Visit https://ebookfinal.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

Lectures On The Geometry Of Manifolds 2nd

Edition Liviu I. Nicolaescu

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-the-
geometry-of-manifolds-2nd-edition-liviu-i-nicolaescu/

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookfinal.com

Here are some suggested products you might be interested in.
Click the link to download

Lectures on the Topology of 3 Manifolds an Introduction to

the Casson Invariant 2ed. Edition Nikolai Saveliev

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-the-topology-
of-3-manifolds-an-introduction-to-the-casson-invariant-2ed-edition-
nikolai-saveliev/

Lectures on Geometry 1st Edition N M J Woodhouse (Ed.)

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-geometry-1st-edition-n-m-
j-woodhouse-ed/

Lectures on Electromagnetism 2nd Edition Ashok Das

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-electromagnetism-2nd-
edition-ashok-das/

Lectures on Quantum Field Theory 2nd Edition Ashok Das

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-quantum-field-theory-2nd-
edition-ashok-das/
Lectures on international trade 2nd Edition Jagdish N.
Bhagwati

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-international-trade-2nd-
edition-jagdish-n-bhagwati/

Fourier Analysis on Polytopes and the Geometry of Numbers

Part I A Friendly Introduction 1st Edition Sinai Robins

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fourier-analysis-on-polytopes-and-the-
geometry-of-numbers-part-i-a-friendly-introduction-1st-edition-sinai-
robins/

Lectures on the theory of pure motives Murre J.P.

https://ebookfinal.com/download/lectures-on-the-theory-of-pure-
motives-murre-j-p/

Dynamics on Lorentz Manifolds 1st Edition Scot Adams

https://ebookfinal.com/download/dynamics-on-lorentz-manifolds-1st-
edition-scot-adams/

Beginning Excel Services Liviu Asnash

https://ebookfinal.com/download/beginning-excel-services-liviu-asnash/
Lectures On The Geometry Of Manifolds 2nd Edition
Liviu I. Nicolaescu Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Liviu I. Nicolaescu
ISBN(s): 9789812770295, 9812770291
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 2.33 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Lectures on the Geometry of Manifolds

Liviu I. Nicolaescu

July 27, 2007

Introduction

Shape is a fascinating and intriguing subject which has stimulated the imagination of
many people. It suffices to look around to become curious. Euclid did just that and came
up with the first pure creation. Relying on the common experience, he created an abstract
world that had a life of its own. As the human knowledge progressed so did the ability of
formulating and answering penetrating questions. In particular, mathematicians started
wondering whether Euclid’s “obvious” absolute postulates were indeed obvious and/or
absolute. Scientists realized that Shape and Space are two closely related concepts and
asked whether they really look the way our senses tell us. As Felix Klein pointed out
in his Erlangen Program, there are many ways of looking at Shape and Space so that
various points of view may produce different images. In particular, the most basic issue
of “measuring the Shape” cannot have a clear cut answer. This is a book about Shape,
Space and some particular ways of studying them.
Since its inception, the differential and integral calculus proved to be a very versatile
tool in dealing with previously untouchable problems. It did not take long until it found
uses in geometry in the hands of the Great Masters. This is the path we want to follow
in the present book.
In the early days of geometry nobody worried about the natural context in which the
methods of calculus “feel at home”. There was no need to address this aspect since for the
particular problems studied this was a non-issue. As mathematics progressed as a whole
the “natural context” mentioned above crystallized in the minds of mathematicians and
it was a notion so important that it had to be given a name. The geometric objects which
can be studied using the methods of calculus were called smooth manifolds. Special cases
of manifolds are the curves and the surfaces and these were quite well understood. B.
Riemann was the first to note that the low dimensional ideas of his time were particular
aspects of a higher dimensional world.
The first chapter of this book introduces the reader to the concept of smooth manifold
through abstract definitions and, more importantly, through many we believe relevant
examples. In particular, we introduce at this early stage the notion of Lie group. The
main geometric and algebraic properties of these objects will be gradually described as we
progress with our study of the geometry of manifolds. Besides their obvious usefulness in
geometry, the Lie groups are academically very friendly. They provide a marvelous testing
ground for abstract results. We have consistently taken advantage of this feature through-
out this book. As a bonus, by the end of these lectures the reader will feel comfortable
manipulating basic Lie theoretic concepts.
To apply the techniques of calculus we need “things to derivate and integrate”. These

i
ii

“things” are introduced in Chapter 2. The reason why smooth manifolds have many
differentiable objects attached to them is that they can be locally very well approximated
by linear spaces called tangent spaces . Locally, everything looks like traditional calculus.
Each point has a tangent space attached to it so that we obtain a “bunch of tangent spaces”
called the tangent bundle. We found it appropriate to introduce at this early point the
notion of vector bundle. It helps in structuring both the language and the thinking.
Once we have “things to derivate and integrate” we need to know how to explicitly
perform these operations. We devote the Chapter 3 to this purpose. This is perhaps
one of the most unattractive aspects of differential geometry but is crucial for all further
developments. To spice up the presentation, we have included many examples which
will found applications in later chapters. In particular, we have included a whole section
devoted to the representation theory of compact Lie groups essentially describing the
equivalence between representations and their characters.
The study of Shape begins in earnest in Chapter 4 which deals with Riemann manifolds.
We approach these objects gradually. The first section introduces the reader to the notion
of geodesics which are defined using the Levi-Civita connection. Locally, the geodesics
play the same role as the straight lines in an Euclidian space but globally new phenomena
arise. We illustrate these aspects with many concrete examples. In the final part of this
section we show how the Euclidian vector calculus generalizes to Riemann manifolds.
The second section of this chapter initiates the local study of Riemann manifolds.
Up to first order these manifolds look like Euclidian spaces. The novelty arises when we
study “second order approximations ” of these spaces. The Riemann tensor provides the
complete measure of how far is a Riemann manifold from being flat. This is a very involved
object and, to enhance its understanding, we compute it in several instances: on surfaces
(which can be easily visualized) and on Lie groups (which can be easily formalized). We
have also included Cartan’s moving frame technique which is extremely useful in concrete
computations. As an application of this technique we prove the celebrated Theorema
Egregium of Gauss. This section concludes with the first global result of the book, namely
the Gauss-Bonnet theorem. We present a proof inspired from [25] relying on the fact
that all Riemann surfaces are Einstein manifolds. The Gauss-Bonnet theorem will be a
recurring theme in this book and we will provide several other proofs and generalizations.
One of the most fascinating aspects of Riemann geometry is the intimate correlation
“local-global”. The Riemann tensor is a local object with global effects. There are cur-
rently many techniques of capturing this correlation. We have already described one in
the proof of Gauss-Bonnet theorem. In Chapter 5 we describe another such technique
which relies on the study of the global behavior of geodesics. We felt we had the moral
obligation to present the natural setting of this technique and we briefly introduce the
reader to the wonderful world of the calculus of variations. The ideas of the calculus of
variations produce remarkable results when applied to Riemann manifolds. For example,
we explain in rigorous terms why “very curved manifolds” cannot be “too long” .
In Chapter 6 we leave for a while the “differentiable realm” and we briefly discuss the
fundamental group and covering spaces. These notions shed a new light on the results
of Chapter 5. As a simple application we prove Weyl’s theorem that the semisimple Lie
groups with definite Killing form are compact and have finite fundamental group.
Chapter 7 is the topological core of the book. We discuss in detail the cohomology
 iii

of smooth manifolds relying entirely on the methods of calculus. In writing this chapter
we could not, and would not escape the influence of the beautiful monograph [17], and
this explains the frequent overlaps. In the first section we introduce the DeRham coho-
mology and the Mayer-Vietoris technique. Section 2 is devoted to the Poincaré duality, a
feature which sets the manifolds apart from many other types of topological spaces. The
third section offers a glimpse at homology theory. We introduce the notion of (smooth)
cycle and then present some applications: intersection theory, degree theory, Thom iso-
morphism and we prove a higher dimensional version of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem at the
cohomological level. The fourth section analyzes the role of symmetry in restricting the
topological type of a manifold. We prove Élie Cartan’s old result that the cohomology
of a symmetric space is given by the linear space of its bi-invariant forms. We use this
technique to compute the lower degree cohomology of compact semisimple Lie groups. We
conclude this section by computing the cohomology of complex grassmannians relying on
Weyl’s integration formula and Schur polynomials. The chapter ends with a fifth section
containing a concentrated description of Čech cohomology.
Chapter 8 is a natural extension of the previous one. We describe the Chern-Weil
construction for arbitrary principal bundles and then we concretely describe the most im-
portant examples: Chern classes, Pontryagin classes and the Euler class. In the process,
we compute the ring of invariant polynomials of many classical groups. Usually, the con-
nections in principal bundles are defined in a global manner, as horizontal distributions.
This approach is geometrically very intuitive but, at a first contact, it may look a bit
unfriendly in concrete computations. We chose a local approach build on the reader’s ex-
perience with connections on vector bundles which we hope will attenuate the formalism
shock. In proving the various identities involving characteristic classes we adopt an invari-
ant theoretic point of view. The chapter concludes with the general Gauss-Bonnet-Chern
theorem. Our proof is a variation of Chern’s proof.
Chapter 9 is the analytical core of the book. Many objects in differential geometry
are defined by differential equations and, among these, the elliptic ones play an important
role. This chapter represents a minimal introduction to this subject. After presenting
some basic notions concerning arbitrary partial differential operators we introduce the
Sobolev spaces and describe their main functional analytic features. We then go straight
to the core of elliptic theory. We provide an almost complete proof of the elliptic a
priori estimates (we left out only the proof of the Calderon-Zygmund inequality). The
regularity results are then deduced from the a priori estimates via a simple approximation
technique. As a first application of these results we consider a Kazhdan-Warner type
equation which recently found applications in solving the Seiberg-Witten equations on
a Kähler manifold. We adopt a variational approach. The uniformization theorem for
compact Riemann surfaces is then a nice bonus. This may not be the most direct proof but
it has an academic advantage. It builds a circle of ideas with a wide range of applications.
The last section of this chapter is devoted to Fredholm theory. We prove that the elliptic
operators on compact manifolds are Fredholm and establish the homotopy invariance of the
index. These are very general Hodge type theorems. The classical one follows immediately
from these results. We conclude with a few facts about the spectral properties of elliptic
operators.
The last chapter is entirely devoted to a very important class of elliptic operators
iv

namely the Dirac operators. The important role played by these operators was singled
out in the works of Atiyah and Singer and, since then, they continue to be involved in the
most dramatic advances of modern geometry. We begin by first describing a general notion
of Dirac operators and their natural geometric environment, much like in [11]. We then
isolate a special subclass we called geometric Dirac operators. Associated to each such
operator is a very concrete Weitzenböck formula which can be viewed as a bridge between
geometry and analysis, and which is often the source of many interesting applications. The
abstract considerations are backed by a full section describing many important concrete
examples.
In writing this book we had in mind the beginning graduate student who wants to
specialize in global geometric analysis in general and gauge theory in particular. The
second half of the book is an extended version of a graduate course in differential geometry
we taught at the University of Michigan during the winter semester of 1996.
The minimal background needed to successfully go through this book is a good knowl-
edge of vector calculus and real analysis, some basic elements of point set topology and
linear algebra. A familiarity with some basic facts about the differential geometry of
curves of surfaces would ease the understanding of the general theory, but this is not a
must. Some parts of Chapter 9 may require a more advanced background in functional
analysis.
The theory is complemented by a large list of exercises. Quite a few of them contain
technical results we did not prove so we would not obscure the main arguments. There
are however many non-technical results which contain additional information about the
subjects discussed in a particular section. We left hints whenever we believed the solution
is not straightforward.

Personal note It has been a great personal experience writing this book, and I sincerely
hope I could convey some of the magic of the subject. Having access to the remarkable
science library of the University of Michigan and its computer facilities certainly made my
job a lot easier and improved the quality of the final product.
I learned differential equations from Professor Viorel Barbu, a very generous and en-
thusiastic person who guided my first steps in this field of research. He stimulated my
curiosity by his remarkable ability of unveiling the hidden beauty of this highly technical
subject. My thesis advisor, Professor Tom Parker, introduced me to more than the funda-
mentals of modern geometry. He played a key role in shaping the manner in which I regard
mathematics. In particular, he convinced me that behind each formalism there must be
a picture, and uncovering it, is a very important part of the creation process. Although
I did not directly acknowledge it, their influence is present throughout this book. I only
hope the filter of my mind captured the full richness of the ideas they so generously shared
with me.
My friends Louis Funar and Gheorghe Ionesei 1 read parts of the manuscript. I am
grateful to them for their effort, their suggestions and for their friendship. I want to thank
Arthur Greenspoon for his advice, enthusiasm and relentless curiosity which boosted my
spirits when I most needed it. Also, I appreciate very much the input I received from the
1
He passed away in 2006. He was the ultimate poet of mathematics.
 i

graduate students of my “Special topics in differential geometry” course at the University

of Michigan which had a beneficial impact on the style and content of this book.
At last, but not the least, I want to thank my family who supported me from the
beginning to the completion of this project.

