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Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes

The document provides an overview of Classical Mechanics, detailing its principles, coordinate systems, and applications in various fields such as astronomy and engineering. It explains the motion of bodies under different forces, the importance of coordinate systems like Cartesian and polar, and the distinction between classical, quantum, and relativistic mechanics. The content serves as a foundational resource for understanding the behavior of objects in motion according to Newton's laws.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

16 views337 pages

Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

adamuzewudu672

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Classical Mechanics

Mekidela Amba University

College of Natural and Computational sciences
Department of Physics
By:Mequanent Abebaw
e-mail:[email protected]
Telegram:+251918711455

March 7, 2023

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 1 / 337

Overview
1 Coordinate System
Coordinate System
A coordinate System
Basis vectors
Orthogonal and non-orthogonal coordinate systems
Cartesian Coordinate System (x,y,z)
Plane polar coordinate system (r,θ)
Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)
Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)
The generalized coordinate system
Coordinate Transformations
Gradient operator in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
Cylindrical coordinate system
Spherical coordinate system
2 Particle Dynamics
Newton’s laws of motion
Motions under time dependent forces
Motions under velocity dependent forces
Motions under velocity dependent forces
Motions under position dependent forces
Force as functions of position
Concepts of Work and energy
([email protected]
3 c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 2 / 337
Mechanics

The science of HOW objects move (behave) under given forces.

(Usually) Does not deal with the sources of forces. Answers the
question: Given the forces, how do objects move?

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 3 / 337

What is Classical Mechanics?

is the study of the motion of bodies in accordance with the

general principles first enunciated by Sir Isaac Newton in his
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687).
can determine position and velocity of a particle simultaneously
with great accuracy in Classical Physics.
Energy is absorbed or emitted in continuous manner.
tells you how everyday objects move.
is the foundation upon which all other branches of Physics are
built.
has many important applications in many areas of science:
Astronomy (motion of stars and planets)
Molecular and nuclear physics (collisions of atomic and
subatomic particles)
Geology (e.g., the propagation of seismic waves)
Engineering (eg structures of bridges and buildings)

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 4 / 337

Classical Mechanics

Classical Mechanics covers

The case in which bodies remain at rest
Translational motion: by which a body shifts from one point in
space to another
Oscillatory motion: the motion of a pendulum or spring
Circular motion: motion by which a body executes a circular
orbit about another fixed body, the approximate motion of the
earth about the sun
More general rotational motion: orbits of planets or bodies that
are spinning
Particle collisions (elastic and inelastic)

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 5 / 337

cont...

Classical Mechanics valid on scales which are:

Not too fast v << c [speed of light in vacuum] If too fast, time
is no longer absolute need special relativity.
Not too small! Images of atom planes in a lattice by scanning
tunneling electron microscope
Also in Newtonian mechanics, time is absolute.
Generally, classical mechanics, sometimes referred to as
Newtonian mechanics or simply mechanics, concerning the
motion of objects that are large relative to atoms and move at
speeds much slower than the speed of light.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 6 / 337

Realms of mechanics

Realms of mechanics
WRITE the four realms of mechanics? what mechanics do we use
for:
our daily problems
objects that are extremely small
objects that have high speed
objects that are very small and fast

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Realms of mechanics

Realms of mechanics
Four realms of Mechanics
Classical Mechanics: When we talk of macroscopic objects we
are actually dealing with classical mechanics. Here the speed (v)
of objects considered is small as compared to velocity of light
(c), i.e. v ¡¡¡ c.
Quantum Mechanics: For the microscopic objects (of the order
of size of an atom) we deal with quantum mechanics.
Relativistic Mechanics: For objects that travel very fast (at
speeds give me to c).
Quantum Field Theory: For objects which are microscopic as
well as travel with the speed of light.

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Coordinate Systems

A coordinate System
specifies the method that uses one or more numbers, or
coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points, to
locate a point within a particular reference frame as a functions
of space and time. To study a point, we need to know where to
find it. So we give it coordinates.
are like an address. They tell you how you can get to a point if
you start at the origin.
are always written in parentheses,called an ordered pair, with the
x − value first.

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Standard basis vectors

The unit vectors (whose length is 1) on the x and y − axes are

called the standard basis vectors
Any vector
x
h i
y
can be expressed as the sum of scalar multiples of the unit
vectors:
x 1 0
h i h i h i
r= y =x 0 +y 1
We call these two vectors basis vectors. because any other vector
can be expressed as a linear combination of these base vectors.

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Basis vectors
Basis vectors
In Cartesian coordinates, the unit vectors are the same no matter
what point we are describing. If we move to a different point on the
sphere, our unit vectors will point in a different direction. Our basis
vectors are now dependent on position. An infinitesimal displacement
along one coordinate direction is independent of small displacements
along the other coordinate directions because their directions are
mutually perpendicular. For example, in Cartesian coordinates, a
displacement in the x direction does not change the y or z
coordinate. The x̂ direction is the direction a point is displaced if its
x coordinate is given a small positive increment while its y and z
coordinates are held fixed.

