CHM 1301: INTRODUCTORY GENERAL CHEMISTRY 3 CREDITS

COURSE OUTLINE

Atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds. Laws of chemical combination.

The Mole concept. The electronic structure of atom. Discovery of the sub-atomic particles;

cathode ray, J .J. Thompson, Milliken (oil drop), Rutherford. Rontgen, etc. Borh’s atom and

atomic line spectra. Periodic Table and the periodicity of atomic properties. Ionization

energies, electron affinities and electro-negativities. Chemical Bonding and Shapes of

molecules. Oxidation Reduction Reaction. Concepts of acids and bases; Arrhenius, Bronsted-

Lowry and Lewis. Classification of Lewis acids and bases, Class A class B under

Schwarzenbach rule and classification of both acids and bases as hard and soft.

1
ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER
A Greek philosopher in the 5th century B.C, Democritus, expressed the belief that all
matter consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he called “Atomos”, meaning
indivisible or uncuttable. This idea was rejected by some his colleagues e.g. Plato and
Aristotle. Later in the year 1808 an English scientist and school teacher, John Dalton,
formulated a precise definition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we call
atoms.
The hypotheses about the nature of matter which Dalton’s atomic theory is based are as
follows:
1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small
particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions.
2. An element is type of matter which is composed of only one kind of atom; each
atom is having the same property. Mass is one such property and atoms of a
given element have a characteristic mass.
3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two more elements
chemically combined in a fixed proportion. The relative numbers of any two
kinds of atoms in a compound occur in a simple ratio. An example is that CO2 is
a compound consisting of carbon and oxygen in ratio of 1 to 2.
A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms present in the reacting
substances formed by the reaction. Thus atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any
chemical reaction, as the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory. “Atom” can be defined as the
basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. Dalton imagined that
an atom is extremely small and indivisible. However, in the 1850’s through to the 20th
century, a series of investigations were carried out, which revealed that atoms actually
possess internal structure. These included the “nucleus’’ (which is the atom’s central
core and is positively charged and contains most of atom’s mass) and one or more
“electrons’’ (very light in mass, negatively charged) that exist around the atom’s
positively charged nucleus.
Discovery of Electron
J.J Thompson conducted a series of experiments that showed atoms were not
indivisible; in fact they contain sub particles. Thompson used an apparatus which
2
contains two electrodes sealed into a glass tube from which air had been evacuated. The
negative and positive electrodes are called cathode and anode respectively. He observed
that when a high-voltage is turned on, the glass tube emits a greenish light; however, he
confirmed that the emission originated from cathode. He found that the cathode rays
(light) move towards the anode (which is positive) and from this experiment Thompson
concluded that cathode rays consist of a beam of negatively charged particles
(electrons) and that electrons are constituent of all matter.
Protons and Neutrons
In the early 1900s, it became clear that atoms contain electrons and are electrically
neutral. For an atom to be electrically neutral it must contain equal number of positive
and negative charges. Based on this reasoning, Thompson proposed that an atom could
be thought of as uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded

J.J. Thomsons model of the atom

In the year 1910, Ernest Rutherford conducted series of experiments using very
thin foils of gold and other metals as targets for α-particles from radioactive source. He
observed that the majority of particles penetrated the foil either undeflected or with only
a slight deflection. In some instances the α-particle bounced back in the direction from
which it had come or scattered at a large angle.

Rutherford explains the result of this α-scattering experiment in terms of new model of
the atom. According to Rutherford, most of the atom must be empty space. This is the

3
reason why majority of the α-particles passed through the gold foil with little or no
deflection. He then proposed that the atom’s positive charges are concentrated in the
“nucleus” which is the dense neutral core within the atom. The positively charged
particles in the nucleus are called “protons”.

Rutherfords model of the atom

At this stage of experiment scientist proposed that the atom contains a nucleus
which occupies 1/1013 of the volume of the atom and is the heaviest part of the entire
atom.
The molecular dimensions of an atom are expressed in SI units, called picometer (pm)
where
Ipm = 1 x 10-12m. Usually an atomic radius is about 100pm where as the radius of
nucleus is only about 5 x 10-3pm.
The Neutron
Rutherford experiments did not solve one problem, as why the mass of hydrogen atom
(simplest atom) which has one proton is significantly lower than that of Helium atom
which contains 2 protons. Literally since the mass of electrons are negligible, their mass
contribution is neglected, thus the ratio of their masses shall be 1:2 (Hydrogen:
Helium). However the mass ratio was found to be 1:4 (H:He). This mystery was solved
by a scientist called Sir James Chadwick, when he bombarded a sheet of beryllium with
α– particles. He observed a very high-energy radiation similar to γ-ray emitted by the
metal. Later it was confirmed that the energy is emitted by a third type of sub atomic
particle which he called “neutrons” because they are electrically neutral (with mass
slightly greater than that of protons). Chadwick proposed his model thus:

4
 Chadwick’s model of the atom
This experiment explains the mystery of mass ratio between the helium and hydrogen
atoms. In the hydrogen atom there is only one proton and no neutron while in the
helium atom there are 2 protons and 2 neutrons as such the mass ratio is 1:4.

Mass and charge of subatomic particles

Particle Mass (g) Charge
Coulomb charge unit
Electron 9.10939 x 10-28 -1.6022 x 10-19 -1
Proton 1.67262 x 10-24 +1.6022 x 10-19 +1
Neutron 1.670493 x 10-24 0 0

Atomic number, Mass number

An atom is regarded as the unit quantity of an element that exists either alone or in
chemical combination with other atoms of the same or different element. An atom
contains positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons. Example is
hydrogen atom (which has one proton and one electron). All other elements except
hydrogen have protons and neutrons in their nucleus.
Some notations are used in describing an atom of an element. These notations
are for identification of referred atom. These include atomic number, mass number and
the symbol of the atom. E.g
A
Z E Where is E = element
A= mass number
Z = atomic number

5
Atomic number: It was discovered that each element has a unique charge (i.e a number
in multiple of the magnitude of the electron charge) e.g. a hydrogen atom has a
magnitude of (+1) charge and it equals that of electron (-1).
In neutral atom, the number of protons present in that atom equals the number of
electrons present e.g nitrogen has 7 protons and 7 electrons.
Atomic number = number protons in the nucleus
Mass number: This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
For example, Sodium (Na) has an atomic number of 11 and 12 number of neutrons.
:. The mass number = Atomic number + number of neutrons

23 = 11 + 12

Relative atomic mass: The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus of an atom.
The actual masses of protons and neutrons are relatively very small (non-integral)
numbers. For convenience purpose a system of relative atomic mass is used.
The atomic mass unit (a.m.u) has a value of approximately 1.660 x 10-27kg. This
value corresponds closely to the mass of proton or a neutron. As result, the mass of
each proton and neutron is taken to be one atomic mass unit. The scale of relative
atomic masses (R.a.m) is based upon measurement taken for carbon with all atomic
masses stated relative to 12C = 12.000
Isotopes: An element is characterized by the number of protons and to keep the atom
neutral this number of proton must be equal to the number of electrons. However, the
number of neutrons may vary e.g.

↓ ↓ ↓
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
1 proton 2 - protons 1 – protons
No neutron 1 – neutron 2 – neutrons
Atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number but different mass number are called
“isotopes”. The difference in mass number arises due to the difference in the number of
neutrons present in the atoms. Other examples of isotopes include lithium and
, chlorine and and copper and .
Isotopes can be separated by mass spectrometry.

6
Relative atomic mass:- e.g. calculate the relative atomic mass of naturally occurring
magnesium if the distribution of isotopes is 78.7% and

and the accurate masses of the isotopes to three

significant figures are 24.0, 25.0 and 26.0

Solution

Relative atomic mass =

R.am = 24.3 (to 3 significant figures)

12
Abundances of isotopes: e.g calculate the percentage abundances of C and 13C if the
relative atomic mass of naturally occurring carbon is 12.011, and the accurate masses of
the isotopes are 12.00 and 13.003 (to 5 significant figures)

Let the % abundances of the two isotopes be x and (100 – x). The value of
R.A.M is therefore:

R.am =

= 98.9 (to 3 significant figures)

The abundances of the isotopes 12C and 13C are 98.9% and 1.1% respectively.
Class work: calculate the relative atomic mass of a sample of naturally occurring
boron which contains 19.9% 105B and 80% 115B. Accurate masses of the isotopes to 3
significant figures are 10.0 and 11.0.
DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

7
Before we go on to the determination of chemical formulas it is important to know the
definition of some terms.
THE MOLE
1 mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12.000g of carbon 12. Although the mole is
defined in terms of carbon atoms, the unit applies to any chemical specie, just as 1
dozen means 12 of anything.
1.000 mol of atoms of any element contains 6.022 X 1023 atoms of the element. The
same is true of 1 mole of any object, atom, ion or molecule.
The number of objects per mole, 6.022 X 1023mol-1, is called the Avogadro constant, NA,
in honor of the Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro who helped to establish the existence
of atoms.

