NARDI FUNDULEA, ROMANIA ROMANIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, NO.

42, 2025
www.incda-fundulea.ro; doi.org/10.59665/rar4203 First Online: December, 2024. DII 2067-5720 RAR 2025-26

Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)

Due to Variation of Sowing Time

Naziha El-Bey1, Merve Göre2*, Orhan Kurt1

1
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Department of Field Crops, Samsun, Türkiye
2
Ege University, Ödemiş Vocational School, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, İzmir, Türkiye
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Safflower, renowned for its versatility in applications such as edible oil production, industrial uses, and
potential health benefits, holds significance in global agriculture owing to its temperature tolerance and utility
in crop rotation. This study aimed to investigate the impact of different winter season sowing times on diverse
growth parameters of safflower. The research, comprising three replications and involving two distinct
safflower genotypes (Olas and Linas), examined four distinct sowing times between October 30 and December
14, spaced 15 days apart. Parameters evaluated included Leaf Area Index (LAI), Relative Growth Rate (RGR),
Net Assimilation Rate (NAR), Crop Growth Rate (CGR), and Total Dry Matter (TDM). The findings revealed
that early sowing time is advantageous across several parameters, particularly in total dry matter
accumulation, except the net assimilation rate. Early sown plants exhibited higher values for leaf area index,
crop growth rate, dry matter accumulation, and net assimilation rate. Conversely, late-sown plants displayed a
higher partial growth rate, influenced by factors such as shorter daylight duration and a lower leaf area index.
In consideration of these comprehensive evaluations, the conclusion is drawn that the choice of safflower
sowing time should hinge on a meticulous assessment of specific growth parameters of interest. The optimal
sowing time should align with the traits under scrutiny, thus maximizing the overall performance and potential
yield of the crop.

Keywords: crop growth and development, growth parameters, safflower, sowing.

INTRODUCTION semi-arid and rain-fed conditions, thanks to

its deep root system and xerophytic

I t is estimated that the impact of global

climate change, whose impact is increasing
every year, will be felt more in Turkey.
characteristics (Johnston et al., 2002; Dordas
and Sioulas, 2008). Several studies have
shown that safflower can be grown as a
Agricultural drought, which is likely to occur winter crop in regions with moderate
due to global climate change, will create temperatures or as a spring crop in cooler
challenging effects on feeding the increasing regions (Koutroubas et al., 2004; Yau, 2007).
population and increasing and sustaining Analysing growth patterns not only sheds
productivity. Safflower, which is supported light on how plants accumulate dry matter
by the state to fill the edible oil deficit in but also unveils factors that can influence
Turkey, has been increasingly included in their productivity. It enables us to determine
crop rotation recently. Therefore, it becomes the distribution and accumulation of dry
more important to have information about the matter in the vegetative and generative
growth pattern of the safflower plant. organs, derived from the photosynthetic
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is a assimilation process, from emergence to
versatile small oilseed crop that can offer maturation. Conducting studies on these
various benefits to rain-fed grain-based aspects would be highly advantageous,
cropping systems due to its tolerance to cold, particularly for providing plant breeders with
drought, salinity, and reduced input needs appropriate models of plant growth and
(Öztürk et al., 2008; Ebrahimi et al., 2017). development, facilitating the development of
This annual crop can be grown in arid, high-yielding varieties.
________________________________________

Received 9 September 2024; accepted 9 December 2024.

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The plant growth analysis has become development patterns exhibited by safflower
increasingly significant, particularly in plants. So that, this research was conducted to
controlled conditions, as it offers valuable determine the effects of planting time on the
insights into the physiological aspects of plant growth parameters of the safflower plant,
breeding (Fourcaud et al., 2008). It has been considering the effects of cultivation
reported that through these analyses, techniques on the growth parameters of the
determining the optimal planting time and safflower plant.
plant density becomes feasible, leading to
enhanced yield and quality when accompanied MATERIAL AND METHODS
by timely irrigation and fertilization practices
(Abbas et al., 2019). The determination of the Experimental Area
optimal sowing time relies on the temperature The study was conducted at the Faculty of
and humidity conditions specific to the area. Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayıs University,
Moreover, timely sowing enhances grain Samsun (41°37.49'N, 35°36'30"E), in winter
retention in the field, leading to increased season of two consecutive growing seasons
seed yield and high-quality oil production. (2018, 2019). Soil analysis of the experimental
Although several research have evaluated the area indicated a clayey soil texture, with clay
adaptability of the safflower plant in Türkiye content comprising 47.5% of the soil
and in the world (Steberl et al., 2020; Culpan, composition. The pH level of the soil was
2023; Kamle et al., 2023; Yılmaz et al., 2023), neutral (pH 7). Moreover, the soil exhibited
comprehensive research focusing on its high levels of phosphorus (293 ppm) and
growth and development period remains potassium (10.3 ppm), while the organic
scarce. Furthermore, there is a limited matter content was relatively low (2.71%).
understanding of the physiological growth and