Ann Arbor, 1996.

Preface to the second edition

Rarely in life is a man given the chance to revisit his “youthful indiscretions”. With
this second edition I have been given this opportunity, and I have tried to make the best
of it.
The first edition was generously sprinkled with many typos, which I can only attribute
to the impatience of youth. In spite of this problem, I have received very good feedback
from a very indulgent and helpful audience from all over the world.
In preparing the new edition, I have been engaged on a massive typo hunting, supported
by the wisdom of time, and the useful comments that I have received over the years from
many readers. I can only say that the number of typos is substantially reduced. However,
experience tells me that Murphy’s Law is still at work, and there are still typos out there
which will become obvious only in the printed version.
The passage of time has only strengthened my conviction that, in the words of Isaac
Newton, “in learning the sciences examples are of more use than precepts”. The new
edition continues to be guided by this principle. I have not changed the old examples, but
I have polished many of my old arguments, and I have added quite a large number of new
examples and exercises.
The only major addition to the contents is a new chapter on classical integral geometry.
This is a subject that captured my imagination over the last few years, and since the first
edition of this book developed all the tools needed to understand some of the juiciest
results in this area of geometry, I could not pass the chance to share with a curious reader
my excitement about this line of thought.
One novel feature in our presentation of integral geometry is the use of tame geometry.
This is a recent extension of the better know area of real algebraic geometry which allowed
us to avoid many heavy analytical arguments, and present the geometric ideas in as clear
a light as possible.

Notre Dame, 2007.

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

1 Manifolds 1
1.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
§1.1.1 Space and Coordinatization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
§1.1.2 The implicit function theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Smooth manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
§1.2.1 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
§1.2.2 Partitions of unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
§1.2.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
§1.2.4 How many manifolds are there? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Natural Constructions on Manifolds 21

2.1 The tangent bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
§2.1.1 Tangent spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
§2.1.2 The tangent bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
§2.1.3 Sard’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
§2.1.4 Vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
§2.1.5 Some examples of vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 A linear algebra interlude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
§2.2.1 Tensor products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
§2.2.2 Symmetric and skew-symmetric tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
§2.2.3 The “super” slang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
§2.2.4 Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
§2.2.5 Some complex linear algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3 Tensor fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
§2.3.1 Operations with vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
§2.3.2 Tensor fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
§2.3.3 Fiber bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3 Calculus on Manifolds 76
3.1 The Lie derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
§3.1.1 Flows on manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
§3.1.2 The Lie derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
§3.1.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2 Derivations of Ω∗ (M ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

ii
CONTENTS iii

§3.2.1 The exterior derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

§3.2.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.3 Connections on vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
§3.3.1 Covariant derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
§3.3.2 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
§3.3.3 The curvature of a connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
§3.3.4 Holonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
§3.3.5 The Bianchi identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
§3.3.6 Connections on tangent bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.4 Integration on manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
§3.4.1 Integration of 1-densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
§3.4.2 Orientability and integration of differential forms . . . . . . . . . . . 111
§3.4.3 Stokes’ formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
§3.4.4 Representations and characters of compact Lie groups . . . . . . . . 123
§3.4.5 Fibered calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4 Riemannian Geometry 134

4.1 Metric properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
§4.1.1 Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
§4.1.2 The Levi-Civita connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
§4.1.3 The exponential map and normal coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
§4.1.4 The length minimizing property of geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
§4.1.5 Calculus on Riemann manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.2 The Riemann curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
§4.2.1 Definitions and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
§4.2.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
§4.2.3 Cartan’s moving frame method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
§4.2.4 The geometry of submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
§4.2.5 The Gauss-Bonnet theorem for oriented surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5 Elements of the Calculus of Variations 184

5.1 The least action principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
§5.1.1 The 1-dimensional Euler-Lagrange equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
§5.1.2 Noether’s conservation principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.2 The variational theory of geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
§5.2.1 Variational formulæ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
§5.2.2 Jacobi fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

6 The Fundamental group and Covering Spaces 204

6.1 The fundamental group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
§6.1.1 Basic notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
§6.1.2 Of categories and functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.2 Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
§6.2.1 Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
§6.2.2 Unique lifting property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
iv CONTENTS

§6.2.3 Homotopy lifting property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

§6.2.4 On the existence of lifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
§6.2.5 The universal cover and the fundamental group . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

7 Cohomology 218
7.1 DeRham cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
§7.1.1 Speculations around the Poincaré lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
§7.1.2 Čech vs. DeRham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
§7.1.3 Very little homological algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
§7.1.4 Functorial properties of the DeRham cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . 231
§7.1.5 Some simple examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
§7.1.6 The Mayer-Vietoris principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
§7.1.7 The Künneth formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2 The Poincaré duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
§7.2.1 Cohomology with compact supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
§7.2.2 The Poincaré duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.3 Intersection theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
§7.3.1 Cycles and their duals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
§7.3.2 Intersection theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
§7.3.3 The topological degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
§7.3.4 Thom isomorphism theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
§7.3.5 Gauss-Bonnet revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.4 Symmetry and topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
§7.4.1 Symmetric spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
§7.4.2 Symmetry and cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
§7.4.3 The cohomology of compact Lie groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
§7.4.4 Invariant forms on Grassmannians and Weyl’s integral formula . . . 276
§7.4.5 The Poincaré polynomial of a complex Grassmannian . . . . . . . . 284
7.5 Čech cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
§7.5.1 Sheaves and presheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
§7.5.2 Čech cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

8 Characteristic classes 305

8.1 Chern-Weil theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
§8.1.1 Connections in principal G-bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
§8.1.2 G-vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
§8.1.3 Invariant polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
§8.1.4 The Chern-Weil Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.2 Important examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
§8.2.1 The invariants of the torus T n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
§8.2.2 Chern classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
§8.2.3 Pontryagin classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
§8.2.4 The Euler class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
§8.2.5 Universal classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.3 Computing characteristic classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
CONTENTS v

§8.3.1 Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

§8.3.2 The Gauss-Bonnet-Chern theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

9 Classical Integral Geometry 349

9.1 The integral geometry of real Grassmannians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
§9.1.1 Co-area formulæ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
§9.1.2 Invariant measures on linear Grassmannians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
§9.1.3 Affine Grassmannians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.2 Gauss-Bonnet again?!? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
§9.2.1 The shape operator and the second fundamental form of a subman-
ifold in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
§9.2.2 The Gauss-Bonnet theorem for hypersurfaces of an Euclidean space. 375
§9.2.3 Gauss-Bonnet theorem for domains in an Euclidean space . . . . . . 380
9.3 Curvature measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
§9.3.1 Tame geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
§9.3.2 Invariants of the orthogonal group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
§9.3.3 The tube formula and curvature measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
§9.3.4 Tube formula =⇒ Gauss-Bonnet formula for arbitrary submanifolds 403
§9.3.5 Curvature measures of domains in an Euclidean space . . . . . . . . 405
§9.3.6 Crofton Formulæ for domains of an Euclidean space . . . . . . . . . 408
§9.3.7 Crofton formulæ for submanifolds of an Euclidean space . . . . . . . 418

10 Elliptic Equations on Manifolds 426

10.1 Partial differential operators: algebraic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
§10.1.1 Basic notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
§10.1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
§10.1.3 Formal adjoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.2 Functional framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
§10.2.1 Sobolev spaces in RN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
§10.2.2 Embedding theorems: integrability properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
§10.2.3 Embedding theorems: differentiability properties . . . . . . . . . . . 451
§10.2.4 Functional spaces on manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.3 Elliptic partial differential operators: analytic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
§10.3.1 Elliptic estimates in RN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
§10.3.2 Elliptic regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
§10.3.3 An application: prescribing the curvature of surfaces . . . . . . . . . 470
10.4 Elliptic operators on compact manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
§10.4.1 The Fredholm theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
§10.4.2 Spectral theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
§10.4.3 Hodge theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

11 Dirac Operators 498

11.1 The structure of Dirac operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
§11.1.1 Basic definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
§11.1.2 Clifford algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
CONTENTS 1

§11.1.3 Clifford modules: the even case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

§11.1.4 Clifford modules: the odd case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
§11.1.5 A look ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
§11.1.6 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
§11.1.7 Spinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
§11.1.8 Low dimensional examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
§11.1.9 Dirac bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
11.2 Fundamental examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
§11.2.1 The Hodge-DeRham operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
§11.2.2 The Hodge-Dolbeault operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
§11.2.3 The spin Dirac operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
§11.2.4 The spinc Dirac operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Chapter 1

Manifolds

1.1 Preliminaries

§1.1.1 Space and Coordinatization Mathematics is a natural science with a special

modus operandi. It replaces concrete natural objects with mental abstractions which serve
as intermediaries. One studies the properties of these abstractions in the hope they reflect
facts of life. So far, this approach proved to be very productive.
The most visible natural object is the Space, the place where all things happen. The
first and most important mathematical abstraction is the notion of number. Loosely
speaking, the aim of this book is to illustrate how these two concepts, Space and Number,
fit together.
It is safe to say that geometry as a rigorous science is a creation of ancient Greeks.
Euclid proposed a method of research that was later adopted by the entire mathematics.
We refer of course to the axiomatic method. He viewed the Space as a collection of points,
and he distinguished some basic objects in the space such as lines, planes etc. He then
postulated certain (natural) relations between them. All the other properties were derived
from these simple axioms.
Euclid’s work is a masterpiece of mathematics, and it has produced many interesting
results, but it has its own limitations. For example, the most complicated shapes one
could reasonably study using this method are the conics and/or quadrics, and the Greeks
certainly did this. A major breakthrough in geometry was the discovery of coordinates
by René Descartes in the 17th century. Numbers were put to work in the study of Space.
Descartes’ idea of producing what is now commonly referred to as Cartesian coor-
dinates is familiar to any undergraduate. These coordinates are obtained using a very
special method (in this case using three concurrent, pairwise perpendicular lines, each one
endowed with an orientation and a unit length standard. What is important here is that
they produced a one-to-one mapping

Euclidian Space → R3 , P 7−→ (x(P ), y(P ), z(P )).

We call such a process coordinatization. The corresponding map is called (in this case)
Cartesian system of coordinates. A line or a plane becomes via coordinatization an alge-
braic object, more precisely, an equation.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

r
θ

Figure 1.1: Polar coordinates

In general, any coordinatization replaces geometry by algebra and we get a two-way

correspondence
Study of Space ←→ Study of Equations.
The shift from geometry to numbers is beneficial to geometry as long as one has efficient
tools do deal with numbers and equations. Fortunately, about the same time with the
introduction of coordinates, Isaac Newton created the differential and integral calculus
and opened new horizons in the study of equations.
The Cartesian system of coordinates is by no means the unique, or the most use-
ful coordinatization. Concrete problems dictate other choices. For example, the polar
coordinates represent another coordinatization of (a piece of the plane) (see Figure 1.1).

P 7→ (r(P ), θ(P )) ∈ (0, ∞) × (−π, π).

This choice is related to the Cartesian choice by the well known formulae
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ. (1.1.1)
A remarkable feature of (1.1.1) is that x(P ) and y(P ) depend smoothly upon r(P ) and
θ(P ).
As science progressed, so did the notion of Space. One can think of Space as a configu-
ration set, i.e., the collection of all possible states of a certain phenomenon. For example,
we know from the principles of Newtonian mechanics that the motion of a particle in the
ambient space can be completely described if we know the position and the velocity of the
particle at a given moment. The space associated with this problem consists of all pairs
(position, velocity) a particle can possibly have. We can coordinatize this space using six
functions: three of them will describe the position, and the other three of them will de-
scribe the velocity. We say the configuration space is 6-dimensional. We cannot visualize
this space, but it helps to think of it as an Euclidian space, only “roomier”.
There are many ways to coordinatize the configuration space of a motion of a particle,
and for each choice of coordinates we get a different description of the motion. Clearly,
1.1. PRELIMINARIES 3

all these descriptions must “agree” in some sense, since they all reflect the same phenom-
enon. In other words, these descriptions should be independent of coordinates. Differential
geometry studies the objects which are independent of coordinates.
The coordinatization process had been used by people centuries before mathematicians
accepted it as a method. For example, sailors used it to travel from one point to another
on Earth. Each point has a latitude and a longitude that completely determines its
position on Earth. This coordinatization is not a global one. There exist four domains
delimited by the Equator and the Greenwich meridian, and each of them is then naturally
coordinatized. Note that the points on the Equator or the Greenwich meridian admit two
different coordinatizations which are smoothly related.
The manifolds are precisely those spaces which can be piecewise coordinatized, with
smooth correspondence on overlaps, and the intention of this book is to introduce the
reader to the problems and the methods which arise in the study of manifolds. The next
section is a technical interlude. We will review the implicit function theorem which will
be one of the basic tools for detecting manifolds.