Number of objects = number of moles x number of objects per mole

= number of mole x NA

The amount of atoms, ions or molecules in a sample are reported in moles, and the
Avogadro constant NA is used to convert between the numbers of these particles and the
number of moles.
Suppose a sample of vitamin C is known to contain 1.29 X 1024 hydrogen atoms.
Expressing that number as the number of moles of hydrogen atoms:

Number of moles of H atoms = 1.29 X 1024/6.022 X 1023mol-1

= 2.14 mol

- Molar Mass of an element is the mass of the element per mole of its atoms.
- The molar mass of a molecular compound is the mass of the compound per
mole of its molecules.
The mass of a sample = number of moles X molar mass
Number of moles = mass of samples (grams)
molar mass (grams per mole)

8
The determination of chemical formulas is achieved via two steps: the first is to
determine the empirical formula and the second (if the compound is molecular or
contains a polyatomic ion) is to determine the molecular formula.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA: The empirical formula of a compound is a chemical formula

that shows the relative numbers of atoms of each element. For example, the empirical
formula of glucose, which is CH2O, tells us that carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
present in the ratio of 1:2:1. The elements are present in these proportions regardless of
the size of the sample.

MOLECULAR FORMULA: This refers to the actual numbers of atoms of each

element in a molecule. The molecular formula for glucose, which is C6H12O6, tells us
that each glucose consist of six carbons atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen
atoms.
To determine the empirical formula of a compound, we begin by measuring the mass of
each element present in a sample. This composition is usually reported as the mass
percentage composition, that is, the mass of each element expressed as a percentage of
the total mass.
Mass of element = mass of element in the sample X 100
Total mass of sample

For example, a sample of Vitamin C of total mass 8.00g was analysed to find which
element it contains and how much of each. The following data were collected: C =
3.27g, Hydrogen = 0.366g and Oxygen = 4.36g
Mass percentage of carbon in Vitamin C is
Mass percentage of C= Mass of C in sample X 100%
Total mass of sample

= 3.27g x 100 = 40.9 %

8.00g
The same procedure gives the following values for the mass percentage of hydrogen
and oxygen: Hydrogen 4.58% and oxygen 54.5%

9
The analysis of a sample of eucalyptus of total mass of 3:16g gave its composition as
2.46g of carbon, 0.373g hydrogen and 0.329g oxygen. Following the same procedure
the mass percentage composition of carbon was determined to be 77.8%

DETERMINING EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

To determine the empirical formula of a compound, we need the relative number of
atoms of each element in the sample or the relative number of moles of each types of
atom. We can get this information by calculating the number of moles of atoms present
from the mass percentage composition. For example, Vitamin C with mass percentage
composition of 40.9% C, 4.58% H and 54.5% O, we find the number of moles of each
element as follows:

Number of moles of C atoms = 40.9 = 3.41mol

12.01g/mol

Number of moles of H atoms = 4.58 = 4.54mol

1.008 g/mol

Number of moles of O atoms = 54.5 = 3.41mol

16 g/mol
Divide the number of moles with the smallest value

:. C: H: O = 3.41 : 4.54 : 3.41

3.41 3.41 3.41

= 1: 1:33 :1
One number is still not a whole number; hence we must multiply each number by a
factor until all numbers are whole numbers or can be rounded off to whole number. So,
we multiply through by 3 to obtain 3: 3:99: 3 or approximately 3:4:3
So the empirical formula of Vitamin C is C3H4O3

10
A sample of magnesium of mass 0.450g burns in nitrogen to form 0.623g of
magnesium nitride. Determine the empirical formula of magnesium nitride.
By definition, number of moles = Mass in grams/atomic mass (g/mol)
Number of moles of magnesium = 0.450g/24.31gmol-1 = 0.0185mol
The mass of nitrogen in the compound is
Mass of nitrogen = 0.623g – 0.450g = 0.173g
Hence,
Number of moles of N = 0.173g/14.0gmol-1 = 0.0123
Ratio of Mg: N = 0.0185 : 0.0123 = 1.5 : 1
0.123 0.123

Multiplying through by 2 gives 3:2. This result suggests that the empirical formula of
magnesium nitride in indeed Mg3N2

Self test 1: A sample of bromine of mass 1.546g reacts with fluorine to form 2.649 of
bromine fluoride. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

Self test 2: The first compound of the noble gases was prepared in 1960s. In one
experiment, it was found that 2.56g of Xenon reacted with Fluorine to
produce 4.04g of Xenon Fluoride.
What is the empirical formula of this compound?

DETERMINING MOLECULAR FORMULA

The molecular formula of a compound is found by determining how many empirical
formula units are needed to account for the measured molar mass of the compound.
Therefore to determine the molecular formula for a compound, both its empirical
formula and its molecular weight must be known.
Molecular formula = n (empirical formula)
For example: the molar mass of Vitamin C is found to be 176.14gmol-1 by mass
spectrometry, with an empirical formula of C3H4O3. The molecular formula:
Molecular formula = n (e.f)
To find n we relate the above formula with molar mass.
Molar mass of vitamin C = n (e.f of vitamin)
11
176.14gmol-1 = n (3 x 12 + 4 x 1.008 + 3 x 16)
176.14gmol-1 = n 88.06gmol-1
N = 176.14gmol-1/88.06gmol-1 = 2
Molecular formula = n (empirical formula)
= 2 (C3H403)
= C6H8O6
CALCULATIONS WITH CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

Example
Given 4.80g of ammonium carbonate find
i) The number of moles of the compound,
ii) The number of moles of ammonium ion
iii) The number of moles of carbonate ions
iv) The number of moles of hydrogen atoms
v) The number of hydrogen atoms
vi) The mass of a molecule of ammonium carbonate
(R.a.m: H = 1.0; C = 12.0; N = 14.0; O = 16.0)

Ans: Ammonium carbonate = (NH4)2CO3

= (14 + 1 x 4)2 + 12 + (16 x 3) = 96.0gmol-1
a) 96g mol-1
 4.8g = 0.05mol of (NH4)2CO3
ii) For every mole of (NH4)2CO3, there are two moles of NH4+
 0.05 x 2 = 0.10 mole of NH4+
iii) For every mole of (NH4)2 CO3, there is one mole of CO32-
 0.05 x 1 = 0.05 mol of CO32-
iv) For every mole of (NH4)2 CO3, there are 8 moles of H-atoms.
 0.05 x 8 = 0.4mol of H-atoms
v) Every mole of H atoms contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Hydrogen.
 0.4 mol of H = 6.02 x 1023 x 0.4 mol = 2.408 x 1023 atom
vi) 1 mole of (NH4)2 CO3 has mass of 96g and is composed of 6.02 x 1023 particles.
 1 molecule has a mass of 96g = 15.95 x 10-23g
6.02 x 1023

12
MOLAR VOLUME of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of that gas at room
temperature and pressure (R.T.P) and is equal to 24.00 dm3mol-1 at standard
temperature and pressure (S.T.P = 0 oC and 1 atmosphere pressure). We have to note
that one mole of a gas, which occupies one molar volume, then has 6.02 x 10 23 particles
of that gas in it.

AVOGADRO’S LAW: This states that equal volumes of all gases of the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
 No of mole of a gas = Volume of gas
Molar volume

Examples:
1) Quicklime (CaO) is produced by the thermal decomposition of CaCO 3. Calculate
the volume of CO2 at S.T.P produced from the decomposition of 152g CaCO3.

Ans
First, write the equation of what happens:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(s)

From the equation, 1 mole of CaCO3 gives 1 mole of CO2.

