LECTURE 1: Introduction into Antenna Studies

(Definition and circuit theory description. Brief historical notes. General

review of antenna geometries and arrangements. Wireless vs. cable
communication systems. The radio-frequency spectrum.)

1. Definition and circuit theory description

The antenna (aerial, EM radiator) is a device, which radiates or

receives electromagnetic waves.

The antenna is the transition between a guiding device (transmission line,

waveguide) and free space (or another usually unbounded medium). Its purpose
is to convert the energy of a guided wave into the energy of a free-space wave
(or vice versa) efficiently while at the same time the radiated power has a
certain desired pattern of distribution in space. At lower frequencies, where
the cross-section of the transmission line is negligible relative to the wavelength
(TEM transmission lines such as coaxial and twin-lead cables, microstrip and
coplanar waveguide printed lines), we can view the antenna as a device that
converts free-space EM waves into voltage/current signals or vice versa.

a) Thevenin equivalent circuit of a radiating (transmitting, Tx) antenna

ZG Rrad
IA

VG Zc jX A
RL
Generator
Antenna

Zin

VG - voltage-source generator (transmitter)

ZG - impedance of the generator (transmitter)
Zc - characteristic impedance of the connecting TL
Rrad - radiation resistance (relates to the radiated power as Prad = I A2 ⋅ Rrad )
RL - loss resistance (related to conduction and dielectric losses)

Nikolova 2023 1
 jX A - antenna reactance
Zin - input impedance of feed network as seen from antenna terminals
Z A = ( Rrad + RL ) + jX A - antenna impedance

One of the most important tasks in antenna design is the impedance

matching of the antenna to the transmission line (TL) and the generator
( Z A = Z in∗ ) . Matching is often measured in terms of the voltage standing-wave
ratio (VSWR or just SWR). Standing waves are avoided in high-power RF
systems (radar, broadcasting) because they may cause arching or discharge in
the TL. But the main benefit of good impedance match (with low SWR) is the
maximum power transfer to/from the antenna.
Minimizing conduction (metals) and polarization (dielectric) loss
(represented by RL in Thevenin’s equivalent) is also desirable. The losses
decrease the efficiency of the antenna. On the other hand, in special applications
such as ultra-wideband (UWB) antennas in imaging and radar, the antenna
resistance may be increased intentionally in order to improve the bandwidth and
suppress “ringing” in the transmitted or received signals.

b) Thevenin equivalent circuit of a receiving (Rx) antenna

ZA
IA

ZL Zc VA

Receiver Antenna

Z ou
Zou - output impedance of the antenna-plus-feed network, which serves
as a signal generator as seen from the receiver terminals

The antenna is a critical component in a wireless communication system. A

good design of the antenna can relax the system requirements and improve its
overall performance.

Nikolova 2023 2
 2. Brief historical notes

• James Clerk Maxwell formulates the mathematical model

of electromagnetism (classical electro-dynamics), “A
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism”, 1873. He shows
that light is an electromagnetic (EM) wave, and that all
EM waves propagate through space with the same speed,
the speed of light.

• Heinrich Rudolph Hertz demonstrates in 1886 the first

wireless EM wave system: a λ / 2 -dipole is excited with
a spark; it radiates predominantly at λ ≈ 8 m; a spark
appears in the gap of a receiving loop some 20 m away.
In 1890, he publishes his memoirs on electrodynamics,
replacing all potentials by field strengths1.

• May 7, 1895, a telegraph communication link is

demonstrated by the Russian scientist, Alexander
Popov. A message is sent from a Russian Navy ship
30 miles out in sea, all the way to his lab in St.
Petersburg, Russia. This accomplishment is little
known today.
• In 1892, Tesla delivers a presentation at the IRE of
London about “transmitting intelligence without
wires,” and, in 1895, he transmits signals detected 80
km away. His patent on wireless links precedes that
of Marconi.
• Guglielmo Marconi sends signals over large
distances and successfully commercializes wireless
communication systems. In 1901, he performs the
first transatlantic transmission from Poldhu in
Cornwall, England, to Newfoundland, Canada. He
receives the Nobel prize for his work in 1909.