§1.1.2 The implicit function theorem We gather here, with only sketchy proofs,
a collection of classical analytical facts. For more details one can consult [26].
Let X and Y be two Banach spaces and denote by L(X, Y ) the space of bounded
linear operators X → Y . For example, if X = Rn , Y = Rm , then L(X, Y ) can be identified
with the space of m × n matrices with real entries.
Definition 1.1.1. Let F : U ⊂ X → Y be a continuous function (U is an open subset of
X). The map F is said to be (Fréchet) differentiable at u ∈ U if there exists T ∈ L(X, Y )
such that
kF (u0 + h) − F (u0 ) − T hkY = o(khkX ) as h → 0. u
t
Loosely speaking, a continuous function is differentiable at a point if, near that point,
it admits a “ best approximation ” by a linear map.
When F is differentiable at u0 ∈ U , the operator T in the above definition is uniquely
determined by
d 1
Th = |t=0 F (u0 + th) = lim (F (u0 + th) − F (u0 )) .
dt t→0 t

We will use the notation T = Du0 F and we will call T the Fréchet derivative of F at u0 .
Assume that the map F : U → Y is differentiable at each point u ∈ U . Then F is said
to be of class C 1 , if the map u 7→ Du F ∈ L(X, Y ) is continuous. F is said to be of class
C 2 if u 7→ Du F is of class C 1 . One can define inductively C k and C ∞ (or smooth) maps.
Example 1.1.2. Consider F : U ⊂ Rn → Rm . Using Cartesian coordinates x =
(x1 , . . . , xn ) in Rn and u = (u1 , . . . , um ) in Rm we can think of F as a collection of
m functions on U

u1 = u1 (x1 , . . . , xn ), . . . , um = um (x1 , . . . , xn ).

The map F is differentiable at a point p = (p1 , . . . , pn ) ∈ U if and only if the functions ui

are differentiable at p in the usual sense of calculus. The Fréchet derivative of F at p is
4 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

the linear operator Dp F : Rn → Rm given by the Jacobian matrix

 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 
∂x1
(p) ∂x2
(p) ··· ∂xn (p)
 
∂(u1 , . . . , um )  ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2


Dp F = = ∂x1
(p) ∂x2
(p) ··· ∂xn (p) .
∂(x1 , . . . , xn )  .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
∂um ∂um ∂um
∂x1
(p) ∂x2
(p) ··· ∂xn (p)

The map F is smooth if and only if the functions ui (x) are smooth. u
t

Exercise 1.1.3. (a) Let U ⊂ L(Rn , Rn ) denote the set of invertible n × n matrices. Show
that U is an open set.
(b) Let F : U → U be defined as A → A−1 . Show that DA F (H) = −A−1 HA−1 for any
n × n matrix H.
(c) Show that the Fréchet derivative of the map det : L(Rn , Rn ) → R, A 7→ det A, at
A = 1Rn ∈ L(Rn , Rn ) is given by tr H, i.e.,

d
|t=0 det(1Rn + tH) = tr H, ∀H ∈ L(Rn , Rn ). u
t
dt

Theorem 1.1.4 (Inverse function theorem). Let X, Y be two Banach spaces, and F :
U ⊂ X → Y a smooth function. If at a point u0 ∈ U the derivative Du0 F ∈ L(X, Y )
is invertible, then there exits a neighborhood U1 of u0 in U such that F (U1 ) is an open
neighborhood of v0 = F (u0 ) in Y and F : U1 → F (U1 ) is bijective, with smooth inverse. u
t

The spirit of the theorem is very clear: the invertibility of the derivative Du0 F “prop-
agates” locally to F because Du0 F is a very good local approximation for F .
More formally, if we set T = Du0 F , then

F (u0 + h) = F (u0 ) + T h + r(h),

where r(h) = o(khk) as h → 0. The theorem states that, for every v sufficiently close to
v0 , the equation F (u) = v has a unique solution u = u0 + h, with h very small. To prove
the theorem one has to show that, for kv − v0 kY sufficiently small, the equation below

v0 + T h + r(h) = v

has a unique solution. We can rewrite the above equation as T h = v − v0 − r(h) or,
equivalently, as h = T −1 (v − v0 − r(h)). This last equation is a fixed point problem that
can be approached successfully via the Banach fixed point theorem.

Theorem 1.1.5 (Implicit function theorem). Let X, Y , Z be Banach spaces, and

F : X × Y → Z a smooth map. Let (x0 , y0 ) ∈ X × Y , and set z0 = F (x0 , y0 ). Set
F2 : Y → Z, F2 (y) = F (x0 , y). Assume that Dy0 F2 ∈ L(Y, Z) is invertible. Then there
exist neighborhoods U of x0 ∈ X, V of y0 ∈ Y , and a smooth map G : U → V such that
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 5

the set S of solution (x, y) of the equation F (x, y) = z0 which lie inside U × V can be
identified with the graph of G, i.e.,
© ª © ª
(x, y) ∈ U × V ; F (x, y) = z0 = (x, G(x)) ∈ U × V ; x ∈ U .

In pre-Bourbaki times, the classics regarded the coordinate y as a function of x defined

implicitly by the equality F (x, y) = z0 .
Proof. Consider the map

H : X × Y → X × Z, ξ = (x, y) 7→ (x, F (x, y)).

The map H is a smooth map, and at ξ0 = (x0 , y0 ) its derivative Dξ0 H : X × Y → X × Z

has the block decomposition
· ¸
1X 0
Dξ0 H = .
Dξ0 F1 Dξ0 F2

Above, DF1 (respectively DF2 ) denotes the derivative of x 7→ F (x, y0 ) (respectively the
derivative of y 7→ F (x0 , y)). The linear operator Dξ0 H is invertible, and its inverse has
the block decomposition
 
1X 0
(Dξ0 H)−1 =  .
−1 −1
− (Dξ0 F2 ) ◦ (Dξ0 F1 ) (Dξ0 F2 )

Thus, by the inverse function theorem, the equation (x, F (x, y)) = (x, z0 ) has a unique
solution (x̃, ỹ) = H −1 (x, z0 ) in a neighborhood of (x0 , y0 ). It obviously satisfies x̃ = x and
F (x̃, ỹ) = z0 . Hence, the set {(x, y) ; F (x, y) = z0 } is locally the graph of x 7→ H −1 (x, z0 ).
u
t

1.2 Smooth manifolds

§1.2.1 Basic definitions We now introduce the object which will be the main focus
of this book, namely, the concept of (smooth) manifold. It formalizes the general principles
outlined in Subsection 1.1.1.
Definition 1.2.1. A smooth manifold of dimension m is a locally compact, paracompact
Hausdorff space M together with the following collection of data (henceforth called atlas
or smooth structure) consisting of the following.

(a) An open cover {Ui }i∈I of M ;

© ª
(b) A collection of continuous, injective maps Ψi : Ui → Rm ; i ∈ I (called charts
or local coordinates) such that, Ψi (Ui ) is open in Rm , and if Ui ∩ Uj 6= ∅, then the
transition map

Ψj ◦ Ψ−1 m
i : Ψi (Ui ∩ Uj ) ⊂ R → Ψj (Ui ∩ Uj ) ⊂ R
m

is smooth. (We say the various charts are smoothly compatible; see Figure 1.2). u
t
6 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Uj
Ui

ψ ψ
i
j

ψ ψ −1
j i
m
m R
R

Figure 1.2: Transition maps

Each chart Ψi can be viewed as a collection of m functions (x1 , . . . , xm ) on Ui . Simi-

larly, we can view another chart Ψj as another collection of functions (y 1 , . . . , y m ). The
transition map Ψj ◦ Ψ−1
i can then be interpreted as a collection of maps
¡ ¢
(x1 , . . . , xm ) 7→ y 1 (x1 , . . . , xm ), . . . , y m (x1 , . . . , xm ) .

The first and the most important example of manifold is Rn itself. The natural smooth
structure consists of an atlas with a single chart, 1Rn : Rn → Rn . To construct more
examples we will use the implicit function theorem .

Definition 1.2.2. (a) Let M , N be two smooth manifolds of dimensions m and respec-
tively n. A continuous map f : M → N is said to be smooth if, for any local charts φ
on M and ψ on N , the composition ψ ◦ f ◦ φ−1 (whenever this makes sense) is a smooth
map Rm → Rn .
(b) A smooth map f : M → N is called a diffeomorphism if it is invertible and its inverse
is also a smooth map. u
t

Example 1.2.3. The map t 7→ et is a diffeomorphism (−∞, ∞) → (0, ∞). The map
t 7→ t3 is a homeomorphism R → R but it is not a diffeomorphism! u
t

If M is a smooth manifold we will denote by C ∞ (M ) the linear space of all smooth

functions M → R.

Remark 1.2.4. Let U be an open subset of the smooth manifold M (dim M = m) and
ψ : U → Rm a smooth, one-to one map with open image and smooth inverse. Then ψ
defines local coordinates over U compatible with the existing atlas of M . Thus (U, ψ) can
be added to the original atlas and the new smooth structure is diffeomorphic with the
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 7

initial one. Using Zermelo’s Axiom we can produce a maximal atlas (no more compatible
local chart can be added to it). u
t

Our next result is a general recipe for producing manifolds. Historically, this is how
manifolds entered mathematics.
Proposition 1.2.5. Let M be a smooth manifold of dimension m and f1 , . . . , fk ∈
C ∞ (M ). Define
© ª
Z = Z(f1 , . . . , fk ) = p ∈ M ; f1 (p) = · · · = fk (p) = 0 .

Assume that the functions f1 , . . . , fk are functionally independent along Z, i.e., for each
p ∈ Z, there exist local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xm ) defined in a neighborhood of p in M such
that xi (p) = 0, i = 1, . . . , m, and the matrix
 ∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 
1 2 · · · ∂xm
∂ f~ ∂x
 ..
∂x
. . .. 
|p :=  . .
. .
. . 
∂~x ∂fk ∂fk ∂fk
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂xm x1 =···=xm =0

has rank k. Then Z has a natural structure of smooth manifold of dimension m − k.

Proof. Step 1: Constructing the charts. Let p0 ∈ Z, and denote by (x1 , . . . , xm ) local
coordinates near p0 such that xi (p0 ) = 0. One of the k × k minors of the matrix
 ∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 
1 2 · · · ∂x m
∂ f~ ∂x
 ..
∂x
. . . 
|p :=  . .
. .
. .
. 
∂~x ∂fk ∂fk ∂fk
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂x m
x1 =···=xm =0

is nonzero. Assume this minor is determined by the last k columns (and all the k lines).
We can think of the functions f1 , . . . , fk as defined on an open subset U of Rm . Split
R as Rm−k × Rk , and set
m

x0 := (x1 , . . . , xm−k ), x00 := (xm−k+1 , . . . , xm ).

We are now in the setting of the implicit function theorem with

X = Rm−k , Y = Rk , Z = Rk ,

and F : X × Y → Z given by
 
f1 (x)
 ..  k
x 7→  . ∈R .
fk (x))
¡ ∂F ¢
In this case, DF2 = ∂x 00 : Rk → Rk is invertible since its determinant corresponds to
our nonzero minor. Thus, in a product neighborhood Up0 = Up0 0 × Up000 of p0 , the set Z is
the graph of some function

g : Up0 0 ⊂ Rm−k −→ Up000 ⊂ Rk ,

8 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

i.e., © ª
Z ∩ Up0 = (x0 , g(x0 ) ) ∈ Rm−k × Rk ; x0 ∈ Up0 0 , |x0 | small .
We now define ψp0 : Z ∩ Up0 → Rm−k by
ψp
( x0 , g(x0 ) ) 7−→
0
x0 ∈ Rm−k .
The map ψp0 is a local chart of Z near p0 .
Step 2. The transition maps for the charts constructed above are smooth. The details
are left to the reader. u
t

Exercise 1.2.6. Complete Step 2 in the proof of Proposition1.2.5. u

t

Definition 1.2.7. Let M be a m-dimensional manifold. A codimension k submanifold

of M is a subset N ⊂ M locally defined as the common zero locus of k functionally
independent functions f1 , . . . , fk ∈ C ∞ (M ). u
t

Proposition1.2.5 shows that any submanifold N ⊂ M has a natural smooth structure

so it becomes a manifold per se. Moreover, the inclusion map i : N ,→ M is smooth.