 1 mole of CaCO3 has a molar mass of 100g and so must produce
44g of CO2
100g of CaCO3 44g of CO2
152g of CaCO3 66.88g of CO2
No of mole of CO2 = 66.88 = 1.52mols of CO2
44
At S.T.P, 1 mol of CO2 = 22.4dm3
 1.52mol = 22.4 x 1.52 = 34.05dm3

2) Find the density of Nitrogen gas at R.T.P (R.a.m : N = 14.0)

Ans: At R.T.P, 1 mole of Nitrogen gas occupies 24.0dm 3 since the molar volume
of all gases at R.T.P is 24.0dm3 mol-1
The molar mass of N2(g) = (14 x 2)g mol-1 = 28.0gmol-1
Density = Mass = 28mg mol-1 = 1.167gdm-3
Volume 24dm3mol-1

13
3) 1.6g of a gas occupies 1.2dm3 at room temperature and pressure. What is the
relative molecular mass of the gas?
Ans
Since the molar volume at RTP = 24.0dm3 mol-1, then
No of mole of gas = 1.2 = 0.05mol
24

Molar mass of gas = 1.6g = 32g mol-1.

0.05mol
 Relative molecular mass of the gas = 32 (no unit)

4) Calculate the number of molecules in 4.48dm 3 of hydrogen at standard

temperature and pressure.

Ans
At STP, the molar volume = 22.4dm3mol-1
Since 22.4dm3 = 1mol
 4.48dm3 = 0.2mol
Since 1mol has 6.02 x 1023 particles, then 0.2mol = 1.204 x 1023 particles.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS

Liquid solutions are made by dissolving a gas, liquid or solid in a liquid. The substance
that is dissolved is called a solute and the liquid in which it is dissolved is called a
solvent. The concentration of a solute in a solvent can be stated in many ways some, of
which are more commonly used than others:-

MOLARITY (or molar concentration) of a solution is the moles of solute in a dm 3 of

solution
Molarity = moles of solute
dm3 of solution
The molarity of a solution is designated by the letter M. A 3.0 molar solution of NaCl
means that the solution has been made up in a ratio that corresponds to adding 3.0moles
of NaCl to enough water to make up a dm3 of solution.

14
MOLALITY of a solution is the moles of solute per 1000g (1kg) of solvent. It is
designated by the small letter m.
A 3.0 molal solution of NaCl means 3.0moles of NaCl dissolved in 1000g of water.

NORMALITY is defined as the number of equivalents of solute per dm 3 (litre) of

solution. Normality is designated by the capital letter N. A 0.5N solution of a substance
represents a solution which contains 0.5 equivalents of that substance per 1dm 3 of
solution. Normality and molality are not much in use as molarity.
The definition of equivalents depends on the type of reaction taking place in the
solution. For an acid-base reaction, the equivalent is the mass of an acid that can furnish
or accept exactly one mole of protons (H + ions). H2SO4 can furnish two moles, so the
equivalent mass of H2SO4 is the molar mass divided by two. Also, since Ca(OH) 2
contains two moles of OH- ions that can react with two moles of protons, its equivalent
is half its molar mass.

THE MOLAR MASS, EQUIVALENT MASS, AND RELATIONSHIP OF

MOLARITY AND NORMALITY OF SOME ACIDS AND BASES
ACID OR MOLAR MASS EQUIVALENT RELATIONSHIP OF
BASE MASS MOLARITY AND
NORMALITY
HC1 36.5 36.5 1m = 1N
H2SO4 98 98/2=49 1m = 2N
H3PO4 98 98/3=32.6 1m = 3N
NaOH 40 40 1m = 1N
Ca(OH)2 74 74/2=37 1m = 2N

Percentage of solute is also used to state concentrations but it must be stated whether it
is percentage by volume or mass (weight).
PERCENTAGE BY MASS of a solute is the percentage of the total solution weight
contributed by the solute. For example, a 6% H2O2 by weight would be 6g of H2O2 per
100g of the solution.
PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME of solute is the percentage of the final solution volume
represented by the volume of solute taken to make the solution. For example, 6% H 2O2

15
per volume would represent a solution made from 6ml of H 2O2 plus enough solvent to
bring the total volume to 100cm3.
We also use parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) to express concentration.
Parts per Million (ppm) = Mass of component x 106
Total mass of solution

Parts per billion (ppb) = Mass of Component x 109

Total mass of solution

Some compounds have water of crystallization as part of their crystalline structure. In

these hydrated salts, the crystal structures change if the water is removed. For example,
when blue hydrated copper (11) suphate is heated, a white anhydrous copper(11)
suphate powder is formed,
CuSO4. 5H2O CuSO4 x 5H2O
Finding the formula of the hydrated compounds is also important. E.g.
The chemical formula of hydrate of Magnesium sulphate is known to be MgSO 4. X
H2O. It is found that the percentage of water by mass in the compound is 51.22%. Find
X. (R.a,m: Mg = 24.3; H =1.0; O =16.0; S=32.1).
Ans.
Formula mass of MgSO4 x H2O = (24.3+32.1 + (16.0x4) +(1.0x2+16)x = 120.4 + 18x
Mass of water of crystallization is 18xg

18x = 51.22
120.4+18x 100

1800x = 6 166.89 + 921.96 x

878.04x = 6166.89
X = 7

The chemical formula is hydrated magnesium sulphate is

MgSO4.7H2O

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

New substances are formed when chemicals react with one another. To write down the
names of the reactants and products for every reaction will be untidy and will take too
much time and space, so we summarize everything by use of chemical equations.
A chemical equation is a statement, in formula, which shows the relative numbers of
particles involved in a chemical reaction. From a chemical equation, we can deduce the
16
quantities of both reactants and products and even their physical states, whether solid,
in aqueous form or gas state.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The starting materials are called reactants and the substance(s) formed as a result of the
reaction are called products. Chemical equations help us to describe chemical reactions.
Depending on the kind of information we want to convey for a reaction involving ions,
we have a choice of chemical equations. The reactions can be represented by:
a) A molecular equation
b) A complete ionic equation
c) A net ionic equation.

A Molecular Equation: is a chemical equation in which the reactants and

products are written as if they were molecular substances, even though they may
actually exist in solution as ions. E.g
Ca (OH)2 (aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
The molecular equation above clearly shows what the reactants and products are, and
even their physical states.
COMPLETE IONIC EQUATION tells as what is happening at the level of ions. Using
the same Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3 which are all soluble ionic substances and therefore
strong electrolytes, we can see that when they dissolve in water they go into solution as
ions. Each formula unit of Ca(OH) 2 forms one Ca2+ and two OH- ions in solution,
while a formula unit of Na2CO3 forms two Na+ ions and a CO32- ion.
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH (aq)
A complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which strong electrolytes (such as
soluble ionic compounds) are written as separate ions in the solution. As can be seen
above, the Ca2+ reacts with the CO32 to precipitate out as a solid, while the Na + and OH-
ions stay in solution, not taking part on the reaction. These are called spectator ions
since they do not take part in the reaction.
A NET IONIC EQUATION is an ionic equation from which the spectator ions have
been cancelled. In the example given above, it shows that the reaction that actually
occurs at the ionic level is between Ca 2+ ions and CO32- ion to form solid calcium
sulphate.
The net ionic equations is
17
Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3(s)

When writing chemical equations, we must learn to balance them. In this case, we must
know how many moles of the reactants combine to give a definite number of moles of
products.
STOICHIOMETRY refers to the relative number of moles of substances involved in a
chemical reaction. The numbers appearing before the chemical formula in any
equations are called stoichiometric co-efficients. A balanced chemical equation gives us
all the information about a chemical reaction. We can always deduce the number of
products formed if the quantities of the reactants are known, and vice versa. To be
valid, a chemical equation must satisfy three conditions:
1. It must be consistent with experimental facts, i.e, it must state what chemical
species disappear and appear.
2. It must be consistent with the conservation of mass, i.e, every atom must be
accounted for.
3. The chemical equation must be consistent with the conservation of electric
charge.
A balanced equation contains the same number of atoms of the different kind on
the left and right hand sides; furthermore, the net charge is the same on both
sides. An equation can be balanced by inspecting both the left and right sides to
determine whether the right sides equals the left. The examples below are
balanced.

