I.

Portrait of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth. It helps
make life possible by providing us with air to breathe, shielding us from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun, trapping heat to
warm the planet, and preventing extreme temperature differences between
day and night. Each of the planets in our solar system have an atmosphere,
but none of them have the same ratio of gases or layered structure as
Earth's atmosphere.

Gases in Earth's Atmosphere

Nitrogen and oxygen are by far the most common gases in Earth's
atmosphere. Dry air is composed of about 78% nitrogen (N2) and about
21% oxygen (O2). The remaining less than 1% of the atmosphere is a mixture
of gases, including Argon (Ar) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The atmosphere also
contains varying amounts of water vapor, on average about 1%. There are
also many, tiny, solid or liquid particles, called aerosols, in the atmosphere.
Aerosols can be made of dust, spores and pollen, salt from sea spray,
volcanic ash, smoke, and pollutants introduced through human activity.

Earth's Atmosphere Has Layers

The atmosphere becomes thinner (less dense and lower in air pressure) the
further it extends from the Earth's surface. It gradually gives way to the
vacuum of space. There is no precise top of the atmosphere, but the area
between 100-120 km (62-75 miles) above the Earth's surface is often
considered the boundary between the atmosphere and space because the
air is so thin here. However, there are measurable traces of atmospheric
gases beyond this boundary, detectable for hundreds of kilometers/miles
from Earth's surface.

There are several unique layers in Earth's atmosphere. Each has

characteristic temperatures, pressures, and phenomena. We live in
the troposphere, the layer closest to Earth's surface, where most clouds are
found and almost all weather occurs. Some jet aircraft fly in the next layer,
the stratosphere, which contains the jet streams and a region called the
ozone layer. The next layer, the mesosphere, is the coldest because there
are almost no air molecules there to absorb heat energy. There are so few
molecules for light to refract off of that the sky also changes from blue to
black in this layer. And farthest from the surface we have
the thermosphere, which absorbs much of the harmful radiation that reaches
Earth from the Sun, causing this layer to reach extremely high temperatures.
Beyond the thermosphere is the exosphere, which represents the transition
from Earth's atmosphere to space.

Planetary Atmospheres

Earth is not the only world with an atmosphere. Each of the planets - and
even a few moons - in our solar system have an atmosphere. Some planets
have active atmospheres with clouds, wind, rain and powerful storms.
Scientists use light spectroscopy to observe the atmospheres of planets and
moons in other solar systems .

Each of the planets in our solar system has a uniquely structured

atmosphere. The atmosphere of Mercury is extremely thin and is not very
different from the vacuum of space. The gas giant planets in our solar
system - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - each have a thick, deep
atmosphere. The smaller, rocky planets - Earth, Venus and Mars - each have
thinner atmospheres, hovering above their solid surfaces. The moons in our
solar system typically have thin atmospheres, with the exception of Saturn's
moon, Titan. Air pressure at the surface of Titan is higher than on Earth! Of
the five officially recognized dwarf planets, Pluto has a thin atmosphere that
expands and collapses seasonally, and Ceres has an extremely thin and
transient atmosphere made of water vapor.

But only Earth's atmosphere has the layered structure that traps enough of
the Sun's energy for warmth while also blocking much of the harmful
radiation from the Sun. This important balance is necessary to maintain life
on Earth.

II. Seasons and Solar Energy

What Causes Seasons on Earth?
Seasons happen because Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of about 23.4 degrees and
different parts of Earth receive more solar energy than others.
Earth's orbit around the Sun is elliptical. Seasons are caused by Earth's axial tilt and temperatures
and nature's processes are affected.

Because of Earth's axial tilt (obliquity), our planet orbits the Sun on a slant which means
different areas of Earth point toward or away from the Sun at different times of the year.
Around the June solstice, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun and the Northern
Hemisphere gets more of the Sun's direct rays. This is why June, July and August are summer
months in the Northern Hemisphere.

What Is the Equinox? And What Is the Solstice?

Equinoxes and solstices are a result of two things:
Earth’s tilt and its orbit around the Sun.
 Earth, like nearly all the planets, orbits the Sun in a tilted fashion.
©NASA Johnson Space Center

Earth spins once a day on its axis of rotation, an imaginary line running through the
North and South Poles. The spinning Earth orbits the Sun once a year, tracing out an
imaginary disk called the orbital plane or ecliptic plane.