§1.2.2 Partitions of unity This is a very brief technical subsection describing a trick
we will extensively use in this book.
Definition 1.2.8. Let M be a smooth manifold and (Uα )α∈A an open cover of M . A
(smooth) partition of unity subordinated to this cover is a family (fβ )β∈B ⊂ C ∞ (M )
satisfying the following conditions.
(i) 0 ≤ fβ ≤ 1.
(ii) ∃φ : B → A such that supp fβ ⊂ Uφ(β) .
(iii) The family (supp fβ ) is locally finite, i.e., any point x ∈ M admits an open neigh-
borhood intersecting only finitely many of the supports supp fβ .
P
(iv) β fβ (x) = 1 for all x ∈ M . u
t

We include here for the reader’s convenience the basic existence result concerning
partitions of unity. For a proof we refer to [95].
Proposition 1.2.9. (a) For any open cover U = (Uα )α∈A of a smooth manifold M there
exists at least one smooth partition of unity (fβ )β∈B subordinated to U such that supp fβ
is compact for any β.
(b) If we do not require compact supports, then we can find a partition of unity in which
B = A and φ = 1A . u
t

Exercise 1.2.10. Let M be a smooth manifold and S ⊂ M a closed submanifold. Prove

that the restriction map
r : C ∞ (M ) → C ∞ (S) f 7→ f |S
is surjective. u
t
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 9

§1.2.3 Examples Manifolds are everywhere, and in fact, to many physical phenom-
ena which can be modelled mathematically one can naturally associate a manifold. On
the other hand, many problems in mathematics find their most natural presentation using
the language of manifolds. To give the reader an idea of the scope and extent of modern
geometry, we present here a short list of examples of manifolds. This list will be enlarged
as we enter deeper into the study of manifolds.

Example 1.2.11. (The n-dimensional sphere). This is the codimension 1 submanifold

of Rn+1 given by the equation
n
X
2
|x| = (xi )2 = r2 , x = (x0 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn+1 .
i=0

One checks that, along the sphere, the differential of |x|2 is nowhere zero, so by Proposition
1.2.5, S n is indeed a smooth manifold. In this case one can explicitly construct an atlas
(consisting of two charts) which is useful in many applications. The construction relies on
stereographic projections.
Let N and S denote the North and resp. South pole of S n (N = (0, . . . , 0, 1) ∈ Rn+1 ,
S = (0, . . . , 0, −1) ∈ Rn+1 ). Consider the open sets UN = S n \ {N } and US = S n \ {S}.
They form an open cover of S n . The stereographic projection from the North pole is the
map σN : UN → Rn such that, for any P ∈ UN , the point σN (P ) is the intersection of the
line N P with the hyperplane {xn = 0} ∼ = Rn .
The stereographic projection from the South pole is defined similarly. For P ∈ UN we
denote by (y 1 (P ), . . . , y n (P )) the coordinates of σN (P ), and for Q ∈ US , we denote by
(z 1 (Q), . . . , z n (Q)) the coordinates of σS (Q). A simple argument shows the map
¡ ¢ ¡ 1 ¢
y 1 (P ), . . . , y n (P ) →7 z (P ), . . . , z n (P ) , P ∈ UN ∩ US ,

is smooth (see the exercise below). Hence {(UN , σN ), (US , σS )} defines a smooth structure
on S n . u
t

Exercise 1.2.12. Show that the functions y i , z j constructed in the above example satisfy

yi
z i = ³P ´ , ∀i = 1, . . . , n. u
t
n j 2
j=1 (y )

Example 1.2.13. (The n-dimensional torus). This is the codimension n submanifold

of R2n (x1 , y1 ; ... ; xn , yn ) defined as the zero locus

x21 + y12 = · · · = x2n + yn2 = 1.

Note that T 1 is diffeomorphic with the 1-dimensional sphere S 1 (unit circle). As a set T n
is a direct product of n circles T n = S 1 × · · · × S 1 (see Figure 1.3). u
t

The above example suggests the following general construction.

10 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Figure 1.3: The 2-dimensional torus

V V
1 2

Figure 1.4: Connected sum of tori

Example 1.2.14. Let M and N be smooth manifolds of dimension m and respectively

n. Then their topological direct product has a natural structure of smooth manifold of
dimension m + n. u
t

Example 1.2.15. (The connected sum of two manifolds). Let M1 and M2 be two
manifolds of the same dimension m. Pick pi ∈ Mi (i = 1, 2), choose small open neighbor-
hoods Ui of pi in Mi and then local charts ψi identifying each of these neighborhoods with
B2 (0), the ball of radius 2 in Rm .
Let Vi ⊂ Ui correspond (via ψi ) to the annulus {1/2 < |x| < 2} ⊂ Rm . Consider
© ª © ª x
φ: 1/2 < |x| < 2 → 1/2 < |x| < 2 , φ(x) = .
|x|2

The action of φ is clear: it switches the two boundary components of {1/2 < |x| < 2},
and reverses the orientation of the radial directions.
Now “glue” V1 to V2 using the “prescription” given by ψ2−1 ◦ φ ◦ ψ1 : V1 → V2 . In this
way we obtain a new topological space with a natural smooth structure induced by the
smooth structures on Mi . Up to a diffeomeorphism, the new manifold thus obtained is
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 11

independent of the choices of local coordinates ([19]), and it is called the connected sum
of M1 and M2 and is denoted by M1 #M2 (see Figure 1.4). u
t

Example 1.2.16. (The real projective space RPn ). As a topological space RPn is
the quotient of Rn+1 modulo the equivalence relation
def
x ∼ y ⇐⇒ ∃λ ∈ R∗ : x = λy.

The equivalence class of x = (x0 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn+1 \ {0} is usually denoted by [x0 , . . . , xn ].

Alternatively, RPn is the set of all lines (directions) in Rn+1 . Traditionally, one attaches
a point to each direction in Rn+1 , the so called “point at infinity” along that direction, so
that RPn can be thought as the collection of all points at infinity along all directions.
The space RPn+1 has a natural structure of smooth manifold. To describe it consider
the sets © ª
Uk = [x0 , . . . , xn ] ∈ RPn ; xk 6= 0 , k = 0, . . . , n.
Now define

ψ k : Uk → Rn [x0 , . . . , xn ] 7→ (x0 /xk , . . . , xk−1 /xk , xk+1 /xk , . . . xn ).

The maps ψk define local coordinates on the projective space. The transition map on the
overlap region Uk ∩ Um = {[x0 , . . . , xn ] ; xk xm 6= 0} can be easily described. Set

ψk ([x0 , . . . , xn ]) = (ξ1 , . . . , ξn ), ψm ([x0 , . . . , xn ]) = (η1 , . . . , ηn ).

The equality

[x0 , . . . , xn ] = [ξ1 , . . . , ξk−1 , 1, ξk , . . . , ξn ] = [η1 , . . . , ηm−1 , 1, ηm , . . . , ηn ]

immediately implies (assume k < m)


 ξ1 = η1 /ηk , . . . , ξk−1 = ηk−1 /ηk , ξk+1 = ηk
ξk = ηk+1 /ηk , . . . , ξm−2 = ηm−1 /ηk , ξm−1 = 1/ηk (1.2.1)

ξm = ηm ηk , . . . , ξn = ηn /ηk

This shows the map ψk ◦ ψm −1 is smooth and proves that RPn is a smooth manifold. Note
1
that when n = 1, RP is diffeomorphic with S 1 . One way to see this is to observe that
the projective space can be alternatively described as the quotient space of S n modulo the
equivalence relation which identifies antipodal points . u
t

Example 1.2.17. (The complex projective space CPn ). The definition is formally
identical to that of RPn . CPn is the quotient space of Cn+1 \ {0} modulo the equivalence
relation
def
x ∼ y ⇐⇒ ∃λ ∈ C∗ : x = λy.
The open sets Uk are defined similarly and so are the local charts ψk : Uk → Cn . They
satisfy transition rules similar to (1.2.1) so that CPn is a smooth manifold of dimension
2n. u
t
12 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Exercise 1.2.18. Prove that CP1 is diffeomorphic to S 2 . u

t

In the above example we encountered a special (and very pleasant) situation: the
−1 : U → V
gluing maps not only are smooth, they are also holomorphic as maps ψk ◦ ψm
n
where U and V are open sets in C . This type of gluing induces a “rigidity” in the
underlying manifold and it is worth distinguishing this situation.
Definition 1.2.19. (Complex manifolds). A complex manifold is a smooth, 2n-
dimensional manifold M which admits an atlas {(Ui , ψi ) : Ui → Cn } such that all transition
maps are holomorphic. u
t

The complex projective space is a complex manifold. Our next example naturally
generalizes the projective spaces described above.
Example 1.2.20. (The real and complex Grassmannians Grk (Rn ), Grk (Cn )).
Suppose V is a real vector space of dimension n. For every 0 ≤ k ≤ n we denote by
Grk (V ) the set of k-dimensional vector subspaces of V . We will say that Grk (V ) is the
linear Grassmannian of k-planes in E. When V = Rn we will write Grk,n (R) instead of
Grk (Rn ).
We would like to give several equivalent descriptions of the natural structure of smooth
manifold on Grk (V ). To do this it is very convenient to fix an Euclidean metric on V .
Any k-dimensional subspace L ⊂ V is uniquely determined by the orthogonal projec-
tion onto L which we will denote by PL . Thus we can identify Grk (V ) with the set of
rank k projectors
© ª
Projk (V ) := P : V → V ; P ∗ = P = P 2 , rank P = k .

We have a natural map

P : Grk (V ) → Projk (V ), L 7→ PL

with inverse P 7→ Range (P ).

The set Projk (V ) is a subset of the vector space of symmetric endomorphisms
© ª
End+ (V ) := A ∈ End(V ), A∗ = A .

The sapce End+ (V ) is equipped with a natural inner product

1
(A, B) := tr(AB), ∀A, B ∈ End+ (V ). (1.2.2)
2
The set Projk (V ) is a closed and bounded subset of End+ (V ). The bijection

P : Grk (V ) → Projk (V )

induces a topology on Grk (V ). We want to show that Grk (V ) has a natural structure
of smooth manifold compatible with this topology. To see this, we define for every L ⊂
Grk (V ) the set © ª
Grk (V, L) := U ∈ Grk (V ); U ∩ L⊥ = 0 .
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 13

Lemma 1.2.21. (a) Let L ∈ Grk (V ). Then

U ∩ L⊥ = 0 ⇐⇒ 1 − PL + PU : V → V is an isomorphism. (1.2.3)

(b) The set Grk (V, L) is an open subset of Grk (V ).

Proof. (a) Note first that a dimension count implies that

U ∩ L⊥ = 0 ⇐⇒ U + L⊥ = V ⇐⇒ U ⊥ ∩ L = 0.

Let us show that U ∩ L⊥ = 0 implies that 1 − PL + PL is an isomorphism. It suffices to

show that
ker(1 − PL + PU ) = 0.
Suppose v ∈ ker(1 − PL + PU ). Then

0 = PL (1 − PL + PU )v = PL PU v = 0 =⇒ PU v ∈ U ∩ ker PL = U ∩ L⊥ = 0.

Hence PU v = 0, so that v ∈ U ⊥ . From the equality (1 − PL − PU )v = 0 we also deduce

(1 − PL )v = 0 so that v ∈ L. Hence

v ∈ U ⊥ ∩ L = 0.

Conversely, we will show that if 1 − PL + PU = PL⊥ + PU is onto, then U + L⊥ = V .

Indeed, let v ∈ V . Then there exists x ∈ V such that

v = PL⊥ x + PU x ∈ L⊥ + U.

(b) We have to show that, for every K ∈ Grk (V, L), there exists ε > 0 such that any U
satisfying
kPU − PK k < ε
intersects L⊥ trivially. Since K ∈ Grk (V, L) we deduce from (a) that the map 1 −PL −PK :
V → V is an isomorphism. Note that

k(1 − PL − PK ) − (1 − PL − PU )k = kPK − PU k.

The space of isomorphisms of V is an open subset of End(V ). Hence there exists ε > 0
such that, for any subspace U satisfying kPU − PK k < ε, the endomorphism (1 − PL − PU )
is an isomorphism. We now conclude using part (a). u
t

Since L ∈ Grk (V, L), ∀L ∈ Grk (V ), we have an open cover of Grk (V )

[
Grk (V ) = Grk (V, L).
L∈Grk (V )

Note that for every L ∈ Grk (V ) we have a natural map

Γ : Hom(L, L⊥ ) → Grk (V, L),

14 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

v
v Γ
L S

Sx

v x L
L

Figure 1.5: Subspaces as graphs of linear operators.

which associates to each linear map S : L → L⊥ its graph (see Figure 1.5)

ΓS = {x + Sx ∈ L + L⊥ = V ; x ∈ L}.