1
Similar work on replacing the EM vector/scalar potentials with field vectors is done at about the same time by the English
scientist Oliver Heaviside.
Nikolova 2023 3
• The beginning of 20th century (until WW2) marks the boom in wire-antenna
technology (dipoles and loops) and in wireless technology as a whole,
which is largely due to the invention of the DeForest triode tube, used as a
radio-frequency (RF) generator. Radio links are realized up to UHF (about
500 MHz) and over thousands of kilometers.
• WW2 marks a new era in wireless communications and antenna technology.
The invention of new microwave generators (magnetrons and klystrons)
leads to the development of the microwave antennas such as waveguide
apertures, horns, reflectors, etc. It also marks the advent of radar detection
and imaging.

3. General review of antenna geometries and arrangements

3.1. Single-element radiators
A. Wire radiators (single-element)

wire antenna elements

straight-wire elements
loops helices
(dipoles/monopoles)

There is a variety of shapes corresponding to each group. For example, loops

can be circular, square, rhombic, etc. Wire antennas are simple to make but their
dimensions are commensurable with a wavelength. This limits the frequency
range of their applicability. At low frequencies, these antennas become
increasingly large. At very high frequencies, they are very small and the
parasitics become difficult to control.

Nikolova 2023 4
 B. Aperture antennas (single element)

Aperture antennas were

developed before and during
WW2 together with waveguide
technology. Waveguides were
primarily developed to transfer
high-power microwave signals
(cm wavelengths), generated
by high-power sources such as
(Q-par Angus)
magnetrons and klystrons.
(a) pyramidal horn These types of antennas are
preferable in the frequency
range from 1 to 20 GHz.

[Radiometer Physics Gmbh]

(b) conical horn

www.quinstar.com

www.labvolt.com

(c) open rectangular waveguides

Nikolova 2023 5
 [Quinstar Technology Inc.]
(d) double-ridge horns (TEM, linear polarization, ultra-wide band)

[TMC Design Corp.]

(e) quad-ridge horns (TEM, dual linear polarization allowing for many
types of polarization depending on feed, ultra-wide band)

www.spie.org

[ZAX Millimeter Wave Corp.]

(f) corrugated horns (symmetric patterns, low side lobes, low cross-
polarization), often used as primary feeds in reflector antennas

Nikolova 2023 6
 C. Printed antennas
The patch antennas consist of a metallic pattern (e.g., a patch) etched on a
dielectric substrate, which may have a grounded metallic plane at the opposite
side. They have been first proposed in the beginning of 1970s. There is a great
variety of geometries and ways of excitation. Modern integrated antennas often
use multi-layer designs with a feed coupled to the radiator electromagnetically
(no galvanic contact).

PRINTED PATCH RADIATORS

rectangular patch circular patch

(c)
printed dipole

Nikolova 2023 7
 2.56
0.64
x2 x3
0.64

x1
1.92

x3
0.64

x1
1.92

reflector

(d)
double-layer printed Yagi with microstrip feed

Nikolova 2023 8
 (e)
printed monopole antenna

Various shapes used to form a radiating patch:

Nikolova 2023 9
 PRINTED SLOT RADIATORS

Slot antennas were

developed in the 1980s and
there is still research on new
shapes and types of excitation.
They are suited for integration
with slot-line circuits, which
are usually designed to operate
(a) (b) at frequencies above 10 GHz.
Popular slot antenna in the
microwave range is the Vivaldi
slot (see a).

Patch and slot antennas share

some common features. They
are easy and cheap to fabricate.
(c) (d) They are easy to mount; they
are light and mechanically
robust. They have low cross-
polarization radiation. Their
directivity is not very high.
They have relatively high
conducting and dielectric
losses. These radiators are
widely used in patch/slot
(e) (f) arrays, which are esp.
convenient for use in
spacecraft, satellites, missiles,
cars and other mobile
applications.