2K2Cr2O7(s) + 2H2O(l) + 3S(g) 3SO2(g) + 4KOH(aq) + 2Cr2O3(s)

3NiCl2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) Ni3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaCl(aq)

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
We can classify the millions of possible chemical reaction into one of three types:
1. PRECIPITATION REACTIONS: In this type of reaction, two solutions of ionic
substances are mixed and a solid ionic substance is precipitated.
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3 (aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
18
2. Acid – Base reaction: An acid reacts with a base with the involvement of the
transfer of proton between reactants:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Oxidation. Reduction Reaction: This involves the transfer of electrons between

reactants
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING MOLE RATIO OF REACTING MASSES
1. Calculate the mass of copper formed when 12.45g of copper (II) oxide is
completely reduced by hydrogen
(R.a.m : H = 1.0;0=16.0;Cu = 63.5)

Ans: (write down the balanced chemical equation first!)

Cu O(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)

From the above equation, the mole ration of Cu:CuO is 1:1. The number of moles of
copper formed is the same as the number of moles of CuO reduced. ,

No of moles of CuO reduced = 12.45 = 0.157 mol

63.5 + 16.0

No of moles of copper formed = 0.157 mol

Since No of moles = mass of Cu = mass of Cu = 0.157 mol,
Molar mass 63.5
Then mass of Cu
= 63.5 x 0.157 = 9.97g

2. Sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes according to the following equation:

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(1)
In order to obtain 240 cm3 of CO2 at room temperature and pressure, what is the
minimum amount of NaHCO3 required? (R.a.m: H = 1.0; C = 12.0, 0=16.0, Na = 23.0;
Molar volume at R.T.P = 24.0 cm3 mol-1)

19
Ans: From the equation, ratio of NaHCO3 : CO2 = 2:1
NO of moles of CO2 formed = 240 = 0.01mol
24000

No of moles of NaHCO3 required = 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 mol

Mass of NaHCO3 required = 0.02 moles x molar mass
= 0.0 2 x (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + (16.0x3) )
= 0.02 x 84.0 = 1.68g (minimum mass of NaHCO3 needed)

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING VOLUME RATIO OF GASES

At either S.T.P or R.T.P, gases react with each other in fixed molar ratios and volume
ratios. In the Haber process, in which nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia,
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

One mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to give two moles of
ammonia. Also, one volume ratio of nitrogen reacts with three volume ratios of
hydrogen to give two volume ratios of Ammonia.

Example,
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed when 20cm3 of ethane and 70cm3 of
oxygen are exploded, assuming that all volumes are measured at room temperature and
pressure.
Ans
2CH6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
2 moles : 7 moles 4 moles : 6 moles (from equation)
2 volumes : 7 volumes 4volumes : 6 volumes (By Avogadro’s law)
20 cm3 : 70cm3
From the above equation, both mole ratio and volume ration of C2H6 : CO2 are 2:4
If 20cm3 of C2H6 is used, then the volume of CO2 obtained is :
2 = 20 2x = 80. X = 40cm3 (volume of CO2 formed)
4 x
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

20
The analysis of chemicals is divided into qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis involves the identification of substances or species present in the
material while quantitative analysis involves the determination of the amount of a
substance or specie present in the material. It is after we have determined the specie
present (qualitative analysis) that we can go ahead to determine the quantities of those
specie present (quantitative analysis).
In quantitative analysis, we use both gravimetric analysis and volumetric analysis to
determine quantities.

GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS is a type of quantitative analysis in which the amount of

specie in a material is determined by converting the species to a product that can be
isolated completely and weighed. Precipitations reactions are frequently used in
gravimetric analysis. The species to be determined is first precipitated out from the
solution and the precipitate is then filtered out, dried and weighed. Gravimetric analysis
is highly accurate and simple to conduct even though it is time consuming and requires
meticulousness.
An example of gravimetric analysis is the determination of Lead in water. To
determine Lead, sodium sulphate in added to the solution which causes the Lead to
precipitate out as Lead(II) sulphate, which is filtered, dried and weighed. Assuming the
Lead is Pb(NO3)2, then the reaction is like this:
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + PbSO4(s)

Example 1: A 1.OOOL sample of polluted water was analyzed for Lead(II) ion, Pb 2+,
by adding an excess of sodium sulphate to it. The mass of Lead(II) sulphate that
precipitated out was 229.8mg. What is the mass of Lead in a liter of the water? Give the
answer as mg of Lead per liter of solution.
(R.a.m : S = 32, 1; O = 16.O; Pb = 207.2)
Ans:
All the Lead in the water is precipitated out as Lead (II) sulphate, PbSO 4. If you
determine the percentage of Lead in PbSO4, you can calculate the quantity of Lead in
the water sample
First, to obtain the mass percentage of Pb in PbSO 4, divide the molar mass of Pb by the
molar mass of PbSO4 and multiply by 100.
21
 % Pb = 207.2gmol-1 x 100% = 68.32%
303.2g mol-1

 of the 229.8mg of PbSO4 in 1 liter of water, 68.32% of it is Pb.

Amount of Pb in sample = 229.8mg x 68.32% = 157.0mg of Pb per liter

EXAMPLE 2: 0.5662g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride ions and an

unknown metal is dissolved in water and treated with an excess of AgNO 3. If the mass
of AgCl precipitate that forms is 1.0882g, what is the percent of chloride in the original
compound? (R.am:Ci=35.5; Ag=107.9)

Ans:
First find the percentage mass of Cl in the AgCl
Cl = Molar mass of Cl = 35.5g x 100% = 24.76%
Molar mass of AgCl 143.4g

24.76% of 1.0882g = 0.2694g of Cl.

We can calculate the percentage by mass of Cl in the unknown sample
Cl by mass = Mass of Cl x 100%
Mass of sample
0.25949 x 100% = 47.58%
0.5662g

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS is a method of analysis based on titrations. A titration is a

procedure for determining the amount of substance A by adding a carefully measured
volume of a solution, B, with known concentration (a standard solution) until the
reaction of A and B is just complete.
During titration, the standard solution (the titrant) is poured from a burette into a
conical flask containing the substance to be analysed (the analyte) until a point is
reached where enough titrant has been added to react exactly with the analyte. That
point is called the equivalence point or stoichimetric point. An indicator is used to mark
this point by changing colour at or very near the equivalence point. The point where the
indicator actually charges colour is called the end point.
INDICATOR pH at which Colour at lower Colour at
colour change pH higher pH
METHYL ORANGE 4 RED YELLOW
22
METHYL RED 5 RED YELLOW
LITMUS 7 RED BLUE
BROMOTHYMOL BLUE 7 YELLOW BLUE
PHENOLPHTHALEIN 9 COLOURLESS RED
ALIZARIN YELLOW 11 YELLOW RED

COLOURS OF VARIOUS INDICATOR DYES

Taking cognizance of the pH at which the indicator dye changes colour, we can then
pick which one to use depending on the acid-base pair that is reacting with each other.
ACID-BASE PAIR pH at end-point INDICATOR
STRONG ACID-STRONG BASE 7 Phenolphthalein,
Methyl orange
STRONG ACID-WEAK BASE <7 Methyl orange
WEAK ACID-STRONG BASE >7 Phenolphthalein

SUITABLE INDICATORS FOR DIFFERENT ACID-BASE PAIRS

There are other types of titrations in which the end point is determined without the use
of an indicator dye. In these titrations, the end point could be determined by following
the changes in pH value, temperature or electrical conductivity during the course of the
reaction.

CALCULATIONS INVOVLING MOLARITY AND TITRATIONS

1) 25.0cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was titrated against 0.067M of sulphuric
acid using methyl orange as indicator. The indicator changed colour from yellow
to red when 22.5cm3 of H2SO4 had been added. Calculate the concentration of
sodium hydroxide solution.
Ans: Give the balanced equation first.
2) 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) - 2H2O(1)
Mole ratio of NaOH : H2SO4 = 2:1

Since number of moles = molarity x volume (in dm3)

No of moles of H2SO4(aq) = 0.067 x 22.5 = 1.508 x 10-3mol
 Concentration of NaOH(aq) = 3.016 x 10-3 = M x V (which is 25.0)
1000
23
 3.016 x 10-3 = M x 25.0 So M = 3.016 x 10-3 mol
1000 40

M = 3.016 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.121M

EXAMPLE 2: A bottle of dilute hydrochloric acid is 2M. What mass of

hydrogen chloride, HCl, would be dissolved in 100cm 3 of this acid? (R.a.m:
H=1.0; CL=35.5).