Figure 1. The average monthly temperature and precipitation in Exp I (2017-2018), Exp II (2018-2019)
and long-term average (last 55 years)

The monthly temperature average in both growth and development periods (Figure 1).
experimental years is higher than the average The total amount of precipitation in the 2nd
for the long term. In the first year of the year is higher in all other months except
experiment, the average temperature in all December, January, and March. The amount
months except November, December and of precipitation in one year in April, May,
January was higher than the monthly average June and July, which includes the flowering,
temperature in the second year. In addition, seed setting and harvest periods, is less than
the monthly average temperature in May, the second year and the average long-term.
June and July, during the flowering, seed The amount of precipitation in the 2nd year of
setting and maturation periods, is higher than the same period is higher than the long-term
the monthly average temperatures in other average (Figure 1).
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Plant material Crop Growth Rate (CGR) = (1/SA) x (dw/dt);

Olas and Linas safflower varieties were A: Leaf area; dw: Dry matter increase; dt:
used as plant material. For the first year of the Time difference; SA: Ground Area.
experiment, the experimental plots were
fertilized with Diammonium phosphate Statistical analysis
(DAP) fertilizer at a rate of 100 kg ha-1. DAP A homogeneity test was performed on the
is a two-nutrient fertilizer. It contains 18% data collected from observations and
nitrogen (N) and 46% phosphorus (P) as measurements. Then, analysis of variance
P2O5. Since its nitrogen content is in (ANOVA) was conducted using the JMP
ammonium (NH4) form, it is particularly 16.1 statistical program. Based on the
effective in the first development stages of significance of the ANOVA, the groupings
plants. In the second year, during the stem between the means were made using the
elongation stage of the safflower plants, Tukey multiple comparison tests (α = 0.01).
ammonium nitrate (33% N) fertilizer was
applied. Chemical pesticide containing the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
active ingredients Cypermethrin and
Thiacloprid against broad bean (Tropinota Leaf area index (LAI). The variance
hirta), aphid (Uroleucon Compositae) and analysis results indicate a statistically
spittlebug diseases was applied at a dose of significant impact of the interaction between
400 ml ha-1 during the stem elongation, year and variety on the leaf area index across
branching and flowering periods. all development periods. Furthermore, it was
observed that the interactions involving
Method sowing date (year x sowing date, variety x
The experimental design employed a sowing date and year x variety x sowing date)
randomized complete block design with three also significantly influenced the leaf area
replications. Each experimental plot consisted index throughout all developmental stages
of five rows, measuring 3 meters in length, with (Table 1).
a row spacing of 40 cm and 10 cm between Significant variations in the average leaf
individual plants. Varieties were assigned to the area index were observed across developmental
main plots, while sowing dates (October 30th, stages, with measurements of 0.135, 0.673,
November 14th, November 29th, and December and 0.488 cm2 cm-2. Notably, a comparative
14th) were assigned to the sub-plots. analysis between the Linas and Olas cultivars
unveiled substantial differences. The leaf area
Plant Sampling and Measurements index of the Linas variety (0.138, 0.675, and
To analyze the plant growth pattern, a total 0.488 cm2 cm-2, respectively) was found to be
of 10 plants were sampled from each block at higher than that of the Olas variety (0.128,
six distinct stages of the developmental 0.670, and 0.483 cm2 cm-2, respectively)
process, (emergence, rosette, stem elongation, during the rosette, stem elongation, and
branching, flowering, and maturation). The flowering periods (Figure 2).
plants were individually dried in paper bags The analysis revealed a rapid increase in
at a temperature of 83°C for 48 hours using leaf area for both varieties throughout the
an oven. Following the drying process, the entire growing season, peaking at the stem
dry matter weights were determined by elongation phase across all four sowing dates.
weighing them on a scale with a precision of Subsequently, a decline in leaf area was
0.01 g. The quantitative analysis of plant observed in the subsequent developmental
growth parameters and the calculation models period. Across the rosette, stem elongation,
employed in this study were based on previous and flowering stages, the first sowing time
works by Uzun (1997) and Hunt et al. (2002). consistently yielded the highest leaf area
Leaf Area Index (LAI) = LA/SA; Relative index in all three development periods
Growth Rate (RGR) = 1/W/(dW/dt); Net (0.15, 0.69 and 0.52 cm2 cm-2, respectively)
Assimilation Rate (NAR) = (1/LA) x (dw/dt); (Figure 2).
 35
Naziha El-Bey et al.: Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Due to Variation of Sowing Time