(g) (h)

Nikolova 2023 10
 http://www.radartutorial.eu/06.antennas/Tapered%20Slot%20Antenna.en.html
(i) UWB printed tapered slot (Vivaldi) antenna

(i) UWB printed antipodal antenna with suppressed back-radiation

Nikolova 2023 11
 D. Leaky-wave antennas

These are antennas derived from millimeter-wave (mm-wave) guides, such

as dielectric guides, differential microstrip lines, coplanar and slot lines. They
are developed for applications at frequencies above 30 GHz, infrared
frequencies included. Periodic discontinuities are introduced at the end of the
guide leading to substantial radiation leakage (radiation from the dielectric
surface). These are traveling-wave antennas.

Dielectric-image guides with gratings

Printed leaky-wave antennas

Nikolova 2023 12
 E. Reflector antennas
A reflector of a receiving antenna is used to concentrate the EM energy in a
focal point where the feed to the receiver is located. Astronomers have long
used mirrors shaped as parabolic surfaces to transforms rays from a source in a
focal point into a bundle of parallel rays. A parabolic-cylinder reflector was first
used for radio waves by Heinrich Hertz in 1888. Reflectors are usually parabolic
but spherical and corner reflectors are also used. Reflector antennas have very
high gain and directivity. Typical applications include radio telescopes, satellite
communications and radars. These antennas are electrically very large with
their size being on the order of hundreds and thousands of wavelengths. They
are not easy to fabricate and in their conventional technology they are heavy.
Making them mechanically robust to wind, snow and rain may be a challenge.
The largest radio telescopes in the world:
• FAST China (Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope),
500-m diameter spherical reflector
• National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (USA) radio telescope in
Arecibo (Puerto Rico), 1000-ft (304.8-m) diameter spherical reflector
• Max Plank Institüt für Radioastronomie radio telescope, Effelsberg
(Germany), 100-m-diameter paraboloidal reflector
• The Green Bank Telescope (the National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
– paraboloid of aperture 100-m diameter

TYPICAL REFLECTORS

Nikolova 2023 13
 The Radio Telescope of the Arecibo Observatory

F. Lens antennas

Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector antennas. They

collimate divergent energy into a plane EM wave. Lenses are often preferred to
reflectors at higher frequencies (f > 100 GHz). They are classified according to
their shape and the material they are made of.

Nikolova 2023 14
Nikolova 2023 15
 3.2. Antenna arrays
Antenna arrays consist of multiple (usually identical) radiating elements.
Arranging the radiating elements in arrays allows for achieving unique radiation
characteristics, which cannot be obtained through a single element. The careful
choice and control of the phase shift and the amplitude of the signal fed to each
element allows for the electronic control of the radiation pattern, i.e., for
electronic scanning. Such arrays are called phased arrays. The design and the
analysis of antenna arrays is a subject of its own and is also related to signal
processing and communication theory. Research is ongoing in the subjects of
smart antennas, MIMO antennas, tracking antennas, etc. Some commonly met
arrays are shown in the figure below.

Nikolova 2023 16
 NRAO/ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter Array): array of radio telescopes