Ans
We know the molarity is 2M. From this we know that the concentration is 2mol
dm-3, that is, the solution contains 2mol of HCl in 1000cm3
In 100cm3, then there will be 0.20mol of HCl
The molar mass of HCl is = 36.5gmol-1
 0.2mol = 36.5 x 0.2 = 7.3g in 100cm3

3) 2.52g of a pure dibasic acid of formula mass 126.0 is dissolved in water and
made up to 250cm3 in a volumetric flask. 25.0cm 3 of this solution is found to
neutralize 28.5cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution.
a) What is the concentration of the acid solution?
b) If the dibasic acid is represented by H2X, write an equation for the
reaction between the acid and sodium hydroxide.
c) What is the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution?
Ans
a) No. of moles of acid = 2.52g = 0.02mol
126.0gmol-1
Molarity of acid solution = 0.02 = 0.08m
250 x 10-3
b) H2 X (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2X (aq) + 2H2O(1)

c) 1 mole of Acid: 2 moles of NaOH

No of moles of acid = 25 x 0.08 = 2.0 x 10-3 mol
1000

No of moles of NaOH needed = 2 x 2.0 x 10-3mol = 4.0 x 10-3 mol

1mol in 1dm3 = 1M (molarity = No of moles)
Volume

24
  4.0 x 10-3 mol in 28.5cm3 = 4.0 x 10-3 x 1000 = 0.14M
28.5

QUESTONS TO BE SOLVED BY STUDENTS

1)A piece of limestone, CaCO3, was added to 1.0dm3 of 0.1mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid, HCl. After effervescence had stopped, 31.25cm 3 of the
resulting solution required 25.0cm3 of 0.05mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, for complete neutralization. Calculate the mass of limestone
added
(R.a.m: H=1.0; O=16.0; C=12.0; Na = 23.0; Cl = 35.5; Ca = 40.0)

2) Some crystals of washing soda were exposed to the atmosphere for

efflorescence to take place. 6.02g of this partly effloresced washing soda,
Na2CO3. yH2O were then dissolved in 500cm3 of water. 25.0cm3 of this
carbonate solution required 32.10cm3 of 0.097mol dm-3 HCl for complete
neutralization. Calculate Y. Hence, write the formula of the effloresced
washing soda.
(R.am: H= 1.0; C=12.0; O=16.0; Na =23.0; Cl=35.5)
THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL PICTURE OF THE ATOM
Through the work of de Broglie, Davison and Germer, we know that electrons in atoms
can be treated as waves more effectively than as small particles traveling in circular or
elliptical orbits. Large objects such as golf balls and moving automobiles obey the laws
of classical mechanics (Isaac Newton’s law), but very small particles such as electrons,
atoms and molecules do not. A different kind of mechanics called quantum mechanics,
which is based on the wave particles of matter, describes the behavior of very small
particles much better. Quantization of energy is a consequence of these properties.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to determine
accurately both the momentum and the position of an electron (or any other very small
particles) simultaneously. Momentum is mass times velocity, mv. Because electrons are
so small and move rapidly, their motion is usually detected by electromagnetic
radiation. Photons that interact with electrons have about the same energies as the
electron and severely disturb the motion of the electrons. It is not possible to determine
simultaneously both position and velocity of an electron, so we resort to a statistical

25
approach and speak of the probability of finding an electron within specified regions in
space. With these in mind, we list some basic ideas of quantum mechanics.
1. Atoms and molecules can exist only in certain energy states with a definite
energy. When an atom or molecule changes its energy state, it must emit or
absorb just enough to bring it to the new energy state (the quantum
condition).

2. When atoms or molecules emit or absorb radiation (light), they change their
energies. The energy change in the atoms or molecules is related to the
frequency or wavelength of the light emitted or absorbed by the atoms

∆E = hv or ∆E = hc/λ………

This gives a relationship between the energy change, ∆E, and the wavelength of
the radiation emitted or absorbed. The energy lost (or gained) by atom as it goes
from higher to lower (or lower to higher) energy states is equal to the energy of
the photon emitted (or absorbed) during the transition.

3. The allowed energy states for atoms and molecules can be described by sets
of numbers called quantum numbers

QUANTUM NUMBERS
The solution of the Schrodinger and Dirac equation for hydrogen atom give wave
functions that describe the various states available to hydrogen’s single electron. Each
of these possible states is described by four quantum numbers. These quantum numbers
play important roles in describing the energy levels of electrons and the shapes of the
orbitals that describe distribution of electrons in space. The interpretation will become
clearer when we discuss atomic orbital later.
Let us define each quantum and describe the range of values it may take.
1. The principal quantum number n, determines the size and energy of the
orbitals and has integral values of n = 1, 2, 3, 4 …….It describes the average
distance of an electron from the nucleus, like the innermost electron shell,
26
 which has a principal quantum number of 1. An increase in n means higher
energy, because the electron is less tightly bound to the nucleus.

2. The angular momentum quantum number l, designates the shape of the

region in space that an electron occupies (orbital). The energy of the sub-
shell increases as the value of l increases. This number l, may take the
integral values from 0 up to and including (n-1) for each level of n, and the
value of l for a particular orbital is commonly assigned a letter, ie,

L = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…… (n-1)
s p d f g
For each of the principal quantum number n, the angular momentum quantum
number will be:
Principal quantum number angular momentum
quantum number
n =1 0
n=2 0, 1
n=3 0, 1, 2
n=4 0, 1, 2, 3
In the first shell, the maximum value of l is zero, which tells us that there is only an
s sub shell and no p sub shell. In the second shell, the permissible values of l are 0
and 1, which tells us that there are only s and p sub shells.

3. The magnetic quantum number, ml, designates the specific orbital within a
sub shell. Orbital within a given sub shell differ in their orientation in space,
but not in their energies. Within each sub shell, ml may take any integral
values from –l through zero to +l
Ml = (-l…0…+l)
The maximum value of ml depends on the value of l. For example when l = 1,
which designates the p sub shell, there are three permissible values of ml: -1, 0
and +1. Thus, three distinct regions of space, called atomic orbitals are
associated with a p sub shell. We refer to these orbitals as the Px, Py and Pz
orbitals.

27
 4. The Spin quantum number, Ms refers to the spin of an electron and the
orientation of the magnetic field produced by this spin. For every set of n, l,
ml values, ms can take the value + ½ or – ½ , ms = + ½

n L Ml Ms Electron Electron
capacity of capacity of
sub shell shell=2n2
1 0 (1s) 0 +½,-½ 2 2
2 0 (2s) 0 ½,-½ 2 8
1 (2p) -1, 0, +1 + ½ for each ml 6
3 0 (3s) 0 +½,-½ 2 18
1 (3p) -1, 0, +1 + ½ for each value of ml 6
2 (3d) -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 + ½ for each value of ml 10

4 0 (4s) 0 +½,- ½ 2 32
1 (4p) -1, 0, +1 + ½ for each value of ml 6
2 (4d) -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 + ½ for each value of ml 10
3 (4f) -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, + ½ for each value of ml 14
+3
Permissible values of the Quantum Numbers through n=4

ATOMIC ORBITALS
An atomic orbital is a region of space in which the probability of finding an electron is
high.
The various shapes of atomic orbitals can be classified into four main types which are
labeled s, p, d and f. There are many orbitals of each type and they differ principally in
the size of the clouds.
If an atomic orbital is visualized as cloud surrounding the nucleus, with the density of
the cloud representing the probability of finding an electron there. an s-orbital is a
spherical cloud that becomes less dense as the distance from the nucleus increases. In
principle, the cloud never thins to exactly zero.
28
 The orbital angular momentum of an 's' orbital is zero, as 'l' = 0. This means that
the probability of finding an electron at a particular distance from the nucleus is the
same in all directions at all angles. Since the distribution of electron density is
symmetrical, the shape representing the ‘s’ orbital is a sphere. It is to be primarily noted
that the total number of concentric spheres at any given main energy level in an ‘s'
orbital equals the principle quantum number of that level. Thus for example ‘1s' orbital
consists of only one sphere while a '3s' orbital consists of three concentric spheres.
Secondly, as the value of the principal quantum number 'n' increases, the ‘s' orbital
becomes larger and the energy of the ‘s' orbital increases, while retaining the spherical
symmetry. The energies of the various ‘s' orbitals follow the order 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s.
A p-orbital is a cloud with two lobes on opposite sides of the nucleus. The two
lobes are separated by a planar region called a nodal as shown below:

Thus the distribution around the nucleus is not spherical. The 'p' orbital probability
diagram is dumb-bell shaped i.e., it consists of distorted spheres of high probability, one
on each side of the nucleus, concentrated along a particular direction. The probability of
finding the electron in a particular 'p' orbital is equal in both the lobes.