The leaf area index serves as a crucial The plant's genetic structure plays a
determinant of plant productivity and is pivotal role in influencing its growth and
widely used for evaluating photosynthetic development, with environmental conditions
efficiency, encompassing key factors like establishing the boundaries of this effect.
light interception and light use efficiency Consequently, when assessing plant
(Hunt, 1982; Baret and Vintilă, 2003 quoted development periods, it is crucial to consider
by Petcu et al., 2011). Additionally, assessing both the genetic makeup and environmental
the leaf area index is vital due to its role as a factors. In this study, the evaluation of two
reliable indicator of both the plant's safflower varieties revealed distinctive
photosynthetic capacity and the level of dry patterns: the Linas variety exhibited a higher
matter accumulation. Various studies on leaf area index during the rosette stage,
safflower plants have reported diverse ranges whereas the Olas variety demonstrated a
of leaf area index values. Notably, the rosette higher leaf area index in the stem elongation
period exhibits values between 0.3 and 1.0 and flowering stages. This underscores the
cm2/cm2, the flowering period ranges from significance of understanding the interplay
2.5 to 4.0 cm2 cm-2 (Moatshe et al., 2020), between genetic traits and environmental
and the stem elongation period is reported to conditions in comprehending plant development
be 0.4 cm2 cm-2 (Attia et al., 2011). The dynamics. Previous research, as reported by
present study aligns with prior safflower Hassan et al. (2015), has noted variations in
investigations, indicating consistency in the the leaf area index of safflower planted in
measured leaf area index values. winter across different periods. In the current
The leaf area index is a trait influenced by study, the planting time was found to have a
ecological factors, exhibiting variations in significant impact on the leaf area index
values across developmental phases due to during the rosette, stem elongation, and
differences in temperature, sunshine duration, flowering periods. Notably, early seeding,
relative humidity, and precipitation levels particularly during the second sowing date,
between years. The quantity of rainfall holds resulted in a substantial increase in the leaf
significance during plant development, area index. Conversely, delaying the sowing
contributing to the increase in leaf area index date affected plant growth by constraining the
by fostering greater leaf number and expanded elongation and expansion of leaf cells,
leaf area. Notably, in the second year of the leading to a decrease in the leaf area index.
study, precipitation levels and the leaf area Additionally, the lower leaf area index in
index during the months corresponding to the late-sown plants can be attributed to factors
stem elongation and flowering periods (April such as reduced sunshine exposure and a
and May) were observed to be higher lower accumulation of growth degree days.
compared to the first year (Table 1).

Figure 2. Effects of different sowing dates on LAI of two safflower varieties at different growth stages.
(a) Olas, (b) Linas. S-1 = October 30th; S-2 = November 14th; S-3 = November 29th; S-4 = December 14th; R = Rosette;
SE = Stem Elongation; F = Flowering.
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Relative growth rate (RGR). Significant 14.9, and 7.1 mg g-1day-1 in the Linas variety
effects were observed in the relative growth during the rosette, stem elongation, and
rate across all development periods, except flowering periods. Analyzing the sowing
for the flowering period, where the year times revealed that the highest relative
effect was not statistically significant. growth rate occurred on the first sowing date
Although the variety did not independently during the rosette and flowering periods (29.7
influence the relative growth rate in all and 7.9 mg g-1day-1, respectively), while it
evaluated periods, the year x variety occurred on the fourth sowing date during the
interaction was found to be statistically stem elongation period (19.5 mg g-1day-1)
significant during the flowering period. (Figure 3).
Moreover, the impact of the sowing date was In terms of the interaction between variety
significant throughout all developmental and sowing time, the highest relative growth
periods, with the interaction effect of year x rate was observed during specific periods.
sowing date proving significant in all periods For the Olas variety, it occurred in the rosette
except for the flowering stage. Additionally, period on the 3rd sowing date (31.6 mg g-1day-1),
the cultivar x sowing date interaction during the stem elongation period on the 4th
demonstrated significance during the rosette sowing date (19.3 mg g-1day-1), and in the
and flowering periods. Notably, the triple flowering period on the 1st sowing date (8.7
interaction of year x cultivar x sowing date mg g-1day-1). In contrast, for the Linas variety,
was determined to be significant across all the highest relative growth rate was obtained
developmental periods (Table 1). in the rosette period on the 1st sowing date
A decline in relative growth rate was (31.4 mg g-1day-1), during the stem elongation
observed in both safflower varieties from period on the 4th sowing date (19.7 mg g-1day-1),
rosette formation to flowering. Specifically, and in the flowering period on the 4th sowing
the relative growth rate was 28.0, 14.7 and date (8.1 mg g-1day-1) (Figure 3).
7.2 mg g-1day-1 in the Olas variety and 27.4,

