasing population and demand for more food so that management practices can be done at the
production (Maitra et al., 2023). The AHP technique is right time, right amount, and at the right place. This
an extensive tool where efficient and effective land study involved a qualitative use of soil-analyzed
suitability analysis can be performed. The AHP data; therefore more studies are necessary based on
approach allows the users to assign the weights quantitative terms of soil suitability. Also based on
score to various parameters and compute their con- the study findings, farmers will be able to use the
sistency. GIS is a modern tool that is used to create detailed information in deciding on cultivating sun-
and manage a complete land suitability analysis flower in the Farm as it’s a potential crop for them
through mapping techniques (Nungula et al., 2023; to earn more income while maintaining soil quality.
Otieno, 2021). Integration of the GIS-AHP approach Use of the GIS-AHP integration approach was rec-
allows the users to judge the right weightage for the ommended by involving multiple criteria to make
various parameters during the land suitability analy- the best decisions according to the selected criteria.
sis. Use of such integration techniques in performing The criteria may reveal the decision based on real
land suitability analysis enhances the achievements field conditions. The study was conducted to pro-
of precision agriculture. vide an extensive analysis by involving various fac-
Adoption of GIS-AHP by involving the different tors that affect sunflower growth and production in
biophysical variables provides the best conditions the study area. More so, the sub-criteria were vali-
for crop suitability management. The study involved dated as an important condition that may be used
multiple parameters, by evaluating the biophysical in the planning of agricultural production.
parameters including soil, climate, and topography.
Employing this method enhances effectiveness of
crop management on the farm because it provides
5. Conclusion
a biophysical examination that allows farmers to
select and adopt efficient crop and soil manage- Land suitability is an attempt to include all possible
ment strategies to achieve high yields. Also, will parameters having an impact on crop growth and
help the farmers and extensions to develop effective vegetation, particularly for sunflower production. The
fertilizer application strategies to improve the per- Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)-based model was
formance of crops and achieve high yields. employed to assign weightage to sub-criteria param-
In line with the DEM map showing elevation differ- eters and main criteria for carrying out the final land
ences in the study area, the result indicate that the suitability analysis. Based on this analysis, crop suit-
area has variations in altitude, which differ in ability distribution maps were developed for
 Cogent Food & Agriculture 19

sunflower production in the ArcGIS software environ- Achoki, D. O., & Gichaba, C. M. (2015). Geographic informa-
ment. The farm gave about 51% (1022.2 ha) S1 (vastly tion systems and remote sensing for food security in.
Department of Geology; University of Nairobi.
suitable) implying that the farm is suitable for sun-
Alhammad, B. A., Roy, D. K., Ranjan, S., Padhan, S. R., Sow,
flower production. However, some area shows relative S., Nath, D., Seleiman, M. F., & Gitari, H. (2023).
suitability and minimally suitability due to the Conservation tillage and weed management influencing
observed low levels of some nutrients (K and Av. P). weed dynamics, crop performance, soil properties, and
To achieve high land productivity, the soil’s nutrient profitability in rice-wheat-greengram system in Eastern
management ought to involve the use of integrated Indo-Gangetic Plains. Agronomy, 13(7), 1953. https://doi.
org/10.3390/agronomy13071953
approaches such as the application of inorganic (syn-
Alkharabsheh, H. M., Mwadalu, R., Mochoge, B., Danga, B.,
thetic fertilizer) including P and K fertilizers. AHP is a Raza, M. A., Seleiman, M. F., Khan, N., & Gitari, H. (2023).
superior method of determining the weights of mul- Revitalizing the biochemical soil properties of degrad-
tiple factors and its consistency may be measured ed coastal soil using Prosopis juliflora biochar. Life
and controlled in the presence of interfering criteria. (Basel, Switzerland), 13(10), 2098. https://doi.org/10.3390/
life13102098
On the other hand, GIS is a powerful tool used to
Andrew, R. L., Kane, N. C., Baute, G. J., Grassa, C. J., &
demarcate the study area, collect and process geo- Rieseberg, L. H. (2013). Recent nonhybrid origin of sun-
graphic data, and present results in land suitability flower ecotypes in a novel habitat. Molecular Ecology,
analysis. Integration of GIS-AHP provides a precise 22(3), 799–813. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12038
and powerful combination for land suitability analysis Bhunia, A., Esquivel, D., Dey, S., Fernández-Terán, R., Goto,
because the results obtained provide effective man- Y., Inagaki, S., Van Der Voort, P., & Janiak, C. (2016). A
photoluminescent covalent triazine framework: CO2 ad-
agement approaches to ensure land use efficiency
sorption, light-driven hydrogen evolution, and sensing
and better management for sunflower production in of nitroaromatics. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 4(35),
Tungi Farm. 13450–13457. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TA04623A
Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2017). The nature and properties
of soil. 15th ed. Pearson Education. 1104.
Disclosure statement Bremner, J. M. (1996). Nitrogen total. In Sparks, D.L., Page,
A.L., Helmke, P.A., Loeppert, R.H., Soltanpour, P.N.,
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Tabatabai, M.A., Johnston, C.T., & Sumner, M.E. (Eds.).
author(s). Methods of soil analysis, Part 3: Chemical methods. Soil
Science Society for America Journals. Inc (pp. 1085–1121).
American Society of Agronomy.
Funding Chapman, H. (1965). Cation-exchange capacity 1. In A. G.
This work was supported by the Researchers Supporting Norman (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Chemical
Project King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and microbiological properties (pp.891–901).
[RSPD2024R751]. Chappa, L. P. (2023). Soil chemical properties and sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L) productivity responses to sunn Hemp
intercropping and mineral fertilizer application in Dodoma,
Tanzania [MSc Thesis]. Kenyatta University.
Notes on contributor
Chappa, L. R., Mugwe, J., Gitari, H. H., & Maitra, S. (2023).
Emmanuely Nungula is an MSc student with a passionate Upholding sunflower (Helianthus annuus) yield and
research interest in GIS, soil fertility management, and profitability while maintaining soil fertility under inter-
land use planning. Jayne Mugwe and Harun Gitari are cropping with sunn hemp and mineral fertilizer appli-
dedicated lecturers at Kenyatta University with expertise cation. International Journal of Bioresource Science, 10(1),
in Integrated Soil Fertility Management. Boniface 31–49. https://doi.org/10.30954/10.30954/2347-9655.01.
Massawe is a GIS and pedologist specialist based at 2023.4
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania. Mahmoud Chappa, L. R., Mugwe, J., Maitra, S., & Gitari, H. I. (2022).
Seleiman is an agronomist from King Saud University, Current status and prospects of improving Sunflower
Saudi Arabia, whereas Nawab Ali is a Biosystems Engineer production in Tanzania through intercropping with Sunn
based at Michigan State University USA. Hemp. International Journal of Bioresource Science, 9(1),
1–8. https://doi.org/10.30954/2347-9655.01.2022.1
Chikuvire, T. J., Mpepereki, S., & Foti, R. (2007). Soil fertility
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