We will show that this is a homeomorphism by providing an explicit description of the

orthogonal projection PΓS
Observe first that the orthogonal complement of ΓS is the graph of −S ∗ : L⊥ → L.
More precisely, © ª
Γ⊥ ∗ ⊥
S = Γ−S ∗ = y − S y ∈ L + L = V ; y ∈ L
⊥
.
Let v = PL v + PL⊥ v = vL + vL+ ∈ V (see Figure 1.5). Then

PΓS v = x + Sx, x ∈ L ⇐⇒ v − (x + Sx) ∈ Γ⊥

S
½
⊥ x + S ∗ y = vL
⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ L, y ∈ L such that .
Sx − y = vL⊥

Consider the operator S : L ⊕ L⊥ → L ⊕ L⊥ which has the block decomposition

· ¸
1L S∗
S= .
S −1⊥ L

Then the above linear system can be rewritten as

· ¸ · ¸
x vL
S· = .
y vL⊥

Now observe that · ¸

2 1L + S ∗ S 0
S = .
0 1L⊥ + SS ∗
Hence S is invertible, and
· ¸
−1 (1L + S ∗ S)−1 0
S = ·S
0 (1L⊥ + SS ∗ )−1
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 15
· ¸
(1L + S ∗ S)−1 (1L + S ∗ S)−1 S ∗
= .
(1L⊥ + SS ) S −(1L⊥ + SS ∗ )−1
∗ −1

We deduce
x = (1L + S ∗ S)−1 vL + (1L + S ∗ S)−1 S ∗ vL⊥

and,
· ¸
x
PΓS v = .
Sx
Hence PΓS has the block decomposition
· ¸
1L
PΓS = · [(1L + S ∗ S)−1 (1L + S ∗ S)−1 S ∗ ]
S
· ¸
(1L + S ∗ S)−1 (1L + S ∗ S)−1 S ∗
= ∗ −1 . (1.2.4)
S(1L + S S) S(1L + S ∗ S)−1 S ∗

Note that if U ∈ Grk (V, L), then with respect to the decomposition V = L + L⊥ the
projector PU has the block form
· ¸ · ¸
A B PL PU IL PL PU IL⊥
PU = = ,
C D PL⊥ PU IL PL L⊥ PU IL⊥

where for every subspace K ,→ V we denoted by IK : K → V the canonical inclusion,

then U = ΓS , where S = CA−1 . This shows that the graph map

Hom(L, L⊥ ) 3 S 7→ ΓS ∈ Grk (V )

is a homeomorphism. Moreover, the above formulæ show that if U ∈ Grk (V, L0 ) ∩

Grk (V, L1 ), then we can represent U in two ways,

U = ΓS0 = ΓS1 , Si ∈ Hom(Li , L⊥

i ), i = 0, 1,

and the correspondence S0 → S1 is smooth. This shows that Grk (V ) has a natural
structure of smooth manifold of dimension

dim Grk (V ) = dim Hom(L, L⊥ ) = k(n − k).

Grk (Cn ) is defined as the space of complex k-dimensional subspaces of Cn . It can be

structured as above as a smooth manifold of dimension 2k(n − k). Note that Gr1 (Rn ) ∼
=
RPn−1 , and Gr1 (Cn ) ∼
= CPn−1 . The Grassmannians have important applications in many
classification problems. u
t

Exercise 1.2.22. Show that Grk (Cn ) is a complex manifold of complex dimension k(n −
k)). u
t
16 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Example 1.2.23. (Lie groups). A Lie group is a smooth manifold G together with a
group structure on it such that the map
G×G→G (g, h) 7→ g · h−1
is smooth. These structures provide an excellent way to formalize the notion of symmetry.

(a) (Rn , +) is a commutative Lie group.

(b) The unit circle S 1 can be alternatively described as the set of complex numbers of
norm one and the complex multiplication defines a Lie group structure on it. This is a
commutative group. More generally, the torus T n is a Lie group as a direct product of n
circles1 .
(c) The general linear group GL(n, K) defined as the group of invertible n × n matrices
with entries in the field K = R, C is a Lie group. Indeed, GL(n, K) is an open subset (see
Exercise 1.1.3) in the linear space of n × n matrices with entries in K. It has dimension
dK n2 , where dK is the dimension of K as a linear space over R. We will often use the
alternate notation GL(Kn ) when referring to GL(n, K).
(d) The orthogonal group O(n) is the group of real n × n matrices satisfying
T · T t = 1.
To describe its smooth structure we will use the Cayley transform trick as in [84] (see also
the classical [100]). Set
© ª
Mn (R)# := T ∈ Mn (R) ; det(1 + T ) 6= 0 .
The matrices in Mn (R)# are called non exceptional. Clearly 1 ∈ O(n)# = O(n)∩Mn (R)#
so that O(n)# is a nonempty open subset of O(n). The Cayley transform is the map
# : Mn (R)# → Mn (R) defined by
A 7→ A# = (1 − A)(1 + A)−1 .
The Cayley transform has some very nice properties.
(i) A# ∈ Mn (R)# for every A ∈ Mn (R)# .
(ii) # is involutive, i.e., (A# )# = A for any A ∈ Mn (R)# .
(iii) For every T ∈ O(n)# the matrix T # is skew-symmetric, and conversely, if A ∈
Mn (R)# is skew-symmetric then A# ∈ O(n).
Thus the Cayley transform is a homeomorphism from O(n)# to the space of non-
exceptional, skew-symmetric, matrices. The latter space is an open subset in the linear
space of real n × n skew-symmetric matrices, o(n).
Any T ∈ O(n) defines a self-homeomorphism of O(n) by left translation in the group
LT : O(n) → O(n) S 7→ LT (S) = T · S.
We obtain an open cover of O(n):
[
O(n) = T · O(n)# .
T ∈O(n)
1
One can show that any connected commutative Lie group has the from T n × Rm .
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 17

Define ΨT : T · O(n)# → o(n) by S 7→ (T −1 · S)# . One can show that the collection
³ ´
T · O(n)# , ΨT
T ∈O(n)

defines a smooth structure on O(n). In particular, we deduce

dim O(n) = n(n − 1)/2.

Inside O(n) lies a normal subgroup (the special orthogonal group)

SO(n) = {T ∈ O(n) ; det T = 1}.

The group SO(n) is a Lie group as well and dim SO(n) = dim O(n).
(e) The unitary group U (n) is defined as

U (n) = {T ∈ GL(n, C) ; T · T ∗ = 1},

where T ∗ denotes the conjugate transpose (adjoint) of T . To prove that U (n) is a manifold
one uses again the Cayley transform trick. This time, we coordinatize the group using the
space u(n) of skew-adjoint (skew-Hermitian) n × n complex matrices (A = −A∗ ). Thus
U (n) is a smooth manifold of dimension

dim U (n) = dim u(n) = n2 .

Inside U (n) sits the normal subgroup SU (n), the kernel of the group homomorphism
det : U (n) → S 1 . SU (n) is also called the special unitary group. This a smooth manifold
of dimension n2 − 1. In fact the Cayley transform trick allows one to coordinatize SU (n)
using the space
su(n) = {A ∈ u(n) ; tr A = 0}. u
t

Exercise
¡ 1.2.24. (a)
¢ Prove the properties (i)-(iii) of the Cayley transform, and then show
that T · O(n)# , ΨT T ∈O(n) defines a smooth structure on O(n).
(b) Prove that U (n) and SU (n) are manifolds.
(c) Show that O(n), SO(n), U (n), SU (n) are compact spaces.
(d) Prove that SU (2) is diffeomorphic with S 3 (Hint: think of S 3 as the group of unit
quaternions.) u
t

Exercise 1.2.25. Let SL(n; K) denote the group of n × n matrices of determinant 1 with
entries in the field K = R, C. Using the Cayley trick show that SL(n; K) is a smooth
manifold modeled on the linear space

sl(n, K) = {A ∈ Mn×n (K) ; tr A = 0}.

In particular, it has dimension dK (n2 − 1), where dK = dimR K. u

t
18 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

Exercise 1.2.26. (Quillen). Suppose V0 , V1 are two real, finite dimensional Euclidean
space, and T : V0 → V1 is a linear map. We denote by T ∗ is adjoint, T ∗ : V1 → V0 , and by
ΓT the graph of T , © ª
ΓT = (v0 , v1 ) ∈ V0 ⊕ V1 ; v1 = T v0 l .
We form the skew-symmetric operator
· ¸ · ¸ · ¸
v0 0 T∗ v0
X : V0 ⊕ V1 → V0 ⊕ V1 , X · = · .
v1 −T 0 v1

We denote by CT the Cayley transform of X,

CT = (1 − X)(1 + X)−1 ,

and by R0 : V0 ⊕ V1 → V0 ⊕ V1 the reflection

· ¸
1V0 0
R0 = .
0 −1V1

Show that RT = CT R0 is an orthogonal involution, i.e.,

RT2 = 1, RT∗ = RT ,

and ker(1 − RT ) = ΓT . In other words, RT is the orthogonal reflection in the subspace

ΓT ,
RT = 2PΓT − 1,
where PΓT denotes the orthogonal projection onto ΓT . u
t

Exercise 1.2.27. Suppose G is a Lie group, and H is an abstract subgroup of G. Prove

that the closure of H is also a subgroup of G.
Exercise 1.2.28. (a) Let G be a connected Lie group and denote by U a neighborhood
of 1 ∈ G. If H is the subgroup algebraically generated by U show that H is dense in G.
(b) Let G be a compact Lie group and g ∈ G. Show that 1 ∈ G lies in the closure of
{g n ; n ∈ Z \ {0}}. u
t

Remark 1.2.29. If G is a Lie group, and H is a closed subgroup of G, then H is in fact

a smooth submanifold of G, and with respect to this smooth structure H is a Lie group.
For a proof we refer to [44, 95]. In view of Exercise 1.2.27, this fact allows us to produce
many examples of Lie groups. u
t

§1.2.4 How many manifolds are there? The list of examples in the previous sub-
section can go on for ever, so one may ask whether there is any coherent way to organize
the collection of all possible manifolds. This is too general a question to expect a clear
cut answer. We have to be more specific. For example, we can ask
Question 1: Which are the compact, connected manifolds of a given dimension d?
1.2. SMOOTH MANIFOLDS 19

For d = 1 the answer is very simple: the only compact connected 1-dimensional man-
ifold is the circle S 1 . (Can you prove this?)
We can raise the stakes and try the same problem for d = 2. Already the situation is
more elaborate. We know at least two surfaces: the sphere S 2 and the torus T 2 . They
clearly look different but we have not yet proved rigorously that they are indeed not
diffeomorphic. This is not the end of the story. We can connect sum two tori, three tori
or any number g of tori. We obtain doughnut-shaped surface as in Figure 1.6

Figure 1.6: Connected sum of 3 tori

Again we face the same question: do we get non-diffeomorphic surfaces for different
choices of g? Figure 1.6 suggests that this may be the case but this is no rigorous argument.
We know another example of compact surface, the projective plane RP2 , and we nat-
urally ask whether it looks like one of the surfaces constructed above. Unfortunately,
we cannot visualize the real projective plane (one can prove rigorously it does not have
enough room to exist inside our 3-dimensional Universe). We have to decide this question
using a little more than the raw geometric intuition provided by a picture. To kill the
suspense, we mention that RP2 does not belong to the family of donuts. One reason is
that, for example, a torus has two faces: an inside face and an outside face (think of a car
rubber tube). RP2 has a weird behavior: it has “no inside” and “no outside”. It has only
one side! One says the torus is orientable while the projective plane is not.
We can now connect sum any numbers of RP2 ’s to any donut an thus obtain more
and more surfaces, which we cannot visualize and we have yet no idea if they are pairwise
distinct. A classical result in topology says that all compact surfaces can be obtained in
this way (see [68]), but in the above list some manifolds are diffeomorphic, and we have
to describe which. In dimension 3 things are not yet settled2 and, to make things look
hopeless, in dimension ≥ 4 Question 1 is algorithmically undecidable .
We can reconsider our goals, and look for all the manifolds with a given property X.
In many instances one can give fairly accurate answers. Property X may refer to more
than the (differential) topology of a manifold. Real life situations suggest the study of
manifolds with additional structure. The following problem may give the reader a taste
of the types of problems we will be concerned with in this book.

Question 2 Can we wrap a planar piece of canvas around a metal sphere in a one-
to-one fashion? (The canvas is flexible but not elastic).
2
Things are still not settled in 2007, but there has been considerable progress due to G. Perelman’s
proof of the Poincaré conjecture.
20 CHAPTER 1. MANIFOLDS

A simple do-it-yourself experiment is enough to convince anyone that this is not pos-
sible. Naturally, one asks for a rigorous explanation of what goes wrong. The best ex-
planation of this phenomenon is contained in the celebrated Theorema Egregium (Golden
Theorem) of Gauss. Canvas surfaces have additional structure (they are made of a special
material), and for such objects there is a rigorous way to measure “how curved” are they.
One then realizes that the problem in Question 2 is impossible, since a (canvas) sphere is
curved in a different way than a plane canvas.
There are many other structures Nature forced us into studying them, but they may
not be so easily described in elementary terms.