Figure 3. Effects of different sowing dates on RGR of two safflower varieties at different growth stages.
(a) Olas, (b) Linas. S-1 = October 30th; S-2 = November 14th; S-3 = November 29th; S-4 = December 14th; R = Rosette;
SE = Stem Elongation; F = Flowering.

The relative growth rate is a significant influencing the plant's carbon economy. The
metric in plant physiology, providing a physiological component is reflected in the
quantitative measure of a plant's growth by net assimilation rate, closely tied to net
assessing the daily increase in dry matter photosynthesis. In contrast, the
relative to its initial dry matter accumulation morphological components include specific
(Uzun, 1997). This rate is comprised of leaf areas and the distribution of assimilates
two essential components: physiological (Lambers et al., 1998). Together, these
and morphological aspects, collectively factors contribute to a comprehensive
 37
Naziha El-Bey et al.: Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Due to Variation of Sowing Time

understanding of a plant's growth dynamics period, exhibited a high growth rate, and the
and resource utilization. relative growth rate increased faster during
Research studies on safflower have the stem elongation period, coinciding with
presented varying patterns in the relative the rise in spring temperatures.
growth rate. For instance, Sahu et al. (2017)
observed fluctuations, with values ranging Net assimilation rate (NAR). Significant
between 25.0-26.0 mg g-1day-1 during the year effects were observed throughout all
30-60 days following sowing. Beyond 60 developmental stages, with the cultivar effect
days post-sowing, the relative growth rate playing a pivotal role specifically during stem
decreased to 4.0-5.0 mg g-1day-1. In a elongation periods. Moreover, the interaction
separate investigation, Hivare et al. (2019) effect between year and cultivar demonstrated
documented safflower's relative growth rate significance during both stem elongation and
at different growth stages. They reported flowering phases. Regarding the net
rates of 24.5 mg g-1day-1 between 40-60 days, assimilation rate, it was established that the
51.3 mg g-1day-1 from 60-80 days, and 12.7 impacts of sowing date, along with the
mg/g/day from 80-100 days after sowing. interaction effect of year and sowing date,
These findings highlight the dynamic nature were significant across all development
of safflower growth and the importance of periods. Notably, the variety-sowing date
considering multiple factors influencing interaction significantly influenced the net
relative growth rates in different stages of assimilation rate only in the rosette period.
development. Additionally, the triple interaction of year,
The relative growth rate serves as a trait variety, and sowing date exhibited a
influenced by various ecological factors. statistically significant impact on the net
Except for the flowering period, differences assimilation rate across all developmental
in the relative growth rate during all stages (Table 1). Throughout the development
developmental periods were notably affected stages, a noticeable increase in net assimilation
by variations in temperature, duration of rate was observed, reaching its peak during
sunshine, relative humidity, and precipitation the flowering period. Specifically, during the
levels between years. For example, the higher rosette, stem elongation, and flowering
relative growth rates observed in the second periods, the net assimilation rate varied
year, across all development periods except between 1.23, 1.55, and 10.39 g m-2 day-1,
the stem elongation stage, can be attributed to respectively. Notably, the Linas variety
a more evenly distributed precipitation demonstrated a higher net assimilation rate
pattern throughout the plant's growth cycle compared to the Olas variety during the
during that year. In contrast, in the first year, rosette, stem elongation, and flowering
significant rainfall was concentrated periods, recording values of 1.22, 1.60, and
primarily in the initial developmental periods 10.47 g m-2 day-1, respectively (Figure 4).
(rosette and stem elongation) during Distinct sowing times revealed varying
December, January, and March, with peaks in net assimilation rates under specific
respective amounts of 141.1, 153.6, and conditions. The rosette period recorded the
118.9 mm. The precipitation distribution highest net assimilation rate at the 1st sowing
reveals that the first year had more rainfall date (1.21 g m-2 day-1), while the stem
during the plant's vegetative phase, whereas elongation period exhibited the peak at the
the second-year experienced increased 4th sowing time (1.97 g m-2 day-1). Notably,
precipitation during the plant's generative the flowering period reached its highest net
phase (Figure 1). Different sowing dates had assimilation rate at the 3rd sowing time (11.56
a substantial effect on safflower relative g m-2 day-1) (Figure 4). When considering the
growth rate across all development periods. interplay between variety and sowing time,
Plants planted late in the stem elongation the rosette period saw the highest net
period, especially in the fourth planting assimilation rate during the 3rd sowing time
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for the Olas variety (31.6 g m-2 day-1) and the respectively. Moving to the flowering period,
1st sowing time for the Linas variety (31.4 g the Olas variety exhibited the highest net
m-2 day-1). In the stem elongation period, the assimilation rate at the 1st sowing time (8.7 g
peak occurred at the 4th sowing time for both m-2 day-1), while the Linas variety reached its
Olas and Linas varieties, registering rates of peak at the 4th sowing time (8.1 g m-2 day-1)
19.3 g m-2 day-1 and 19.7 g m-2 day-1, (Figure 4).