Since 'l' = 1, irrespective of the value of n, three values of magnetic quantum number
'ml' exists i.e., +1, 0 and 1. Thus three 'p' orbitals exist in each 'p' subshell. These are
oriented symmetrically around the three axes 'x', 'y'and 'z'.
The d-orbital and f-orbital have more complicated shapes. The five possible
orientations of the d-orbitals are shown below and shapes of the f-orbitals are rarely
needed to explain chemical properties. So, they are not included here.

29
For 'd' orbitals 'l' = 2. Therefore the angular momentum of an electron does not show a
spherical symmetry. For 'l' = 2, five values of 'ml' the magnetic quantum number exists
i.e., -2, -1, 0, +1, and +1. Accordingly there are five space orientations for’d’ orbitals,
which are not identical in shape.

These are designated as:

m = -2 m = -1 m=0 m = +1 m = +2

Fig: 3.17 - Shapes of five 'd' orbitals

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
Let us now examine the electronic structures of atoms of different elements. The
electronic configuration that we will describe for each atom is called the ground state
electron configuration.
This corresponds to an isolated atom in its lowest energy or unexcited state.
In describing ground state electron configuration, the guiding idea is that the total
energy of the atom is as low as possible. To determine these electron configurations, we
use the Aufbau principle as a guide.
Aufbau principle: states that the orbitals of an atom are arranged in an increasing
energy order with orbitals lower in energy being accommodated first before those of
higher energy. That is, the energy of the orbitals increases with the order:1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,
3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s,5f, 6d,7p….. . One would not expect students
to memorize this order as this sequence can be built by following this simple guide:

30
The electronic structures of atoms are governed by the Pauli exclusion principle which
states that: No two electrons in an atom may have identical sets of four quantum
numbers. For two electrons in 1S2, they have the same, n, l, ml, but different ms values.
3Li 1S2 2S1
4Be 1S2 2S2
5B 1S2 2S2 2P1
6C 1S2 2s2 2Py1 2Px1
8O 1S2 2S2 2Py2 2Px1 2Pz1

We see that some atoms have unpaired electrons in the same set of energetically
equivalent or degenerate orbitals. This leads us to Hund’s rule which states that
‘electrons occupy all the orbitals of a given sub shell singly before pairing begins’.
These unpaired electrons have parallel spins.

THE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF IONS

A neutral atom becomes a cation when it loses one or more electrons and anion when it
gains electron(s). For example, the electron configuration of a neutral magnesium is 1s2
2s2 2p6 3s2 and that of Mg 2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 because two electrons have been lost.

31
Similarly, the electron configuration of a neutral oxygen atom is 1s2 2s2 2p4 while that
of O2- is 1s2 2s2 2p6 having gained two electrons.
PERIODIC TABLE
Periodicity and building up of the periodic table
The modern periodic table consists of seven horizontal periods whose
complexity increases with increasing atomic number. There is a very close correlation
between the numbers of periods and the electronic structures of the elements. The
chemical properties of an element are largely governed by the number of electrons in
the outer shell, and their arrangement. If the elements are arranged in groups which
have the same outer electronic arrangement then elements within a group should show
similarities in chemical properties. One great advantage of this is that initially it is only
necessary to learn the properties of each individual element rather than the properties of
each group.
Elements which have their outer electrons in the s-orbital are called the s-block
elements. Of these, those that have one s electron in their outer shell are called Group I
(the alkali metals) and elements with two s electrons in their outer shell are called the
Group II (the alkaline earth metals). These groups are generally called the s-block
elements because their properties results from the presence of s-electrons.
Elements with three electrons in their outermost shell (i.e. two in the S and one p
electron) are called Group III. Similarly Group IV elements have four electrons in their
outer most shell and Group five, six and seven have five, six and seven electrons in
their outer most shells respectively. Group VIII or Group 0 have a full outer shell of
electrons so that the next shell is empty; hence groups III, IV, V, VI, VII and 0 all have
p orbitals partially or complete filled and their properties are dependent on the presence
of p-electons. The elements in these groups (III – VIII) are jointly called the p-block
elements. Similarly in elements where d-orbitals are being filled, the elements are
called the d-block or the transition elements. In these, d-electrons are being added to
the penultimate shell. Finally, elements where f-orbitals are filling are called the f-block
elements.
The horizontal rows of elements, called periods, are numbered from 1 to 7. In
any given period all the elements have the same number of electron shells; e.g elements
of period 3 have 3 electron shells. The elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number that is in order of increasing nuclear charge or increasing number of
32
orbital electrons. Thus each element contains one more orbital electron than the
preceding element. This leads to a parallel progression of properties for elements in
each period. For example, the metallic properties tend to decrease across each period
while the non-metallic properties tend to increase, so that the first three elements of
each period i.e. those of groups 1 to 3, are metallic while those of groups 4 to 7 and
group 0 are more non-metallic in character.
In summary, the group and period of any given element in any given block can
be determined as follows.

S-block
Elements in this block have the general outer electron configuration ns2, where n
is the outermost shell and therefore represent the period, while ns1 represent group IA
and ns2 represent group IIA.
P-block
The period is determined by finding the outer electron configuration which for p-
block is ns2npm, where m=1,2,3,…6.
Therefore n represents the period while the group is determined by adding 2 to m
i.e. (2 + m)
e.g Al has 3s2 3p1 this means that is belongs to period 3 and group (2+1) = 3

d-block: The period can be determined as described above and the group is obtained
from the general outer electron configuration ndm(n+1)s2, where m = 1,2, ….. 10
i) for m= 1 to 5 the group is (m+2) B
ii) for m = 6 to 8 the group is VIII B
iii) for m = 9 the stable outer electron configuration
nd10 (n+1)S1 the group IB
iv) for m = 10 i.e nd10 (n+1)S2 the group is IIB

The progression of properties for elements in the same period can be illustrated using
properties like effective nuclear charge:- This is the net charge experienced by a
particular electron in a multi-electron atom resulting from the nucleus and the other
electrons. The closer the electron is to the nucleus the higher the charge it experiences.
Thus, the effective nuclear charge experienced by electrons in a multi-electron atom is
33
in the order ns > np > nd > nf. In a given period the effective nuclear charge increases
across the period due to an increase in the number of positive protons in the nucleus.
1. ATOMIC RADII
The radius of an atom r, is defined as half the distance between the nuclei in a molecule
consisting of identical atoms. The atomic radii decrease in going from left to right
across a period. This decrease can be explained in terms of the increasing affective
nuclear charge (decreasing shielding) in going from left to right. This means that the
valence electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus, decreasing the size of the atom.
Atomic radius increases down a group because of the increase in the orbital sizes in the
successive principal quantum levels.
2. IONIC RADII
The ionic radius is the effective radius of an ion within a series of ionic crystals in
which the ion is a part. Just as in atomic radii, ionic radii increases down the group due
to increase in orbital sizes in successive principal quantum levels, in spite of the
increase in nuclear change whose effect is less than the increase in additional orbital.
Another variation is due to the type of ion, whether it is a cation or anion. When a
cation is formed from a neutral atom, the effective nuclear charge felt by the outer
electron is increased, thereby pulling the shells more to the nucleus and reducing the
size. That is why the cation is smaller than the neutral atom.
When an anion is formed from a neutral atom, electrons are added to the outer shell,
which increases electron-electron repulsion. This repulsion causes the electrons to
spread out, thereby causing the size of the outer shell to increase, so the negative ion is
larger than the neutral atom.
3. IONIZATION ENERGY
This is defined as the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of its atoms or ions in the gas phase. Simply put, it can also be
defined as the energy required to remove an electron from its atom (or ions) in
the gas phase. Ionization energy is expressed in KJ mol-1
Four main factors affect the ionization energy of an atom:
a) The electronic configuration of the atom: atoms with completely filled sub-
orbitals which give extra stability to the electron to be removed have higher
ionization energies. This is why noble gases have the highest ionization energies.