A word to the reader. The next two chapters are probably the most arid in geometry
but, keep in mind that, behind each construction lies a natural motivation and, even if we
do not always have the time to show it to the reader, it is there, and it may take a while
to reveal itself. Most of the constructions the reader will have to “endure” in the next two
chapters constitute not just some difficult to “swallow” formalism, but the basic language
of geometry. It might comfort the reader during this less than glamorous journey to carry
in the back of his mind Hermann Weyl’s elegantly phrased advise.

“It is certainly regrettable that we have to enter into the purely formal aspect
in such detail and to give it so much space but, nevertheless, it cannot be
avoided. Just as anyone who wishes to give expressions to his thoughts with
ease must spend laborious hours learning language and writing, so here too the
only way we can lessen the burden of formulæ is to master the technique of
tensor analysis to such a degree that we can turn to real problems that concern
us without feeling any encumbrance, our object being to get an insight into
the nature of space [...]. Whoever sets out in quest of these goals must possess
a perfect mathematical equipment from the outset.”
H. Weyl: Space, Time, Matter.
Chapter 2

Natural Constructions on
Manifolds

The goal of this chapter is to introduce the basic terminology used in differential geometry.
The key concept is that of tangent space at a point which is a first order approximation of
the manifold near that point. We will be able to transport many notions in linear analysis
to manifolds via the tangent space.

2.1 The tangent bundle

§2.1.1 Tangent spaces We begin with a simple example which will serve as a moti-
vation for the abstract definitions.

Example 2.1.1. Consider the sphere

(S 2 ) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 in R3 .

We want to find the plane passing through the North pole N (0, 0, 1) that is “closest” to
the sphere. The classics would refer to such a plane as an osculator plane.
The natural candidate for this osculator plane would be a plane given by a linear
equation that best approximates the defining equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 in a neighborhood
of the North pole. The linear approximation of x2 + y 2 + z 2 near N seems like the best
candidate. We have
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 1 = 2(z − 1) + O(2),

where O(2) denotes a quadratic error. Hence, the osculator plane is z = 1, Geometrically,
it is the horizontal affine plane through the North pole. The linear subspace {z = 0} ⊂ R3
is called the tangent space to S 2 at N .
The above construction has one deficiency: it is not intrinsic, i.e., it relies on objects
“outside” the manifold S 2 . There is one natural way to fix this problem. Look at a smooth
path γ(t) on S 2 passing through N at t = 0. Hence, t 7→ γ(t) ∈ R3 , and

|γ(t)|2 = 1. (2.1.1)

21
22 CHAPTER 2. NATURAL CONSTRUCTIONS ON MANIFOLDS

If we differentiate (2.1.1) at t = 0 we get (γ̇(0), γ(0)) = 0, i.e., γ̇(0) ⊥ γ(0), so that γ̇(0) lies
in the linear subspace z = 0. We deduce that the tangent space consists of the tangents
to the curves on S 2 passing through N .
This is apparently no major conceptual gain since we still regard the tangent space
as a subspace of R3 , and this is still an extrinsic description. However, if we use the
stereographic projection from the South pole we get local coordinates (u, v) near N , and
any curve γ(t) as above can be viewed as a curve t 7→ (u(t), v(t)) in the (u, v) plane. If
φ(t) is another curve through N given in local coordinates by t 7→ (u(t), v(t)), then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
γ̇(0) = φ̇(0) ⇐⇒ u̇(0), v̇(0) = u̇(0), v̇(0) .

The right hand side of the above equality defines an equivalence relation ∼ on the set of
smooth curves passing trough (0, 0). Thus, there is a bijective correspondence between the
tangents to the curves through N , and the equivalence classes of “∼”. This equivalence
relation is now intrinsic modulo one problem: “∼” may depend on the choice of the local
coordinates. Fortunately, as we are going to see, this is a non-issue. u
t

Definition 2.1.2. Let M m be a smooth manifold and p0 a point in M . Two smooth

paths α, β : (−ε, ε) → M such that α(0) = β(0) = p0 are said to have a first order contact
at p0 if there exist local coordinates (x) = (x1 , . . . , xm ) near p0 such that

ẋα (0) = ẋβ (0),

where α(t) = (xα (t)) = (x1α (t), . . . , xm 1 m

α (t)), and β(t) = (xβ (t)) = (xβ (t), . . . , xβ (t)). We
write this α ∼1 β. u
t

Lemma 2.1.3. ∼1 is an equivalence relation.

Sketch of proof. The binary relation ∼1 is obviously reflexive and symmetric, so we
only have to check the transitivity. Let α ∼1 β and β ∼1 γ. Thus there exist local
coordinates (x) = (x1 , . . . , xm ) and (y) = (y 1 , . . . , y m ) near p0 such that (ẋα (0)) = (ẋβ (0))
and (ẏβ (0)) = (ẏγ (0)). The transitivity follows from the equality
X ∂y i j X ∂y i
ẏγi (0) = ẏβi (0) = ẋ (0) = ẋj (0) = ẏαj (0). u
t
∂xj β ∂xj α
j j

Definition 2.1.4. A tangent vector to M at p is a first-order-contact equivalence class

of curves through p. The equivalence class of a curve α(t) such that α(0) = p will be
temporarily denoted by [α̇(0)]. The set of these equivalence classes is denoted by Tp M ,
and is called the tangent space to M at p. u
t

Lemma 2.1.5. Tp M has a natural structure of vector space.

Proof. Choose local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xm ) near p such that xi (p) = 0, ∀i, and let α and
β
¡ be two
¢ smooth
¡ ¢curves through p. In the above local coordinates the curves α, β become
xiα (t) , xiβ (t) . Construct a new curve γ through p given by
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
xiγ (t) = xiα (t) + xiβ (t) .
2.1. THE TANGENT BUNDLE 23

Set [α̇(0)] + [β̇(0)] := [γ̇(0)]. For this operation to be well defined one has to check two
things.
(a) The equivalence class [γ̇(0)] is independent of coordinates.
(b) If [α˙1 (0)] = [α˙2 (0)] and [β˙1 (0)] = [β˙2 (0)] then
[α˙1 (0)] + [β˙1 (0)] = [α˙2 (0)] + [β˙2 (0)].

We let the reader supply the routine details. u

t

Exercise 2.1.6. Finish the proof of the Lemma 2.1.5. u

t

From this point on we will omit the brackets [ – ] in the notation of a tangent vector.
Thus, [α̇(0)] will be written simply as α̇(0).
As one expects, all the above notions admit a nice description using local coordinates.
Let (x1 , . . . , xm ) be coordinates near p ∈ M such that xi (p) = 0, ∀i. Consider the curves
ek (t) = (tδk1 , . . . , tδkm ), k = 1, . . . , m,
where δji denotes Kronecker’s delta symbol. We set
∂
(p) := ėk (0). (2.1.2)
∂xk
Note that these vectors depend on the local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xm ). Often, when the
point p is clear from the context, we will omit it in the above notation.
¡ ¢
Lemma 2.1.7. ∂x∂ k (p) 1≤k≤m is a basis of Tp M .

Proof. It follows from the obvious fact that any path through the origin in Rm has first
order contact with a linear one t 7→ (a1 t, . . . , am t). u
t

Exercise 2.1.8. Let F : RN → Rk be a smooth map. Assume that

(a) M = F −1 (0) 6= ∅;
(b) rank Dx F = k, for all x ∈ M .
Then M is a smooth manifold of dimension N − k and
Tx M = ker Dx F, ∀x ∈ M. u
t
Example 2.1.9. We want to describe T1 G, where G is one of the Lie groups discussed in
Section 1.2.2.
(a) G = O(n). Let (−ε, ε) 3 s 7→ T (s) be a smooth path of orthogonal matrices such that
T (0) = 1. Then T t (s) · T (s) = 1. Differentiating this equality at s = 0 we get
Ṫ t (0) + Ṫ (0) = 0.
The matrix Ṫ (0) defines a vector in T1 O(n), so the above equality states that this tangent
space lies inside the space of skew-symmetric matrices, i.e., T1 O(n) ⊂ o(n). On the other
hand, we proved in Section 1.2.2 that dim G = dim o(n) so that
T1 O(n) = o(n).
24 CHAPTER 2. NATURAL CONSTRUCTIONS ON MANIFOLDS

(b) G = SL(n; R). Let (−ε, ε) 3 s 7→ T (s) be a smooth path in SL(n; R) such that
T (0) = 1. Then det T (s) = 1 and differentiating this equality at s = 0 we get (see
Exercise 1.1.3)
tr Ṫ (0) = 0.
Thus, the tangent space at 1 lies inside the space of traceless matrices, i.e. T1 SL(n; R) ⊂
sl(n; R). Since (according to Exercise 1.2.25) dim SL(n; R) = dim sl(n; R) we deduce

T1 SL(n; R) = sl(n; R). u

t

Exercise 2.1.10. Show that T1 U (n) = u(n) and T1 SU (n) = su(n). u

t

§2.1.2 The tangent bundle In the previous subsection we have naturally associated
to an arbitrary point p on a manifold M a vector space Tp M . It is the goal of the present
subsection to coherently organize the family of tangent spaces (Tp M )p∈M . In particular,
we want to give a rigorous meaning to the intuitive fact that Tp M depends smoothly upon
p.
We will organize the disjoint union of all tangent spaces as a smooth manifold T M .
There is a natural surjection
G
π : TM = Tp M → M, π(v) = p ⇐⇒ v ∈ Tp M.
p∈M

Any local
¡ ∂ coordinate
¢ system x = (xi ) defined over an open set U ⊂
F M produces a natural
basis ∂xi (p) of Tp M , for any p ∈ U . Thus, an element v ∈ T U = p∈U Tp M is completely
determined if we know

• which tangent space does it belong to, i.e., we know p = π(v)),

¡ ∂ ¢
• the coordinates of v in the basis ∂x i (p) ,

X µ ¶
i ∂
v= X (v) (p) .
∂xi
i

We thus have a bijection

Ψx : T U → U x × Rm ⊂ Rm × Rm ,

where U x is the image of U in Rm via the coordinates (xi ). We can now use the map Ψx
to transfer the topology on Rm × Rm to T U . Again, we have to make sure this topology
is independent of local coordinates.
To see this, pick a different coordinate system y = (y i ) on U . The coordinate inde-
pendence referred to above is equivalent to the statement that the transition map

Ψy ◦ Ψ−1 x m y
x : U × R −→ T U −→ U × R
m

is a homeomorphism.
2.1. THE TANGENT BUNDLE 25

Let A := (x, X) ∈ U x × Rm . Then Ψ−1

x (A) = (p, α̇(0)), where x(p) = x, and α(t) ⊂ U
is a path through p given in the x coordinates as

α(t) = x + tX.

Denote by F : U x → U y the transition map x 7→ y. Then

¡ ¢
Ψy ◦ Ψ−1 1
x (A) = y(x); Y , . . . , Y
m
,
P j ∂ ¡ ¢
where α̇(0) = (ẏαj (0)) = Y ∂yj (p), and yα (t) is the description of the path α(t) in
the coordinates y j . Applying the chain rule we deduce
X ∂y j X ∂y j
Y j = ẏαj (0) = ẋi (0) = X i. (2.1.3)
∂xi ∂xi
i i

This proves that Ψy ◦ Ψ−1 x is actually smooth.

The natural topology of T M is obtained by patching together the topologies of T Uγ ,
where (Uγ , φγ )γ is an atlas of M . A set D ⊂ T M is open if its intersection with any T Uγ is
open in T Uγ . The above argument shows that T M is a smooth manifold with (T Uγ , Ψγ )
a defining atlas. Moreover, the natural projection π : T M → M is a smooth map.
Definition 2.1.11. The smooth manifold T M described above is called the tangent bundle
of M . u
t

Proposition 2.1.12. A smooth map f : M → N induces a smooth map Df : T M → T N

such that
(a) Df (Tp M ) ⊂ Tf (p) N , ∀p ∈ M
(b) The restriction to each tangent space Dp F : Tp M → Tf (p) N is linear. The map Df is
called the differential of f , and one often uses the alternate notation f∗ = Df .

Proof. Recall that Tp M is the space of tangent vectors to curves through p. If α(t) is such
a curve (α(0) = p), then β(t) = f (α(t)) is a smooth curve through q = f (p), and we define

Df (α̇(0)) := β̇(0).

One checks easily that if α1 ∼1 α2 , then f (α1 ) ∼1 f (α2 ), so that Df is well defined. To
prove that the map Df : Tp M → Tq N is linear it suffices to verify this in any particular
local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xm ) near p, and (y 1 , . . . , y n ) near q, such that xi (p) = 0, y j (q) =
0, ∀i, j, since any two choices differ (infinitesimally) by a linear substitution. Hence, we
can regard f as a collection of maps

(x1 , . . . , xm ) 7→ (y 1 (x1 , . . . , xm ), . . . , y n (x1 , . . . , xm )).