Array of Microstrip Patches Reflectarray of Printed Elements

Nikolova 2023 17
4. Wireless vs. cable communication systems
There are two broad categories of communication systems: those that utilize
transmission lines as interconnections (cable or wire systems), and those that
use EM radiation with an antenna at both the transmitting and the receiving end
(wireless systems).
In areas of high density population, the cable systems are economically
preferable, especially when broadband communication is in place. Even for
narrow-band communication, such as voice telephony and low-data-rate digital
transmission, it is much simpler and cheaper to build wire networks with
twisted-pair cables, when many users are to be interconnected. Such lines
introduce very little attenuation at low frequencies, e.g., at about 10 kHz the
loss is 2-3 dB/km. At higher frequencies, however, the losses increase and so
does the signal dispersion. At 10 MHz, a twisted-pair cable has a typical loss
value of 7 dB per 100 meters.
At high-frequency carriers for broadband signals (TV transmission and
high-data-rate digital transmission), coaxial cables are commonly used. At 1
GHz, the loss of a typical high-quality coaxial cable is around 2 dB per 100
meters (power decreases about 100.2 ≈ 1.6 times). In the USA, the cable loss is
rated in dB per 100 feet, so a good coaxial cable has about 0.6 dB/100ft loss.
The least distortion and losses are offered by the optical-fiber transmission
lines, which operate at three different (infrared) wavelengths: 850 nm (≈ 2.3
dB/km), 1300 nm (≈ 0.25 dB/km) and 1550 nm (≈ 0.25 dB/km). Optical fibers
are expensive and so is the respective transmitting/receiving equipment.
Transmission lines provide a measure of security and noise-suppression
(coaxial, optical-fiber), but they are not the best option in many cases (long-
haul transmission, wide spread user network over large areas).
A fundamental feature of all transmission lines is the exponential increase
of the lost (dissipated) power. On a dB scale, this means that the power loss is
proportional to the transmission-line length. Thus, if the loss is 5 dB/km, then
a 20-km line has 100 dB power loss (input power is reduced by a factor of
10−10 ) , a 40-km line will have a 200 dB power (loss factor of 10−20 ). This is
why wireless systems are preferred for long-range communications and in
scarcely populated areas.
NOTE: Exponential power loss over a distance d in a transmission line is
described by the expression P(d ) = P0 e −2α d . Thus, the loss in dB is

Nikolova 2023 18
 P0
LdB (d ) = = 10log10 e2α d = 20α log10 e ⋅ d . (1)
P(d )
Here, α is the attenuation constant of the transmission line. From (1) it follows
that the power loss in dB is proportional to the distance travelled d (the length
of the cable).

In most wireless channels, the radiated power per unit area (power-flow
density) decreases as the inverse square of the distance r between the
transmitting and the receiving point. Doubling the distance r would decrease
the received power by a factor of 4 (or about 6 dB are added to the loss). Thus,
if a particular system has a 100 dB loss at r = 20 km, doubling the distance will
result in 106 dB loss (as compared to 200 dB loss in a cable system). A
comparison between the coax-line losses and free-space attenuation at f = 100
MHz is given in the figure below.

(Fig. 33 in Siwiak, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications)

Nikolova 2023 19
Example:
A coaxial cable has a loss Lc = 0.21 dB/m. A transmitter sends power PTx = 1
W through this cable. This same transmitter is used in a wireless link with
transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) antennas such that the power received by
the Rx antenna PRxw at a distance of d1 = 1 m from the Tx antenna is the same as
the power received at the end of the coaxial cable if this cable’s length was
d1 = 1 m, i.e., PRxw (d1 ) = PRx
c
(d1 ) .
a. Find the attenuation constant α of the coaxial cable in Np/m.
b. What is the power PRxw (d1 ) = PRx c
(d1 ) received in the cable and the wireless
links if the distance travelled by the signal is d1 = 1 m.
c
c. What is the power PRx (d 2 ) received in the cable link and the power
PRxw (d 2 ) received in the wireless link if d 2 = 400 m?

Solution:
a. Attenuation constant of cable in Np/m
c
PRx (d ) = PTx e −2α d . (2)
When d = 1 m,
P  P 
e2α = c Tx  Lc[dB/m] = 10log10  c Tx  = 20α log10 e (3)
PRx (1m)  PRx (1m) 
Lc[dB/m] 0.21
α = ≈ ≈ 0.02417714 Np/m (4)
20 ⋅ log10 e 20 ⋅ 0.4342944819

b. Received power over distance d1 = 1 m

c
PRx (d1 = 1m) = PTx e −2α = 1 ⋅ e −2⋅0.02417714 ≈ 0.952796 W (5)
The same answer can be obtained by using Lc (in dB/m) directly:
c
PRx (1m) = PTx 10− Lc /10 =10−0.021 ≈ 0.952796 W . (6)
This is also the power of the wireless link at a distance of 1 m:
PRxw (d1 = 1m) = PRx c
(d1 ) = 0.952796 W . (7)

c. Received power values over distance d 2 = 400 m

There are 3 ways of calculating the Rx power in the cable link.
Method 1:
c
PRx ( d 2 = 400m) = PTx e −2α ⋅400 = e −800⋅0.02417714 ≈ 3.981071 ⋅ 10 −9 W (8)
Nikolova 2023 20
Method 2:
c
PRx c
(d 2 = 400m) = PRx (1m)⋅e −2α ⋅399 = 0.952796⋅e −7980.02417714
⋅
⋅ −9 W (9)
≈ 3.98107110
Method 3:
c = 400⋅ Lc = 400⋅0.21= 84 dB  PRx (400m) =10
−8.4
L400 c
⋅ −9 W (10)
≈ 3.98107110