Compared to its orbital plane, Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted by about 23.4 degrees.
This is referred to as Earth’s axial tilt or obliquity.

Earth’s axial tilt remains the same throughout the year. The North Pole always points
toward the star Polaris, while the South Pole points toward the much dimmer star
Polaris Australis. However, as Earth travels along its orbit, its tilt changes with respect
to the Sun.

For six months of the year, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun, and the Sun lies
somewhere above the Northern Hemisphere. For the other six months, the South Pole
is tilted toward the Sun, and the Sun lies somewhere overhead the Southern
Hemisphere.
Earth takes 12 months to complete one lap around the Sun. Between March and September, the Northern
Hemisphere receives more sunlight than the Southern Hemisphere. Between September and March, the
Southern Hemisphere receives more sunlight.

©timeanddate.com

The Equinoxes
There are only two moments each year when neither pole points toward the Sun, and
the Sun lies directly above Earth’s equator. These moments are the equinoxes.

The March equinox happens sometime between March 19 and 21. The September
equinox occurs sometime between September 21 and 24.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox is also known as the spring or vernal
equinox; the September equinox can be called the fall or autumnal equinox. In the
Southern Hemisphere, the names are the other way around.

On the date of the equinox, at any location, the lengths of day and night are roughly
equal.
The Solstices
The farthest points from the equator where the Sun can appear directly overhead are
referred to as the tropics.

The tropics are lines of latitude that circle the Earth above and below the equator, at
about 23.4 degrees north and south. This angle is set by Earth’s axial tilt.

There are two moments each year when one of Earth’s poles is tilted the most toward
the Sun, and the Sun lies directly above one of the tropics. These moments are the
solstices.

The June solstice takes place sometime between June 20 and 22, when the Sun is
directly above the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere. As a rough guide, the
Tropic of Cancer passes through Mexico, northern Africa, the Middle East, India, and
China.

The December solstice happens sometime between December 20 and 23, when the
Sun is directly over the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. In brief, the
Tropic of Capricorn runs through South America, southern Africa, and Australia.

A sign marks the approximate point where a road in Namibia, southern Africa, crosses the Tropic of
Capricorn.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the June solstice and December solstice can be referred to
as the summer solstice and winter solstice. In the Southern Hemisphere, June is winter
and December is summer.

On the date of the summer solstice, all locations in that hemisphere experience their
longest days and shortest nights. The winter solstice produces the shortest days and
longest nights.

Opposite Seasons
At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere points away from the Sun, creating winter
during the months of June, July and August. Summer in the Southern Hemisphere is
in December, January, and February, when the South Pole is tilted toward the Sun and
the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away.

Meteorological vs. astronomical seasons

Earth's axis is the imaginary red line.

timeanddate.com
Axis Tilts the Same Way
The direction of Earth's tilt nearly doesn't change – the two hemispheres point toward
the same position in space through the entire year. What does change, as Earth
revolves around the Sun, is the position of the hemispheres in relation to the Sun – the
Northern Hemisphere points toward the Sun during the northern summer and away from
the Sun during the northern winter.

Elliptical Path Around the Sun

Earth's path around the Sun is not circular, nor is the Sun situated at the center of this
path. Instead, Earth's orbit is elliptical, with the Sun closer to one end of the orbital path
than the other. This means that Earth’s distance from the Sun varies throughout the
year.

Distance Does Not Cause Seasons

Spring, summer, fall, and winter.

It is a common misconception that seasons occur because of Earth's elliptical orbit

around the Sun, with winter occurring when Earth is farthest away from the Sun, and
summer when it is closest to it.

However, our planet's distance from the Sun has little effect on the onset of seasons. In
fact, Earth is closest to the Sun, or at its Perihelion, around the Northern Hemisphere's
winter solstice, while it is farthest away from the Sun, or at its Aphelion, around the
north's summer solstice.

Little Difference

While the variation of Earth’s distance from the Sun isn’t very large, our planet receives
more solar energy when it is closest to the Sun during Southern Hemisphere's summer.
However, because there are relatively few landmasses south of the equator and oceans
take more time to heat up, the temperature difference between the northern and
southern summers is very small.

Solar Energy
Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. It is necessary for
life on Earth, and can be harvested for human uses such as electricity.

Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun.

Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. Fusion occurs
when protons of hydrogen atoms violently collide in the sun’s core and fuse to create a
helium atom.