34
b) The positive nuclear charge: Across a period, the atomic numbers increase (i.e.
increase in protons), thereby resulting in greater attraction between the nucleus
and the electrons. This factor is responsible for making it more difficult to ionize
atoms (i.e. remove electrons) with larger atomic numbers. In effect, the larger the
atom the larger the ionization energy.
c) The screening effect: Since electrons are negatively charged and so repelling
themselves, atoms having many obitals with many electrons will have lower
ionizations energies since the outer electrons will be more shielded by the many
inner electrons. The more the orbitals and the electrons in them, the more the
shielding and so the less the ionization energies.
d) The Atomic Radius: if the outermost shell electrons are further away from the
nucleus, then the less is the attraction by the nucleus, hence the lower the
ionization energy.
Using the above reasoning, if we go down the groups, the shielding of the
outermost electrons by the innermost electrons overcomes the effect or influence
of increasing nuclear charge. Therefore, the outer electron is progressively easier
to remove as we go down the group, meaning the ionization energy decreases
down the group. However, across the period, the increase in nuclear charge has a
greater role than shielding; as such it will be more difficult to lose an electron.
This means that ionization energy increases across a period.

DENSITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. For the non gaseous metals, we can use the
atomic radii on computing the various densities. Across the period, there is a general
increase in atomic weight but a decrease in atomic volume or radii. This means there is
an increase in density across the groups.
However, down the groups, there is an increase in size due to increase in number of
orbitals, and this is greater than the small increase in atomic weight. This means the
density decreases down the group.
ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity is the energy released when an electron is added to an isolated neutral
atom.

35
The electron affinity in important for determining chemical properties since it says
something about the tendency of an atom to pick up additional electrons. When a
neutral atom picks up an electron from some source, it becomes a negative ion, as
indicated below:
X + e- X-
The amount of energy released in this process is the electron affinity. Thus the
electron affinity measures the tightness of binding of an additional electron to an atom.
In each period, electron affinity increases from let to right, since the size gets smaller
and the effective nuclear charge gets greater. There is also a decrease in electron
affinity down the group since atomic sizes are bigger and effective nuclear charge in
smaller.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electro negativity is a measure of the tendency of an element to attract electrons to
itself. Across a period, there is progressive increase in the electronegativity of elements.
Here, increasing the nuclear charge has greater effect than the shielding on the
outermost electrons. Electrons are pulled more towards the nucleus and so are less
easily lost. Down the group, however, shielding of the outer electrons by the inner
electrons overcomes the influence of increasing nuclear charges, so there is a decrease
of electronegativity. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity and cesium the least
amongst the tested elements.

TYPES OF BONDING
Generally speaking only the inert gas atoms have free existence, but all other atoms of
non-unit gases combine together to form molecules or compounds. The presence of
eight electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms is responsible for stability of the
noble gases; therefore, atoms of all elements tend to acquire eight electrons in their
outermost shells by losing, gaining or sharing electrons with other atom. This is the
cause of the chemical combinations of the non-inert elements. The principle of attaining
maximum of eight (ns2np6) electrons in the valence shell of atoms is called the octet
rule.
Chemical Bonding is the union of two or more atoms involving transfer or sharing of
electrons between themselves so that all of them acquire the stable noble gas
configuration. The bonding is ionic if the union is by transfer of electrons from one
36
atom to the other and covalent if the union is established by the mutual sharing of
electrons between the atoms.
Other types of bonds are also formed between molecules this include van der Waals
forces and hydrogen bonding.

IONIC OR ELETROVALENT BOND

Ionic bonds are the strong non-directional electrostatic forces of attraction between
oppositely charge ions.
In this type of chemical bond, electrons are completely transferred from one atom to
another. The formation of an ionic bond is favoured in the reaction of an atom of low
ionization potential with an atom of high electron affinity. For example, a sodium atom
has a low ionization potential, i.e. not much energy is required to pull off the outer
electron, while chlorine atom has a high electron affinity, i.e. considerable energy is
released when an electron is added to its outer shell.
Taking a closer look, the electronic configuration of sodium, 1s22s22P63s1 is one
electron higher than its noble gas neighbor, Neon, 1s22s22p6. Sodium has, therefore, a
tendency to lose the uttermost electron to acquire the stable configuration of Neon. For
chlorine,1s22s2P63s23p5, it needs to acquire one electron to reach the stable octet
structure of its neighbor, argon, which is 1s 22s2P63s23p6. Accordingly, one atom of
sodium combines with one atom of chlorine to form sodium chloride, NaCl.

The electron transferred is equivalent to the valency involved. Similarly, the electron
accepted by the chlorine atom (or any that accepts electrons) is also equivalent to its
valency.

37
The valency is equal to the number of outermost electrons if it is not greater than four.
If it is more than four, then the valency is equal to the number of electrons required to
complete the outermost electron shell of 8, e.g.:
11Na = 2,8,1; Valency = 1 7 N= 2,5 Valency = 3(8-5)
12Mg = 2,8,2; Valency = 2 17 Cl=2,8,7 Valency =1(8-7)
13Al = 2,8,3; Valency = 3 8O = 2,6 Valency = 2(8-6)
14Si = 2,8,4 Valency = 4 10 Ne = 2,8 complete octet

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. They from crystals in the solid state.
2. They are solids at room temperature
3. They melt at relatively high temperatures, and also have high boiling points.
4. They do not conduct electricity in solid form, only when molten or in the
aqueous state.
5. They are soluble in polar solvents (e.g. water) but are insoluble in non-polar
solvents (e.g. benzene, CCl4).
6. In the solid state, they are brittle.
7. They give ionic reactions, which are very fast, e.g.
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl(ppt)

COVALENT BONDING
A covalent bond is a type of chemical bonding in which a pair of electrons is shared by
two atoms, thereby giving each atom the noble gas electronic configuration.
Covalent bonds are formed between non-metals, or between non-metals and metals of
groups other than those of groups IA and IIA. Each atom contributes equal number of
electrons (equivalent to its valency) to the bond. The shared electrons are known as
bond pair electrons. A single shared pair of electrons gives rise to a single bond, while a
double shared pair of electrons gives rise to a double bond. Three shared pair of
electrons gives a triple bond. Triple bonds are more stable than double bonds, which is
turn are more stable than single bond.

38
One can notice that the octet structure has been satisfied.
Note that in ammonia, the structure is satisfied by sharing three electrons. The other
two electrons are not involved in the bonding and are called Lone Pair electrons.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS IN COMPOUNDS

1. Covalent compounds exist as molecules
2. The compounds are usually gases (Cl2), liquids (H2O) or volatile solids (like I2)
3. They have low boiling points and melting points compared to ionic compounds.
4. They do not conduct electricity in any form, be it liquid or in solution.
5. They are soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene but insoluble in polar
solvents like water.
6. The covalent bond is rigid and directional.

COORDINATE (OR DATIVE COVALENT) BONDS

This is a different type of covalent linkage that can by formed when both electrons for
sharing between the two atoms are contributed by one atom only. This type of linkage
is known as coordinate bond. In a water molecule, for example, the oxygen atom has
two pairs of electrons not yet shared with any atoms. In the formation of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), the oxygen atom in water contributes the unbonded pair of electrons it
has to the new oxygen atom.
Another example is the combination of ammonia molecular with hydrogen ion in the
formation of a dative bond as shown below:

39
PROPERTIES OF COORDINATE COMPOUNDS
The properties of coordinator compounds are similar to those of covalent compounds in
many respects.
- The nuclei in coordinate compounds are held firmly by the electrons and
therefore, they do not form ions in water.
- Coordinate compounds are sparingly soluble in water. A number of them are
largely soluble on organic solvents.
- The coordinate bond is also rigid and directional.
- Since a coordinate linkage results in semi-polarity in the molecule, the
coordinate compounds lie in between electrovalent and covalent compounds in
their volatility.