In dB:
c
PRx (400m)[dB] =10log10  PRx
c
( )
(400m)  =10log10 10−8.4 ≈−84 dB . (11)

In the wireless link, the power decays as the inverse square of the distance from
the Tx antenna:
a
PRxw (d ) = 2 , (12)
d
where a is some constant. This constant can be determined if we know the
wireless received power at some distance. In our case, this is d1 =1 m:
a
PRxw (1m) = PRx
c
(1m) = 2  a = PRx c
(1m) = 0.952796 W ⋅m 2 . (13)
1
 d12  0.952796
 PRx (400m) = PRx (1m)  2  ≈
w w
2
≈ 5.954975⋅10−6 W (−52.25 dB) (14)
 d2  400
w c
We see that RRx (400m) is greater than RRx (400m) by three orders of
magnitude (about 30 dB).

Modern personal mobile communications services

• cordless telephony
• cellular telephony
• mobile voice and data (3G, 4G, now 5G, coming 6G)
• short-range communications: Bluetooth; Wi-Fi and WiMAX networks
• personal satellite communications
• global positioning and navigation systems (GPS)
• body-centric communication systems (bio-telemetry and bio-sensing)

Besides, there is a variety of special application of wireless technology in

• radar systems in navigation, guidance, defense, missile, etc.

Nikolova 2023 21
 • imaging radars (synthetic aperture radar (SAR), microwave and
millimeter-wave imaging in nondestructive testing and biomedical
diagnostics)
• automotive radar
• remote-control vehicles (RCV), unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV, aka
drones)
• microwave relay links and repeaters
• satellite systems (TV, telephony, military)
• radio astronomy
• biomedical engineering (MRI, microwave imaging, hyperthermia)
• RF identification (RFID)
• animal (migration) tracking, etc.

Nikolova 2023 22
5. The radio-frequency spectrum

Table 1.1: General designation of frequency bands

Frequency band EM wavelength Designation Services
3-30 kHz 100-10 km Very Low Frequency Navigation, sonar♣, submarine
(VLF)

30-300 kHz 10-1 km Low Frequency (LF) Radio beacons, navigation

300-3000 kHz 1000-100 m Medium Frequency AM broadcast, maritime/ coast-

(MF) guard radio

3-30 MHz 100-10 m High Frequency Telephone, telegraph, fax; amateur

(HF) radio, ship-to-coast and ship-to-
aircraft communication

30-300 MHz 10-1 m Very High Frequency TV, FM broadcast, air traffic
(VHF) control, police, taxicab mobile radio

300-3000 MHz 100-10 cm Ultrahigh Frequency TV, satellite, radiosonde, radar,

(UHF) cellular (GSM, PCS)

3-30 GHz 10-1 cm Super high Frequency Airborne radar, microwave links,
(SHF) satellite, land mobile
communication

30-300 GHz 10-1 mm Extremely High Radar, experimental

Frequency (EHF)

Table 2.1: Microwave-band designation

Frequency Old New
500-1000 MHz VHF C
1-2 GHz L D
2-3 GHz S E
3-4 GHz S F
4-6 GHz C G
6-8 GHz C H
8-10 GHz X I
10-12.4 GHz X J
12.4-18 GHz Ku J
18-20 GHz K J
20-26.5 GHz K K
26.5-40 GHz Ka K

♣
Sonar (an acronym for Sound, Navigation and Ranging) is a system for underwater detection and location of objects by
acoustical echo. The first sonars, invented during World War I by British, American and French scientists, were used to
locate submarines and icebergs. Sonar is an American term dating from World War II.
Nikolova 2023 23