This process, known as a PP (proton-proton) chain reaction, emits an enormous

amount of energy. In its core, the sun fuses about 620 million metric tons of hydrogen
every second. The PP chain reaction occurs in other stars that are about the size of
our sun, and provides them with continuous energy and heat. The temperature for
these stars is around 4 million degrees on the Kelvin scale (about 4 million degrees
Celsius, 7 million degrees Fahrenheit).

In stars that are about 1.3 times bigger than the sun, the CNO cycle drives the creation
of energy. The CNO cycle also converts hydrogen to helium, but relies on carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen (C, N, and O) to do so. Currently, less than 2% of the sun’s
energy is created by the CNO cycle.

Nuclear fusion by the PP chain reaction or CNO cycle releases tremendous amounts of
energy in the form of waves and particles. Solar energy is constantly flowing away from
the sun and throughout the solar system. Solar energy warms the Earth,
causes wind and weather, and sustains plant and animal life.

The energy, heat, and light from the sun flow away in the form of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR).

The electromagnetic spectrum exists as waves of different frequencies and

wavelengths. The frequency of a wave represents how many times the wave repeats
itself in a certain unit of time. Waves with very short wavelengths repeat themselves
several times in a given unit of time, so they are high-frequency. In contrast, low-
frequency waves have much longer wavelengths.

The vast majority of electromagnetic waves are invisible to us. The most high-
frequency waves emitted by the sun are gamma rays, X-rays, and ultraviolet
radiation (UV rays). The most harmful UV rays are almost completely absorbed by
Earth’s atmosphere. Less potent UV rays travel through the atmosphere, and can
cause sunburn.

The sun also emits infrared radiation, whose waves are much lower-frequency. Most
heat from the sun arrives as infrared energy.

Sandwiched between infrared and UV is the visible spectrum, which contains all the
colors we see on Earth. The color red has the longest wavelengths (closest to infrared),
and violet (closest to UV) the shortest.

How Do the Seasons Affect Solar Energy?

Energy production from solar panels can be dependent on the weather and position of
the Earth. Depending on various conditions, the output can be either high or low for a
particular day. But regardless of that, community solar in Massachusetts can be a great
alternative to invest in energy solutions without the equipment. So today, we’re going to
talk about seasons and solar panels. How much does the current season affect the
output of solar energy?
What factors affect solar energy outputs?
The amount of solar energy output is dependent on a few factors. While the
time of year is important, here are the most important factors in solar energy
output:

 Location

 Weather

 Time of Day/Length of Day

 Temperature

Location
First, the physical location of the solar panels is a significant factor. Depending on the
time of the year, the sun’s position and shadow change. Therefore, you must choose
the right spot for solar panels so they can take advantage of the peak hours of sunlight
in every season.

Weather
Second, the weather also plays an important role in output. Stormy weather and cloud
cover can limit how much sunlight actually reaches the solar panels. While they do
continue to produce energy, the output is not as much.

Time of Day
Thirdly, the time and length of the day affect the amount of production that can be
produced. In the winter months, the day’s length and visible sunlight are a lot shorter
than in the summer. Therefore, overall output tends to be less. But you’ll still be able to
save money on your overall energy bill!

Temperature
Lastly, the outside temperature actually plays an important role in how well the solar
panels can perform. In high, intense heat, solar panels produce less energy due to the
stress on the system. Thus, spring and fall temperatures are better for higher output.
 III. Water In the
Atmosphere: Composition
and Structure

What do you mean by water in the atmosphere? What are

the different types of rainfall? Learn more about the topic.

Water in the atmosphere plays an important role in weather

phenomena.

Water, the universal solvent, exists in the atmosphere in different

forms. Each of these forms has different characteristics and behaves
differently according to the change in the surroundings.

What do you mean by water in the

atmosphere?
There are three different forms of water in the atmosphere:
gaseous, liquid, and solid.

The gaseous form of water in the atmosphere is called

water vapour.

 It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.

 The amount of water in the atmosphere as a vapor form,
which affects meteorological phenomena, ranges from 0%
to 4% of the volume of the atmosphere (with an average
of 2%).
 Through evaporation from water bodies and transpiration
from plants, the atmosphere gets its moisture. Thus,
through the processes of evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, and precipitation, there is a constant
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the seas, and
the continents.
  With height, the amount of water vapour drops. It likewise
gets smaller as you get closer to the poles from the
equator (or from low latitudes) (or towards the high
latitudes).
 Its maximum amount of water in the atmosphere could be
up to 4% which is found in the warm and wet regions.
 Water in the atmosphere (vapour) retains the heat that the
planet radiates by absorbing some of the incoming solar
radiation (insolation) from the sun. As a result, it works as
a blanket, keeping the ground from getting too hot or too
cold.
 Water vapour also contributes to stability and instability in
the air.