© ∂ ª © ∂ ª
A basis in Tp M is given by ∂x i
, while a basis of T q N is given by ∂yj .
If α, β : (−ε, ε) → M are two smooth paths such that α(0) = β(0) = p, then in local
coordinates they have the description

α(t) = (x1α (t), . . . , xm 1 m

α (t)), β(t) = (xβ (t), . . . , xβ (t)),
26 CHAPTER 2. NATURAL CONSTRUCTIONS ON MANIFOLDS

α̇(0) = (ẋ1α (0), . . . , ẋm 1 m

α (0)), β̇(0) = (ẋβ (0), . . . , ẋβ (0) )
Then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
F (α(t)) = y 1 ( xiα (t) ), . . . , y n ( xiα (t) ) , F (β(t)) = y 1 ( xiβ (t) ), . . . , y n ( xiβ (t) ) ,
¡ ¢
F (α(t) + β(t) ) = y 1 ( xiα (t) + xiβ (t) ), . . . , y n ( xiα (t) + xiβ (t) ) ,
n ³X
∂y j i ´ ∂
n ³X
∂y j i ´ ∂
m m
¡ ¢ X ¡ ¢ X
DF α̇(0) = ẋ α , DF β̇(0) = ẋ ,
∂xi ∂yj ∂xi β ∂yj
j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1
n ³X
X m ´ ∂
¡ ¢ d ¡ ¢ ∂y j i i
DF α̇(0) + β̇(0) = |t=0 F α(t) + β(t) = (ẋ α + ẋ β )
dt ∂xi ∂yj
j=1 i=1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= DF α̇(0) + DF β̇(0) .
This shows
³ j´that Df : Tp M → Tq N is the linear operator given in these bases by the
∂y
matrix ∂xi . In particular, this implies that Df is also smooth. u
t
1≤j≤n, 1≤i≤m

§2.1.3 Sard’s Theorem In this subsection we want to explain rigorously a phenom-

enon with which the reader may already be intuitively acquainted. We describe it first in
a special case.
Suppose M is a submanifold of dimension 2 in R3 . Then, a simple thought experiment
suggests that most horizontal planes will not be tangent to M . Equivalently, Iif we denote
by f the restriction of the function z to M , then for most real numbers h the level set
f −1 (h) does not contain a point where the differential of f is zero, so that most level sets
f −1 (h) are smooth submanifolds of M of codimension 1, i.e., smooth curves on M .
We can ask a more general question. Given two smooth manifolds X, Y , a smooth map
f : X → Y , is it true that for “most” y ∈ Y the level set f −1 (y) is a smooth submanifold of
X of codimension dim Y ? This question has a positive answer, known as Sard’s theorem.
Definition 2.1.13. Suppose that Y is a smooth, connected manifold of dimension m.

(a) We say that a subset S ⊂ Y is negligible if, for any coordinate chart of Y , Ψ : U →
Rm , the set Ψ(S ∩ U ) ⊂ Rm has Lebesgue measure zero in Rm .
(b) Suppose F : X → Y is a smooth map, where X is a smooth manifold. A point
x ∈ X is called a critical point of F , if the differential Dx F : Tx X → TF (x) Y is not
surjective.

We denote by Cr F the set of critical points of F , and by ∆F ⊂ Y its image via F . We

will refer to ∆F as the discriminant set of F . The points in ∆F are called the critical
values of F . u
t

Exercise 2.1.14. Define

© ª
Z := (x, a, b, c) ∈ R4 ; ax2 + bx + c = 0; a 6= 0 .
(a) Prove that Z is a smooth submanifold of R4 .
π
(b) Define π : Z → R3 by (x, a, b, c) 7−→ (a, b, c). Compute the discriminant set of π. u
t
2.1. THE TANGENT BUNDLE 27

Suppose U, V are finite dimensional real Euclidean vector spaces, O ⊂ U is an open

subset, and F : O → V is a smooth map. Then a point u ∈ O is a critical point of F if
and only if
rank (Du F : U → V ) < dim V.
Exercise 2.1.15. Show that for every q ∈ N \ ∆F the fiber f −1 (q) is either empty, or a
submanifold of M of codimension dim N . u
t

Theorem 2.1.16 (Sard). Let f : O → V be a smooth map as above. Then the discriminant
set ∆F is negligible.

Proof. We follow the elegant approach of J. Milnor [74] and L. Pontryagin [82]. Set
n = dim U , and m = dim V . We will argue inductively on the dimension n.
For every positive integer k we denote by Cr kF ⊂ Cr F the set of points u ∈ O such
that all the partial derivatives of F up to order k vanish at u. We obtain a decreasing
filtration of closed sets
Cr F ⊃ Cr 1F ⊃ Cr 2F ⊃ · · · .
The case n = 0 is trivially true so we may assume n > 0, and the statement is true for
any n0 < n, and any m. The inductive step is divided into three intermediary steps.
Step 1. The set F (Cr F \ Cr 1F ) is negligible.
Step 2. The set F (Cr kF \ Cr k+1 F ) is negligible for all k ≥ 1.
Step 3. The set F (Cr kF ) is negligible for some sufficiently large k.
0 1
Step
© ª 1. Set Cr F := Cr F \ Cr F . We ¢ will show that there exists a countable open cover
Oj j≥1 of Cr F such that F (Oj ∩Cr 0F is negligible for all j ≥ 1. Since Cr 0F is separable,
0

it ¡suffices to ¢prove that every point u ∈ Cr 0F admits an open neighborhood N such that
F N ∩ Cr 0F is negligible.
Suppose u0 ∈ Cr 0F . Assume first that there exist local coordinates (x1 , . . . , , xn )
defined in a neighborhood N of u0 , and local coordinates (y 1 , . . . , y m ) near v0 = F (u0 )
such that,
xi (u0 ) = 0, ∀i = 1, . . . n, y j (v0 ) = 0, ∀j = 1, . . . m,
and the restriction of F to N is described by functions y j = y j (x1 , . . . , xm ) such that
y 1 = x1 .
For every t ∈ R we set
© ª
Nt := (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ N; x1 = t ,

and we define
¡ ¢
Gt : Nt → Rm−1 , (t, x2 , . . . , xn ) 7→ y 2 (t, x2 , . . . , xn ), . . . , y m (t, x2 , . . . , xn ) .

Observe that [
N ∩ Cr 0F = Cr Gt .
t

The inductive assumption implies that the sets Cr Gt have trivial (n − 1)-dimensional
Lebesgue measure. Using Fubini’s theorem we deduce that N ∩ Cr 0F has trivial n-
dimensional Lebesgue measure.
28 CHAPTER 2. NATURAL CONSTRUCTIONS ON MANIFOLDS

To conclude Step 1 is suffices to prove that the above simplifying assumption concerning
the existence of nice coordinates is always fulfilled. To see this, choose local coordinates
(s1 , . . . , sn ) near u0 and coordinates (y 1 , . . . , y m ) near v0 such that

si (u0 ) = 0, ∀i = 1, . . . n, y j (v0 ) = 0, ∀j = 1, . . . m,

The map F is then locally described by a collection of functions y j (s1 , . . . , sn ), j =

1, . . . , n. Since u ∈ Cr 0F , we can assume, after an eventual re-labelling of coordinates,
1
that ∂y ∂s1
(u0 ) 6= 0. Now define

x1 = y 1 (s1 , . . . , sn ), xi = si , ∀i = 2, . . . , n.

The implicit function theorem shows that the collection of functions (x1 , . . . , xn ) defines
a coordinate system in a neighborhood of u0 . We regard y j as functions of xi . From the
definition we deduce y 1 = x1 .
(k) (k)
Step 2. Set Cr F := Cr kF \ Cr k+1 F . Since u0 ∈ Cr F , we can find local coordinates
(s1 , . . . , sn ) near u0 and coordinates (y 1 , . . . , y m ) near v0 such that

si (u0 ) = 0, ∀i = 1, . . . n, y j (v0 ) = 0, ∀j = 1, . . . m,

∂ j y1
(u0 ) = 0, ∀j = 1, . . . , k,
∂(s1 )j
and
∂ k+1 y 1
(u0 ) 6= 0.
∂(s1 )k+1
Define
∂ k y1
x1 (s) = ,
∂(s1 )k
and set xi := si , ∀i = 2, . . . , n.
Then the collection (xi ) defines smooth local coordinates on an open neighborhood N
of u0 , and Cr kF ∩N is contained in the hyperplane {x1 = 0}. Define

G : N ∩ {x1 = 0} → V ; G(x2 , . . . , xm ) = F (0, x2 , . . . , xn ).

Then
Cr kG ∩N = Cr kG , F (Cr kF ∩N) = G(Cr kG ),
(k)
and the induction assumption implies that G(Cr kG ) is negligible. By covering Cr F with
a countably many open neighborhood {N` }`>1 such that F (Cr kF ∩N` ) is negligible we
(k)
conclude that F (Cr F ) is negligible.
Step 3. Suppose k > m n
. We will prove that F (Cr kF ) is negligible. More precisely, we
will show that, for every compact subset S ⊂ O, the set F (S ∩ Cr kF ) is negligible.
From the Taylor expansion around points in Cr kF ∩S we deduce that there exist num-
bers r0 ∈ (0, 1) and λ0 > 0, depending only on S, such that, if C is a cube with edge
r < r0 which intersects Cr kF ∩S, then

diam F (C) < λ0 rk ,

2.1. THE TANGENT BUNDLE 29

where for every set A ⊂ V we define

© ª
diam(A) := sup |a1 − a2 |; a1 , a2 ∈ A .

In particular, if µm denotes the m-dimensional Lebesgue measure on V , and µn denotes

the n-dimensional Lebesgue measure on U , we deduce that there exists a constant λ1 > 0
such that
¢
µm (F (C) ≤ λ1 rmk = λ1 µn (C)mk/n .

Cover Cr kF ∩S by finitely many cubes {C` }1≤`≤L , of edges < r0 , such that their interiors
are disjoint. For every positive integer P , subdivide each of the cubes C` into P n sub-cubes
C`i of equal sizes. For every sub-cube C`σ which intersects Cr kF we have

λ1
µm (C`σ ) ≤ λ1 µn (C`σ )mk/n = µn (C` ).
P mk
We deduce that
X
µm (C` ∩ Cr kF ) ≤ µm (C`σ ∩ Cr kF ) ≤ P n−mk µn (C).
σ

n
If we let P → ∞ in the above inequality, we deduce that when k > m we have

µm (C` ∩ Cr kF ) = 0, ∀` = 1, . . . , L. u
t

Theorem 2.1.16 admits the following immediate generalization.

Corollary 2.1.17 (Sard). Suppose F : X → Y is a smooth map between two smooth
manifolds. Then its discriminant set is negligible. u
t

Definition 2.1.18. A smooth map f : M → N is called immersion (resp. submersion)

if for every p ∈ M the differential Dp f : Tp M → Tf (p) N is injective (resp. surjective). A
smooth map f : M → N is called an embedding if it is an injective immersion. u
t

Suppose F : M → N is a smooth map, and dim M ≥ dim N . Then F is a submersion

if and only if the discriminant set ∆F is empty.
Exercise 2.1.19. Suppose F : M → N is a smooth map, and S ⊂ N is a smooth
submanifold of N . We say that F is transversal to S if for every x ∈ F −1 (S) we have

TF (x) N = TF (x) S + Dx F (Tx M ).