Table 1. Variance analysis table and F values of the LAI, RGR and NAR for the growth periods

Sources LAI RGR NAR

of Variation R SE F R SE F R SE F
Block 0.36 0.39 1.10 0.38 0.42 0.19 0.15 1.39 0.40
Year(Y) 61.90** 9.96* 319.22** 80.38** 14.19** 2.56 287.82** 397.96** 42.59**
Cultivar(C) 9.05** 0.03 2.09 0.28 0.33 0.27 0.32 22.70** 0.001
YxC 7.24* 5.39* 63.34** 0.11 1.36 8.82* 0.12 10.64** 11.58**
SD 27.36** 160.17** 167.84** 15.16** 104.03** 13.69** 7.04** 150.42** 5.33*
YxSD 151.07** 1318.59** 227.98** 52.86** 19.98** 2.81 78.64** 30.82** 5.19*
CxSD 12.92** 25.87** 113.27** 8.53** 2.25 5.30* 6.72** 1.25 2.17
YxCxSD 7.17** 59.82** 298.02** 9.49** 4.15* 6.92** 4.49* 3.78* 8.97**
CV (%) 9.16 7.22 9.38 1.70 1.27 0.89 6.84 7.30 5.98
*Significant at level 0.05 (p≤0.05), **Significant at level 0.01 (p≤0.01), SD = Sowing date, R = Rosette, SE = Stem
Elongation; F = Flowering.

The net assimilation rate, a component of linked to a plant's photosynthesis and

plant growth rate, serves as a crucial measure respiration rates, as noted by Uzun (1997).
indicating a plant's efficiency in producing Furthermore, it functions as a gauge of the
new dry matter per unit leaf area. This net carbon content and exhibits a strong
complex physiological variable is closely tied correlation with net photosynthesis, as
to the plant's photosynthesis and respiration highlighted by Lambers et al. (1998).
rates (Uzun, 1997). Additionally, it is Numerous studies underscore the significance
considered a measure of the net carbon of the net assimilation rate in influencing
content and is highly correlated with net plant growth and yield. Research, such as that
photosynthesis (Lambers et al., 1998). conducted by Yasari and Patwardhan (2006),
Numerous studies have highlighted the reveals that growth-related variables,
significance of the net assimilation rate in including leaf area index, net assimilation
plant growth and yield. It has been reported rate, and leaf chlorophyll content, tend to
that growth-related variables such as leaf area increase during the vegetative growth stage,
index, net assimilation rate and leaf reaching their peak at the flowering stage. In
chlorophyll content tend to increase in the a study by Hassan et al. (2015), a noteworthy
vegetative growth stage and peak at the positive relationship between the net
flowering stage (Yasari and Patwardhan, assimilation rate and seed yield was reported.
2006). Hassan et al. (2015) also reported that The net assimilation rate exhibited an
there was a significant positive relationship increasing trend from the time of sowing,
between the net assimilation rate and seed reaching its highest value on the 105th day,
yield, and that the net assimilation rate and subsequently declining until maturity.
increased from the time of sowing, reaching This emphasizes the dynamic nature of the
the highest amount on the 105th day, and then net assimilation rate throughout the plant's
decreased until maturity. life cycle and its pivotal role in influencing
The net assimilation rate, a key component overall growth and productivity. Several
of plant growth rate, serves as a critical researchers have explored the net assimilation
indicator of a plant's efficiency in generating rate of safflower, presenting a spectrum of
new dry matter per unit leaf area. This values. Omidi and Sharifmogadas (2010)
intricate physiological parameter is intricately documented rates ranging from 12.01 to 13.9
 39
Naziha El-Bey et al.: Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Due to Variation of Sowing Time