Humidity
Water vapour present in the air is known as Humidity.

 Absolute humidity
 Relative humidity

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY

 Absolute humidity is the measure of the actual water

vapour content of the air.
 It is measured in terms of grams per cubic meter and
represents the weight of water vapour per volume of air.
 The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the
surface of the earth.
 The temperature of the air determines simply whether or
not it can hold water vapour (Warm air can hold more
moisture than cold air).

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

 The relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of

moisture in the air to its maximum capacity at a particular
temperature.
 The ability to hold moisture increases or decreases as the
air temperature changes and the relative humidity is also
impacted.
 Over oceans, the relative humidity is higher, whereas, over
continents, it is lower (absolute humidity is greater over
 oceans because of the greater availability of water for
evaporation).
 The amount and rate of evaporation are determined by the
relative humidity, making it a crucial climatic component.

DEW POINT

 At a specific temperature, the air is considered to be

saturated when it is fully saturated with moisture.
 It signifies that at that point, the air at the specified
temperature is unable to hold any more moisture.
 The dew point is the temperature at which a given sample
of air becomes saturated.
 Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity is 100%

Evaporation And Condensation

Water in the atmosphere consists of evaporation and condensation
forms.

EVAPORATION

 Water changes from a liquid to a gas through the process

of evaporation.
 Evaporation is mostly caused by heat. The latent heat of
vapourization is the term used to describe the
temperature at which water begins to evaporate.
 The given parcel of air can absorb and hold more water
when the temperature rises. Similar to this, low moisture
content air has the potential to absorb and hold moisture.
The saturated layer is replaced by the unsaturated layer
as a result of air movement. Therefore, evaporation
increases in direct proportion to air movement.

CONDENSATION

 It is the process by which water vapour turns into actual

water.
 Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.
 The degree of cooling and the relative humidity of the air
affect condensation.
  The amount of air present, the temperature, the pressure,
and the humidity all affect condensation.
 Both when the dew point is lower than the freezing point
and when it is greater than the freezing point,
condensation occurs.
 It takes place:

when the temperature of the air is dropped to dew point while

maintaining its volume constant (adiabatically);

when both the volume and the temperature are reduced;

And when moisture is added to the air through evaporation.

After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the

atmosphere takes one of the following forms — dew, frost, fog,
and clouds.

1. DEW

 Dew is formed when moisture is deposited as water

droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather than
nuclei in the air on the surface) such as stones, grass
blades, and plant leaves.
 The ideal conditions for its formation are a clear sky,
calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long
nights.

 For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew

point is above the freezing point.

2. FROST

 Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes

place below the freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point.
 Instead of water droplets, the extra moisture is deposited
as minute ice crystals.
 The optimum conditions for the creation of white frost are
the same as those for the formation of dew, with the
exception that the air temperature must be at or below
freezing.
 3. FOG

 When the temperature of an air mass containing a

substantial amount of water vapour suddenly drops,
condensation occurs on small dust particles inside the air
mass.
 So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near the
ground. Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
becomes poor to zero.

Radiation smog often arises at night when surface heat is

reflected into space. As the earth’s surface cools, the air becomes
completely humid, transforming into a fog.

Advection fog is similar to radiation fog in appearance, but it is

generated when warm moist air travels horizontally over a cold
surface, generating condensation. Sea fog is a typical kind of
advection smog.

Ice fog is formed from ice crystals. Ice fog forms when the air
temperature is below freezing.

Freezing fog is made up of supercooled water droplets that turn

from liquid to ice when they come into touch with a cold surface.
Objects exposed to freezing fog frequently develop ice covering.

Fog is generally associated with hazardous driving

conditions. Because drivers cannot see very far in front of them
(oftentimes, their depth perception becomes skewed), foggy
weather can cause many dangerous accidents.

 Smoke generates a large number of nuclei that aid in the

development of fog and mist in urban and industrial areas.
Smog is a phenomenon that occurs when fog and smoke
mingle.