METALLIC BOND
Metals have special physical properties which arise from the unique bonding found in
them. They are shiny, ductile, malleable, and good conductors of electricity and heat in
the solid state.
Unlike covalently bonded non-metals, the outer electrons in the metal atoms do not
form pairs. They are not localized between specific nuclei but are free to move around
the whole structure. These free electrons are said to be delocalized. Structurally, metals
are said to consist of a giant structure of cationic lattice (regularly arranged and closely
packed cations) immersed in a sea of mobile valence electrons, as shown below:

40
The force that binds a metal atom to a number of electrons within its sphere of
influence is known as a metallic bond. We can also say that metallic bonding is the
attraction between the delocalized valence electrons and metal cation.
There is considerable force of attraction between the nuclei of atoms and the valence
electrons which leads to a compact solid structure for metals unlike that in liquids and
gases. In metallic bonding, the electrons are free to move from one atom to the next and
since electric current is nothing but the movement of electrons, metals are good
conductors of electricity. Furthermore, since rise in temperature means increase in
kinetic energy, the electrons can absorb energy and while moving freely, pass it on to
neighbouring atoms. The result is that metals are good conductors of heat.
The metallic bond strength increases with:
b) decreasing size of the metal atom (i.e. metallic radius)
c) increasing number of valence (outermost shell) electrons of the metal atoms.
From the above, if we take group 1A elements (Lithium to francium),we find
that the metallic radius increases down the group, and so therefore, the bond
strength and by extension, the meeting point, decreases down the group.
The bond strength increases as the number of valence electrons increase across a period
(remember, there is increase in effective nuclear charge). Al3+ has higher bond strength
than Mg2+, which in turn is higher than Na+. This is why the melting points are arranged
in the order Al>Mg>Na.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
There are two types of intermolecular forces: Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals
forces. Before going into them, we have to understand what bond polarization and
dipole moments are, first.
POLAR AND NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDS

41
In covalent molecules like H2 and Cl2, the electron pair shared between the two atoms
lie exactly at the centre of the molecule, that is, the probability of that pair being found
near one nucleus is as high as near the other. Hence, the molecule is neutral as it
contains equal number of protons and also the centre of the positive charge coincides
with the centre of the negative charge. As a result, the molecule is said to be non-polar
molecule and the bond is said to be non-polar bond.
H:H (equal sharing so non-polar)
In most cases, however, one of the atoms is more electronegative than the other, i.e., it
has greater tendency to attract the electron pair to itself. As a result, the electron pair
does not lie exactly at the centre of the molecule, i.e. there is a greater electron
concentration near one atom than near the other in the same molecule. For example, in a
molecule of HCl, the electron pair lies closer to chlorine than to hydrogen since
chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen.
Thus, the chlorine end of the molecule appears negative and the hydrogen end positive.
This leads to the formation of a dipole as the molecule may be considered to have two
appositely charged poles separated by a rigid link or bond.

A molecule with a dipole is said to be polar molecule and the bond is said to be a polar
covalent bond. The polarity of a covalent bond depends primarily on the difference in
electronegativities of the two atoms involved in the formation of the bond. The more
the difference in the electronegativities of the two atoms, the more the bond polarity.

BOND ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCE TYPE OF BOND

BETWEEN THE TWO BOND ATOMS
Cl-Cl 3.0-3.0 = 0.0 COVALENT
Cl-C 3.0-2.5 = 0.5 POLAR COVALENT
Cl-H 3.0-2.1 = 0.9 POLAR COVALENT
F-Li 4.0-1.0 = 3.0 1ONIC

42
Examples of non-polar molecules include CO2, Cl2, H2, F2, etc and also some molecules
like CO2, BF3. The last two have polar bonds which cancel themselves out, resulting in
non-polar molecular.
CO2 is linear O = C = O (non polar due to net cancellation)
BF3 is trigonal planer

B Non-polar
F F

CCl4, PCl5 and SF6 are also non-polar.

Examples of polar molecules include H20, NH3 and CHCl3
Oδ-

+
δH Hδ+
TYPE OF DIPOLES
There are three types of dipoles: Permanent dipole, induced dipole and instantaneous
dipole.
1) PERMANENT DIPOLE: This exist in all polar molecules as a result of the
difference in the electronegativity of the bonded atoms.

2) INSTANTANEOUS DIPOLE: This is a temporary dipole that exist as a result of

fluctuation in the electron cloud.
The fluctuation can also happen in a neutral atom, e.g. that of Helium, resulting in the
formation of an instantaneous dipole.

Fluctuation of electron cloud

43
3) INDUCED DIPOLE: This is a temporary dipole that is created due to the influence
of a neighboring dipole. This neighboring dipole can be a permanent one or an
instantaneous one. For example, HCL, which has a permanent dipole, can induce a
dipole in neutral atom of Helium.

HCl He

van der Waal’s Forces

Van der Waals forces are the weak forces of attraction between two non-bonded atoms
of all atoms, molecules or ions when they are close to one another. Van der Waals
forces are responsible for the condensation of chlorine, Hydrogen, carbon monoxide
and even the inert gases. These forces are of three types, viz:
a) Dipole – dipole interaction
b) Dipole – induced dipole interaction
c) Instantaneous dipole – induced dipole interaction.

a. Dipole-Dipole Interaction: These type of van der Waals forces are found in polar
covalent molecules like HCl, i.e. molecules with a permanent dipole. These
molecules tend to orientate themselves in such a way that the attractive forces
between the molecules are maximized while the repulsive forces are minimized.
The attraction between the δ+ and δ- of the permanent dipoles of neighbouring
molecules is a type of van der Waals force known as permanent dipole-
permanent dipole interaction (or simply dipole-dipole interaction).

Compared to a covalent bond, this dipole-dipole interaction is very weak. For

example, the covalent bonds between the H and Cl atoms in HCl are 130 times
as strong as the dipole-dipole interaction between HCl molecules. The force of
attraction between the HCl molecules is so small that HCl boils at -850C.
44
b. DIPOLE-INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTIONS: When a polar molecule, e.g.
HCl, which has a permanent dipole is approached by a non-polar molecule or
atom, e.g. argon, a dipole will be induced in the non-polar molecule or atom.
This induced dipole will be in opposite orientation to that of the polar molecule.
If HCl is mixed with Argon, a small dipole is induced on the Argon atom by the
distortion of electron around it by the polar HCl molecule. This creates a weak
dipole induced dipole force of attraction between the HCl molecule and the Ar
atom. This force is very weak with bond energy of about 1KJ/mole.

c) INSTANTANEOUS DIPOLE – INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTIONS: The

liquefaction of inert gases cannot be explained by either dipole-dipole or induced
dipole-dipole interactions. What happens here is that an occurrence of an
instantaneous dipole on the inert atom will induce a dipole moment (induced
dipole moment) in the neighbouring atom by attracting opposite charges. If the
positive end of the dipole is pointing towards a neighbouring atom, the induced
dipole will then have its negative end pointing towards the positive pole of that
dipole. This makes the instantaneous dipole attract the induced dipole. The
forces of attraction between these fluctuating dipoles are often called dispersion
forces or london forces (after fritz London). London forces are much weaker
than dipole-dipole interactions.

HYDROGEN BONDING
In compounds of hydrogen with strongly electronegative elements such as
fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, the electron pair shared between the two atoms
lies so far away from the hydrogen nucleus that the latter becomes highly
positive, i.e. it behaves almost as a bare proton. It can therefore be readily
attracted to any other electronegative atom. In the case of HF, for instance, the
hydrogen atom of one molecule tends to attract the strongly electronegative
fluorine atom in a neigbouring molecule and this attractive force gives rise to a
45
linkage between the hydrogen and fluorine atoms. This kind of linkage is called
hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bond can therefore be described as the attractive force which binds
hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom (F,O, or N) of another
molecule. In the case of HF, hydrogen bonding results in the binding of a large
number of molecules of HF to give an associated molecules (HF)n as shown
below:
…H-F….H-F….H-F….H-F….

Oxygen is sufficiently electronegative, and the hydrogen bonding in water is

like:

H H H

H O………H O……………..H O

Same thing with nitrogen in ammonia molecule.

Two conditions are necessary for the formation of hydrogen bonds:
a) The hydrogen atom must be directly bonded to a highly
electronegative atom like oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine.
b) The electronegative atom has to possess an unshared pair of electrons.
The boiling points of water (H2O), HF and NH3 are higher than would
normally be due to the presence of hydrogen bonds. Water boils at 100 0C
while H2S is a gas at room temperature. Also, due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds, some organic compounds are soluble in water, e.g.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), while chloromethane (CH3CH2Cl) is not.
There are two types of hydrogen bonds, intermolecular hydrogen bonds
and intramolecular hydrogen bonds. The first, like the example of HF,
occurs between one hydrogen atom of one molecule and the fluoride of
another different molecule.
The intramolecular H-bond occurs between the hydrogen and the
electronegative atom of the same molecule or compound.

46
47