g m-2 day-1, while Naderi et al. (2005) (Hassan et al., 2015). While the net
reported values between 11.6 and 12.8 g m-2 assimilation rate values obtained in this
day-1. In a study conducted by Hivare et al. research align with certain prior studies on
(2019), the net assimilation rate exhibited safflower, variations from others are also
variability, starting at 1.56 g m-2 day-1 apparent. Moreover, the observed net
between 40-60 days after sowing and assimilation rate curve in this study bears
decreasing to 1.27 g m-2 day-1 between resemblance to the curve described by
80-100 days after sowing. Furthermore, the Moatshe et al. (2020) for safflower plants.
rate was recorded as 1.51-2.06 g m-2 day-1 at These findings highlight the nuanced
21 days after sowing, 3.03-4.29 g m-2 day-1 at nature of net assimilation rate in safflower,
63 days after sowing, 3.37-5.62 g m-2 day-1 at influenced by factors such as growth stage
105 days after sowing, and 1.18-2.35 g m-2 and environmental conditions, contributing
day-1 at 147 days after sowing, with a range to the diversity in reported values across
of 0.41-1.46 g m-2 day-1 during ripening different studies.

Figure 4. Effects of different sowing times on NAR of two safflower varieties at different growth stages.
(a) Olas, (b) Linas. S-1 = October 30th; S-2 = November 14th; S-3 = November 29th; S-4 = December 14th; R = Rosette;
SE = Stem Elongation; F = Flowering.

The net assimilation rate emerges as a progressed towards flowering. This suggests a
pivotal trait profoundly impacted by ecological dynamic responsiveness of the net assimilation
factors, with discernible variations throughout rate to varying planting times during summer
various plant development stages primarily vegetation, with delayed sowing potentially
attributed to fluctuations in temperature, contributing to heightened rates. Plausible
sunshine duration, relative humidity, and explanations include the influence of rising
precipitation levels across different years. temperatures, accumulated growth degree
Notably, the Linas cultivar displayed an days, and extended exposure to favourable
elevated net assimilation rate during the stem conditions. Furthermore, the net assimilation
elongation period, a trend potentially linked to rate in safflower is recognized to be
increased precipitation observed in the second significantly influenced by factors such as
year, particularly during stem elongation temperature, radiation, and nutrient
phases. Distinctive patterns in the net availability, as noted by Ahmadi et al. (2014).
assimilation rate were also observed in relation The association between greater radiation
to safflower's response to different sowing capture and increased assimilation production
dates across all growth periods. Early sown aligns with findings emphasizing the impact of
plants exhibited higher net assimilation rates these factors on the net assimilation rate, as
in the initial stages, especially during rosette reported by Hassan et al. (2015). This
periods, while late-sown safflower plants underscores the intricate interplay of
demonstrated increased rates as growth environmental variables in shaping the
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ROMANIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