COMPARISON BETWEEN FOG AND SMOG

Fog Smog
Water droplets condensed around Water droplets condensed around

a dust particle. a particle of pollutant like SO2.

It reduces visibility and damages

Reduces visibility.
the crops.

Causes health issues.

4. Clouds

 A cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or microscopic

ice crystals generated by the condensation of water
vapour in free air at high altitudes.
 As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface
of the earth, they take various shapes.
 According to their height, expanse, density, and
transparency or opaqueness, clouds are grouped under
four types :

1. CIRRUS

 Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 –

12,000m)
 They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery
appearance.
 They are always white.
 2. CUMULUS

 Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.

 These are generally formed at a height of 4,000 – 7,000 m.
 They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and
there.
 These clouds have a flat base.

3. STRATUS

 These are layered clouds covering large portions of the

sky.
 These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of
heat or the mixing of air masses with different
temperatures.

4. NIMBUS

 Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey.

 They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of
the earth.
 These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the
sun.
 Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the

following types of clouds:

1. High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;

2. Middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;
3. Low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus (long
duration rainfall cloud) and
4. Clouds with extensive vertical development –
cumulus and cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)
Precipitation
After condensation, the release of moisture is known as
precipitation.

It can occur in the following forms:

Rain: Precipitation in the form of water is called rain.

Drizzle: It sprays like rainfall which is very slow with water droplets
having 0.5mm diameter. They mostly happen via stratus clouds.

Snow: When the temperature falls below 0° C, precipitation falls in

the form of thin flakes of snow and is referred to as snowfall.
Hexagonal crystals are formed as a result of the discharge of
moisture. These crystals combine to make snowflakes.

Sleet: It’s made of frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow.

Sleet forms when a layer of air with a temperature above freezing
overlies a layer of air with a temperature below freezing near the
ground.

Types Of Rainfall
Based on origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types
– convectional, orographic or relief, and cyclonic or frontal.

Convectional Rainfall

 Convectional rainfall happens when the sun’s energy heats

the Earth’s surface, forcing water to evaporate and
produce water vapour.
 When the land warms, the air above it warms as well. As a
result, the air expands and rises. The rising air cools and
condenses. This condensation mechanism creates clouds
high in the atmosphere.
 This type of rainfall is very common in tropical areas.
 Because convective clouds are more vertical than
horizontal, their strength changes rapidly and across a
smaller area.
 In the tropics, convective rainfall results in hail storms
whereas in mid-latitudes it results in cold fronts, squalls,
and warm fronts.
Orographic Rainfall

 When warm wet air is blocked by a mountain, it climbs to

a high altitude along the mountain slope.
 It condenses at high altitudes, resulting in severe rains.
This is referred to as orographic rainfall.

Cyclonic Rain

 Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale.

 Precipitation in a tropical cyclone is convectional, whereas
precipitation in a temperate cyclone is due to frontal
activity.

World Distribution of Rainfall

 Different places on the earth’s surface receive different

amounts of rainfall in a year.
 Rainfall steadily decreases as we move from the equator
to the pole.
 The equatorial zone and the monsoon region of Southeast
Asia have the most rainfall. Precipitation is modest in the
middle latitudes, but it is scarce in the desert regions of
the subtropics and around the poles.
 Rain is greater on the eastern shores between latitudes
35° and 40° N and S of the equator and gradually
decreases towards the west. However, due to the
westerlies, rainfall is first obtained on the western borders
of the continents and then decreases towards the east
between 45° and 65° N and S of the equator.
 Major precipitation regimes of the world are characterized
based on total yearly precipitation as follows: o The trade
winds from both hemispheres converge in the equatorial
belt, causing a general upward motion of air that becomes
intensified locally in tropical storms that produce very
heavy rains in the Caribbean, the Indian and southwest
Pacific oceans, and the China Sea, as well as
thunderstorms that are particularly frequent and active
over land areas.
 Rainfall in the interior continental areas is moderate,
ranging from 100 to 200 cm per year. The continents’
coastal parts receive a moderate quantity of rainfall.
 Rainfall in the central tropical area and the eastern and
inner temperate lands ranges between 50 and 100 cm per
 year.
 Low precipitation at high latitudes, particularly in the polar
regions, is caused partly by the subsidence of air in high-
pressure belts and partly by cold temperatures. Snow and
rainfall from time to time, but evaporation from the
freezing sea and land surfaces is slow, and the frigid air
has limited moisture capacity.