Prove that if F is transversal to S, then F −1 (S) is a submanifold of M whose codimension

is equal to the codimension of S in N . u
t

Exercise 2.1.20. Suppose Λ, X, Y are smooth, connected manifolds, and F : Λ × X → Y

is a smooth map
Λ × X 3 (λ, x) 7→ Fλ (x) ∈ Y.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
160 Aristea major Spike-flowered G. H. Herb. July.
Aristea
161 Hermannia Powdered G. H. Shrub. April.
pulverata Hermannia
162 Verbascum Rusty-flowered H. H. Herb. April.
ferrugineum Mullein
163 Amaryllis Fothergillian Lily- H. H. Bulb. May.
Fothergillia Daffodil
164 Galaxia grandiflora Large-flowered G. H. Bulb. February.
Galaxia
165 Echium Sea-green-leaved G. H. Shrub. May.
glaucophyllum Viper’s-Bugloss
166 Gladiolus Shortened-petalled G. H. Bulb. March.
abreviatus Gladiolus
167 Brunsfelsia Waved-flowered H. H. Shrub. March.
undulata Brunsfelsia
168 Geranium pictum Painted-flowered G. H. Shrub. April.
Geranium
169 Crinum giganteum Gigantic Asphodell- H. H. Bulb. August.
Lily
170 Ixia Bulbocodium Crocus-leaved Ixia. G. H. Bulb. March.
Var. fl. Var. most beautiful
speciosissimo flower
171 Hypoxis linearis Linear-leaved G. H. Bulb. March.
Hypoxis
172 Anemone palmata Cyclamen-leaved Har. Herb. May.
Portugal Anemone
173 Geranium roseum Rosy Geranium H. H. Shrub. March.
174 Antholyza tubulosa Tubular Antholyza G. H. Bulb. June.
175 Melaleuca Heath-leaved G. H. Shrub. July.
ericæfolia Melaleuca
176 Cratæva Caper-like Cratæva H. H. Shrub. June.
Capparoides
177 Ixia punctata Dotted-flowered G. H. Bulb. May.
Ixia
178 Ferraria pavonia Mexican Ferraria H. H. Bulb. July.
179 Amaryllis reticulata Netted-flowered H. H. Bulb. May.
Lily-Daffodil
180 Atragene austriaca Austrian Atragene Har. Herb. May.
181 Vaccinium virgatum Green-twigged Har. Shrub. June.
Whortle-berry
182 Malva divaricata Straddling-branched G. H. Shrub. June.
Mallow
183 Gardenia tubiflora Tube-flowered H. H. Shrub. July.
Gardenia
184 Pergularia minor Smaller West-Coast H. H. Shrub. August.
Creeper
185 Pergularia Sweet Pergularia, or H. H. Shrub. August.
odoratissima Chinese Creeper
186 Ixia speciosa Deep Crimson Ixia G. H. Bulb. May.
187 Echites suberecta Oval-leaved Echites H. H. Shrub. May.
188 Gladiolus Bell-flowered G. H. Bulb. May.
campanulatus Gladiolus
189 Zinnia verticillata Double Zinnia Har. Ann. August.
190 Geranium Astragalus-leaved H. H. Shrub. July.
astragalifolium Geranium
191 Platylobium Scolopendra-like- G. H. Shrub. May.
scolopendrum stemmed
Platylobium
192 Antholyza fulgens Refulgent-flowered G. H. Bulb. May.
Antholyza
193 Geranium lineare Linear-petalled H. H. Shrub. July.
Geranium
194 Hemerocallis alba White Day-Lily G. H. Herb. August.
195 Hypoxis obliqua Oblique-leaved G. H. Herb. June.
Hypoxis
196 Ixia maculata Spotted-flowered G. H. Bulb. May.
Ixia
197 Nymphæa cærulea Blue Water-Lily G. H. Aqua. July.
198 Bauera rubioides Three-leaved Bauera G. H. Shrub. August.
199 Camellia japonica. Double Red G. H. Shrub. January.
Var. fl. rub. pleno Camellia
200 Melaleuca St. John’s-wort- G. H. Shrub. September.
hypericifolia leaved Melaleuca
201 Aizoon canariense Purslane-leaved H. H. Herb. July.
Aizoon
202 Samyda serrulata Sawed-leaved H. H. Shrub. July.
Samyda
203 Ixia columnaris Columnar-chived G. H. Bulb. June.
Ixia
204 Geranium Ragged-leaved H. H. Shrub. June.
laciniatum. Var. flo. Geranium. Purp. fl.
purp. Var.
205 Platylobium Lance-shaped- G. H. Shrub. November.
lanceolatum leaved Flat-Pea
206 Dracæna borealis Oval-leaved Har. Herb. July.
Dracæna
207 Mimosa longifolia Long-leaved G. H. Shrub. March.
Mimosa
208 Lasiopetalum Rusty Woolly- G. H. Shrub. March.
ferrugineum blossom
209 Geranium Black-flowered H. H. Shrub. June.
melananthum Geranium
210 Antholyza Broad-leaved G. H. Bulb. July.
Æthiopica Antholyza
211 Ixia columnaris. Columnar-chived G. H. Bulb. June.
Var. versicolor Ixia. Changeable fl.
Var.
212 Pogonia debilis Twining Pogonia G. H. Shrub. September.
213 Ixia columnaris. Columnar-chived G. H. Bulb. June.
Var. latifolia Ixia. Broad-leaved
Var.
214 Westeringia Rosemary-like G. H. Shrub. September.
rosmarinacea Westeringia
215 Embothryum Willow-like G. H. Shrub. May.
salignum Embothryum
216 Epidendrum sinense Chinese H. H. Shrub. September.
Epidendrum
 ERRATA.
Plate 153, Order, dele polygamia.
163, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, genetalibus, lege, genitalibus.
171, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, longiore, lege, longior.
175, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, enerviis, lege, enervis.
Ref. lin. 1, for, one which, read, one of which.
184, Gen. Ch. Nect. lin. 1, exterium, lege, exterius. Lin. 4, interium,
lege, interius.
188, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, longior, lege, longiore.
189, Sp. Ch. lin. 1, for, without, read, with.
191, Gen. Ch. Stam. lin. 3, assurentia, lege, assurgentia.
197, Gen. Ch. Corol. lin. 1, quindecem, lege, quindecim.
200, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, uninerviis, lege, uninervis.
202, Gen. Ch. Stam. lin. 2, octodecem, lege, octodecim.
206, Order, for Pointals, read, Pointal. Gen. Ch. Pist. lin. 2,
staminium, lege, staminum.
207, Sp. Ch. lin. 1, post, integris, ins. (,)
210, Sp. Ch. lin. 2, corolla, lege, corollæ.
 INDEX

TO THE PLANTS CONTAINED IN VOL. IV.

Plate 217 Passiflora Apple-fruited H. H. Shrub. July.
maliformis Passion-flower
218 Embothrium Box-leaved G. H. Shrub. September.
buxifolium Embothrium
219 Gladiolus Spear-spotted G. H. Bulb. May.
cuspidatus, Var. Gladiolus, V. with
petalis crispis crisped petals
220 Massonia scabra Rough-leaved G. H. Bulb. March.
Massonia
221 Wurmbea capensis, Cape Wurmbea, Var. G. H. Bulb. May.
Var. β 2
222 Geranium radiatum Rayed-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
Geranium
223 Clusia flava Yellow-flowered H. H. Shrub. September.
Balsam-tree
224 Geranium reflexum Reflexed-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
Geranium
225 Gnidia Opposite-leaved G. H. Shrub. April.
oppositifolia Gnidia
226 Magnolia pumila Dwarf Magnolia G. H. Shrub. September.
227 Gladiolus ringens, Gaping Gladiolus, G. H. Bulb. May.
Var. multiflorus many flowered Var.
228 Hibiscus mutabilis, Changeable-rose H. H. Shrub. November.
Var. flore pleno Hibiscus, Double-
flow. Var.
229 Magnolia fuscata Brown-stemed G. H. Shrub. April.
Magnolia
230 Dodonæa triquetra Three-sided G. H. Shrub. March.
Dodonæa
231 Cerbera Ahouai Oval-leaved Cerbera H. H. Shrub. July.
232 Ixia capitata, Var. Bunch-flowering G. H. Bulb. May.
stellata Ixia, Star-flowered
Var.
233 Melanthium viride Green-flowered G. H. Bulb. July.
Melanthium
234 Protea spicata Spike-flowered G. H. Shrub. May.
Protea
235 Mimosa discolor Two-coloured-leaved G. H. Shrub. September.
Mimosa
236 Hypoxis stellata, Star-flowered G. H. Bulb. April.
Var. flore albo Hypoxis, White
Variety
237 Cytisus tomentosus Down-leaved G. H. Shrub. August.
Cytisus
238 Roëlla decurrens Decurrent-leaved G. H. Ann. August.
Roella
239 Geranium selinum Rock-parsley-leaved G. H. Herb. June.
Geranium
240 Gladiolus carneus Flesh-coloured G. H. Bulb. May.
Gladiolus
241 Gladiolus Orchis-like-flowered G. H. Bulb. March.
orchidiflorus Gladiolus
242 Xeranthemum Bundled-leaved G. H. Shrub. May.
fasciculatum Everlasting-flower
243 Protea lagopus Woolly-leaved G. H. Shrub. June.
Protea
244 Hemerocallis Grass-leaved Day- Har. Herb. June.
graminea Lily
245 Ixia pusilla Dwarf-blue Ixia G. H. Bulb. April.
246 Geranium Fleshy-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
incrassatum Geranium
247 Geranium ciliatum Fringed-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
Geranium
248 Protea umbellata Umbellated Protea G. H. Shrub. August.
249 Pitcairnia Sulphur-coloured H. H. Herb. April.
sulphurea Pitcairnia
250 Ixia columnaris, Columnar-chived G. H. Bulb. June.
Var. grandiflora Ixia, Large-flowered
Var.
251 Lachenalia Sweet violet- G. H. Bulb. April.
purpureo-cærulea coloured Lachenalia
252 Hebenstreitia aurea Golden-flowered G. H. Shrub. August.
Hebenstreitia
253 Talinum patens Panicled Purslane H. H. Ann. August.
254 Geranium Procumbent G. H. Shrub. May.
procumbens Geranium
255 Moræa Northiana Northian Moræa H. H. Herb. July.
256 Ixia maculata, Var. Spotted-flowered G. H. Bulb. June.
minor, flo. Ixia, Small Var. purp.
purpureo flo.
257 Falkia repens Creeping Falkia G. H. Herb. August.
258 Banksia præmorsa Bitten-ended-leaved G. H. Shrub. July.
Banksia
259 Geranium pilosum Hairy Geranium G. H. Herb. July.
260 Ornithogalum Sweet-scented Star G. H. Bulb. June.
odoratum of Bethlehem
261 Cameraria latifolia Bastard Mangeneel H. H. Shrub. August.
262 Xeranthemum Spiral-leaved G. H. Shrub. July.
spirale Everlasting-flower
263 Vaccinium Green-wooded Har. Shrub. June.
staminium Whortle-berry
264 Protea glomerata Woolly-headed G. H. Shrub. August.
Protea
265 Cyrtanthus obliqua Oblique-leaved G. H. Bulb. July.
Cyrtanthus
266 Platylobium Oval-leaved Flat-Pea G. H. Shrub. July.
ovatum
267 Jatropha Fiddle-leaved H. H. Shrub. July.
panduræfolia Physic-Nut
268 Gladiolus plicatus Plaited-leaved G. H. Bulb. May.
Gladiolus
269 Geranium Ragged-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
laciniatum, Var. Geranium, Two-
bicolor coloured-flower Var.
270 Protea pulchella Waved-leaved Protea G. H. Shrub. September.
271 Asclepias gigantea Gigantic Swallow- H. H. Shrub. August.
wort
272 Embothrium Narrow-leaved G. H. Shrub. July.
lineare Embothrium
273 Lobelia pinifolia Pine-leaved Lobelia G. H. Shrub. July.
274 Ornithogalum Large White- G. H. Bulb. July.
lacteum flowered Star of
Bethlehem
275 Gladiolus ringens, Gaping-flowered G. H. Bulb. June.
Var. undulatus Gladiolus, Waved-
flowered Var.
276 Monsonia filia Hairy-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
Monsonia
277 Protea speciosa, Smooth-leaved G. H. Shrub. October.
Var. foliis glabris shewy Protea
278 Melaleuca coronata Flax-leaved G. H. Shrub. August.
Melaleuca
279 Xeranthemum Bundle-leaved G. H. Shrub. August.
fasciculatum, Var. Everlasting-flower,
fl. al. White Var.
280 Persoonia latifolia Broad-leaved G. H. Shrub. November.
Persoonia
281 Metrosidera hirsuta Hairy Metrosidera G. H. Shrub. November.
282 Geranium Spatula-leaved G. H. Herb. July.
spathulatum, Var. Geranium, Curled-
curviflo. flo. Var.
283 Pogonia glabra Smooth-leaved G. H. Shrub. March.
Pogonia
284 Chiococca Opposite-leaved H. H. Shrub. July.
racemosa Snowberry-tree
285 Ferraria viridiflora Green-flowered G. H. Bulb. July.
Ferraria
286 Hibiscus Norfolk Island G. H. Shrub. August.
Patersonius Hibiscus
287 Styphelia Small-flowered G. H. Shrub. May.
parviflora Styphelia
288 Protea cynaroides Artichoke-like- G. H. Shrub. January.
flowered Protea
 ERRATA.
Plate 217, Passiflora maliformis. For Plate CCVII, put, CCXVII.
218, To No. 1 and 2 of the reference to the plate, add, magnified.
226, Gen. Char. Chives, line 4, for, fixed on side, read, fixed on each
side.
233, For, Order I, read, Order III, for monygynia, read, trigyma, and
for One Pointal, read, Three Pointals. Blossom, after claws put a
comma.
235, English name. For, two coloured leaved, read, two-coloured-
leaved.
243, Char. Spec, line 2, dele (,) post longitudine.
257, Gen. Char. Pist. Pro Germen, lege, Germina.
270, Specific Char, line 3, for flower head, read, flower-head.
276, Gen. Char. Corolla. Post obovata pone comma.
282, Geranium spathulatum, for, Plate CCLXX, put, CCLXXXII.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIST'S
REPOSITORY FOR NEW AND RARE PLANTS; VOL. 03 & 04 [OF 10]
***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
back
back
back
back
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com