net assimilation rate dynamics in safflower varieties, it was discerned that the Linas
plants. variety consistently exhibited a higher plant
Crop growth rate (CGR). Prominent growth rate than the Olas variety during the
findings from the study highlight the rosette, stem elongation, and flowering
substantial influence of the year factor on crop periods (1.67, 1.06, and 5.11 g m-2 day-1,
growth rate throughout all developmental respectively). However, during the harvest
stages. The cultivar effect exhibited period, the plant growth rate was 6.24 g m-2
significance during the rosette, stem day-1 for the Linas variety and 6.62 g m-2 day-1
elongation, and harvest periods, emphasizing for the Olas variety (Figure 5). Distinct
its role in shaping crop growth. Furthermore, sowing times revealed varying peak crop
the year-cultivar interaction demonstrated growth rates: the first sowing time yielded
significance across all developmental phases, the highest rate of 0.181 g m-2 day-1 during
except for the stem elongation period, the rosette periods, the fourth sowing time
indicating a dynamic interplay between these demonstrated a peak of 1.22 g m-2 day-1
factors. The significance of both the sowing during the stem elongation period, and the
date and the interaction effect of year-cultivar- third sowing time exhibited the highest rate
sowing date on crop growth rate was observed of 5.66 g m-2 day-1 during the flowering
across all developmental periods, excluding period. The consistent pattern of increasing
the harvest period. This underscores the crop growth rate from the rosette period to
importance of considering the timing of harvest was observed across all sowing times
sowing and its interplay with other factors in for both varieties. At harvest time, the highest
understanding crop growth dynamics. plant growth rate was 6.83 g m-2 day-1 for the
Additionally, the interaction effect of year x Olas variety at the fourth sowing time, while
sowing date displayed significance across all the Linas variety reached 7.1 g m-2 day-1 at
developmental periods except for the the second sowing time (Figure 3). These
flowering phase, further highlighting the findings provide valuable insights into the
nuanced relationship between these variables. dynamic patterns of plant growth rates
Lastly, the cultivar x sowing date influenced by variety and sowing timing
interaction emerged as a significant factor in across different developmental stages.
the rosette and harvest periods, underscoring Crop growth rate stands as a pivotal factor
the influence of the specific combination of influencing grain yield, with reported
cultivar and sowing date on crop growth rate variations across different studies. For
during these stages (Table 2). These findings instance, Sahu et al. (2017) noted a plant
collectively contribute to a comprehensive growth rate of 0.42-0.47 g m-2 day-1 30-60
understanding of the multifaceted factors days after sowing, decreasing to 0.21-0.33 g
influencing crop growth across different m-2 day-1 at harvest time. Hasan et al. (2015)
developmental periods. reported varied rates, ranging from 1.31-1.58
The average plant growth rate demonstrated g m-2 day-1 at 42 days after sowing to 0.46-
a notable increase across sequential 1.64 g m-2 day-1 during the ripening period.
developmental stages, progressing from the In contrast, Omidi and Sharifmogadas (2010)
rosette to stem elongation, flowering, and reported a higher crop growth rate during
finally reaching the harvest periods (0.163, the harvest period, ranging from 23.9-24.2 g
1.02, 5.10, and 6.43 g m-2 day-1, m-2 day-1.
respectively). When considering different
 41
Naziha El-Bey et al.: Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Due to Variation of Sowing Time

Figure 5. Effects of different sowing times on CGR of two safflower varieties at different growth stages.
(a) Olas, (b) Linas. S-1 = October 30th; S-2 = November 14th; S-3 = November 29th; S-4 = December 14th; R = Rosette;
SE = Stem Elongation; F = Flowering; H = Harvest.

The intricate dynamics of crop growth rate accumulation, and notably, a decreased leaf
are significantly influenced by ecological area index, collectively contributing to
factors. Variations in temperature, duration of diminished crop growth rates. These findings
sunshine, relative humidity, and precipitation underscore the intricate interplay of
levels between years played a substantial role environmental and management factors in
in shaping crop growth rates across all shaping crop growth rates.
developmental periods, except during the
harvest period. It's noteworthy that both Total dry matter (TDM). The impact of
excessively low and high temperatures can various factors on plant development and
have adverse effects on plant growth and dry matter accumulation was explored,
development. Conversely, within certain revealing significant trends. The year effect
limits, increased light intensity tends to demonstrated significance throughout all
accelerate plant growth (Mohret al., 2012). development periods, emphasizing its
The second year, characterized by more consistent influence. The cultivar effect
evenly distributed rainfall throughout the played a crucial role during the rosette and
growth cycle, exhibited the highest crop stem elongation periods, underscoring its
growth rates across all development periods importance in specific phases of plant
except the stem elongation stage. The growth. Additionally, the interaction effect of
distribution of precipitation, with more year x cultivar exhibited significance in the
rainfall during the vegetative phase in the rosette, flowering, and harvest periods,
first year and increased precipitation during suggesting a dynamic interplay between these
the generative phase in the second year, likely factors.
contributed to this observation (Figure 1). The effect of sowing date, year x sowing
Varietal differences were also observed, with date, and the interaction of year x cultivar x
the Linas variety showing a higher crop sowing date were all found to be significant
growth rate during the rosette and stem across all development periods, highlighting
elongation periods, while the Olas variety the importance of timing and its interaction
excelled during the harvest period. Early with other factors. Notably, the variety x
sowings, particularly the second sowing date, sowing date interaction proved significant in
consistently resulted in higher crop growth all development periods except the stem
rates across all development stages except for elongation period, further emphasizing the
the stem elongation period. In contrast, late nuanced relationship between variety and
sowings exhibited lower crop growth rates, sowing date (Table 2). Evaluating the total
influenced by factors such as reduced dry matter accumulation across developmental
sunshine duration, lower growth degree day periods revealed varying amounts. The Linas
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ROMANIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

variety exhibited higher total dry matter was obtained during the first sowing date.
amounts during the rosette and stem Consistent patterns were observed in both
elongation periods compared to the Olas safflower varieties, with the highest total dry
variety. Although not statistically significant, matter formation occurring at the second
the Olas variety recorded higher total dry sowing time in the stem elongation, flowering,
matter amounts during the flowering and and harvest periods, and at the first sowing
harvest periods. The highest total dry matter time in the rosette period (Figure 6). These
accumulation occurred during the second findings contribute valuable insights into the
sowing date, particularly during the stem multifaceted factors influencing dry matter
elongation, flowering, and harvest periods. In accumulation and plant development in
the rosette period, the highest total dry matter safflower.

Figure 6. Effects of different sowing times on Total Dry Matter of two safflower varieties at different growth stages.
(a) Olas, (b) Linas. S-1 = October 30th; S-2 = November 14th; S-3 = November 29th; S-4 = December 14th; R = Rosette;
SE = Stem Elongation; F = Flowering; H = Harvest.

Total dry matter is a critical quantitative amounts in safflower plants range from 630.2
trait with direct implications for yield and its to 965.3 g/cm2 (Soleymani and Shahrajabian,
components in safflower plant as the other 2011). During the developmental period at
plants. An increase in total dry matter is 40, 60, 80, and 100 days after planting, the
associated with elevated branch number, total dry matter amounts were reported as
capsule number, grain number, and grain 5.96, 9.72, 27.10 g, and 34.96 g, respectively
weight, contributing to enhanced productivity (Hivare et al., 2019).
per unit area. Reported total dry matter

Table 2. Variance analysis table and F values of the CGR and TDM for the growth periods

Sources Crop Growth Rate Total Dry Matter

of Variation R SE F H R SE F H
Block 0.15 0.41 0.59 1.22 2.66 0.35 1.51 2.39
Year(Y) 1162.37** 155.23** 67.14** 4.55* 29.43** 19.89** 418.70** 446.10**
Cultivar(C) 24.21** 11.83** 0.001 4.30* 110.55** 8.96* 2.03 0.84
YxC 17.82** 0.001 6.69* 6.95* 32.40** 0.03 33.65** 14.94**
SD 96.20** 180.88** 5.09* 3.18 35.51** 10.95** 20.17** 17.18**
YxSD 141.76** 180.70** 2.93 7.69** 40.87** 47.30** 15.64** 22.08**
CxSD 25.87** 0.98 1.24 5.06* 16.44** 0.39 26.67** 19.61**
YxCxSD 18.57** 5.64* 6.64** 0.55 3.99* 4.16* 10.58** 4.60*
CV (%) 3.30 9.07 7.52 6.76 7.91 7.31 9.83 8.80
*Significant at level 0.05 (p≤0.05), **Significant at level 0.01 (p≤0.01), SD = Sowing date, R = Rosette, SE = Stem
Elongation; F = Flowering, H = Harvest.

The total dry matter amount is particularly temperature and precipitation. In

significantly influenced by ecological factors, the second year of the experiment, where
 43
Naziha El-Bey et al.: Growth Pattern Analysis of Winter Sown Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
Due to Variation of Sowing Time

precipitation was evenly distributed Net assimilation rate and total dry matter
throughout the plant's development period, a were also significantly impacted by sowing
contrast was observed compared to the first time, with early sown plants generally
year, where precipitation concentrated solely outperforming in these aspects. Despite the
during initial development stages such as advantages of early sowing, considerations
emergence, rosette, and stem elongation. should be trait-specific, as exceptions were
Research indicates that the allocation of dry noted, particularly in the Net Assimilation
matter between vegetative and generative Rate during winter vegetation. The
organs varies significantly among varieties, recommendation is to tailor safflower
with early maturing and smaller-sized sowing decisions based on the specific trait
varieties tending to accumulate more total dry under consideration.
matter in generative organs compared to their
late-maturing and larger-sized counterparts ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(Baydar and Kara, 2010). Moreover, the total
dry matter amount is significantly affected We thank the Ondokuz Mayis University
by different planting dates across all (Project No: PYO.ZRT.1904.18.018) for
development periods. Early planting, support.
especially during the second planting time,
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