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Orthogonal and non-orthogonal coordinate systems

is one in which the coordinates are mutually perpendicular.

is a system of curvilinear coordinates in which each family of
surfaces intersects the others at right angles.
There are 8 orthogonal coordinate systems, namely Cartesian,
Cylindrical, Spherical, Parabolic Cylindrical, Conical, Prolate
Spheroidal, Oblate Spheroidal and Ellipsoidal Coordinate System
A basis uˆ1 ...uˆn of V is called orthogonal if ûi .ûj = δ ij = 0 for all
i 6= j
The orthonormality conditions
0 if i 6= j
n
δ ij = 1 if i = j

where, δ and is called the Kronecker symbol.

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ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Show that the vectors r1 = (1, 2, −1), r2 = (0, 1, 2) and

r3 = (5, −2, 1) are mutually perpendicular?
r1 .r2 = r1 .r3 = r2 .r3 = 0, and so form an orthogonal basis with
respect to the standard dot product.
Show that the vectors can easily form an orthonormal basis?
When we divide each orthogonal basis vector by its length, the
result is the orthonormal basis rˆi = |rrii |
rˆ1 = √16 (1, 2, −1), rˆ2 = √15 (0, 1, 2) and rˆ3 = √130 (5, −2, 1)
satisfying rˆ1 .rˆ2 = rˆ1 .rˆ3 = rˆ2 .rˆ3 =0 and |rˆ1 | = |rˆ2 | = |rˆ3 | = 1
A useful observation is that any orthogonal collection of nonzero
vectors is automatically linearly independent.

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ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Evaluate each of the following

1 î.î
2 î.ĵ
3 ĵ.k̂
Find a unit vector orthogonal to A = (2, −3, 1) and
B = (1, 2, −1)
AxB
Solution û = ||AxB||

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Cartesian Coordinate System (x,y,z)

Position Vector (Cartesian Coordinate System)

The position vector as the sum of three other vectors (→ −x,→−y,

→
−
and z ) as shown below.
→
−r = → −
x +→ −y +→ −z
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude (length) 1 with no units
that is used solely to provide direction.To specify the direction of
these three vectors (→−
x,→ −
y , and →−
z ), we define three unit vectors
−
→
(one for each of our coordinates). eˆρ = DDρr

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Position Vector (Cartesian Coordinate System)

In the Cartesian system, the 3 base vectors (unit vectors) are

î = (1, 0, 0) which points in the +x direction, ĵ = (0, 1, 0) which
points in the +y direction and k̂ = (0, 0, 1) which points in the
+z direction.
By multiplying each unit vector by its associated coordinate, we
can produce our three required vectors. → −x = x î, →
−
y = y ĵ and
→
− z = z k̂. This is just a case of multiplication of a vector by a
scalar. If the scalar (coordinate) is
positive then the resultant vector points in the same direction
as the unit vector.
negative then the resultant vector is in the opposite direction
(rotated 180 degrees) from the direction of the unit vectors.
A unit vector in the direction of general vector →
−r is written
−
→
r
r̂ = |−
→
r |

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Position Vector (Cartesian Coordinate System)

Putting this into our relationship for the unit vector, we get;
(Any point in space can be written in the form)
→
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
where (x, y, z) are the coordinates of the point P in the
Cartesian space.
The distance
p of the point from the origin is given by,
|r | = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 As you can see x, y, and z can also be
understood as the perpendicular distance of point P from the
YZ, XZ and XY plane.

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Velocity Vector (Cartesian Coordinate System)

→
−
v = d−→
r
but →
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
dt

→
−
v = d−→
r
= d(x î+y ĵ+z k̂)
dt dt

→
−
v = d(x î)
+ d(y ĵ)
+ d(z k̂)
dt dt dt

→
−
v = dx(î)
+ dy (ĵ)
+ dz(k̂)
dt dt dt
→
−
v = dx
î + dy
ĵ + dz
k̂
dt dt dt

→
−
v = ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 18 / 337

Acceleration Vector (Cartesian Coordinate System)

→
−
a = d−→
v
but →
−
v = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂
dt

→
−
a = d−→
v
= d(vx î+vy ĵ+vz k̂)
dt dt

→
− d(x˙î) d(y˙ĵ) d(z˙k̂)
a = dt
+ dt
+ dt

→
−
a = dx(î)
+ dy (ĵ)
+ dz(k̂)
dt dt dt
→
−
a = dx
î + dy
ĵ + dz
k̂
dt dt dt

→
−
a = ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂
Here we see that the acceleration components in each direction
are independent.

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Advantages of Cartesian Coordinate System

Advantages of working with Cartesian coordinates is that;

the unit vectors don’t enter into the Calculus. In other
coordinate systems, you will have to take derivatives of unit
vectors!!
the result shows that the velocity component in each direction
depends only on the time rate of change of that coordinate!!
Therefore, motion along one axis is independent of motion
along either of the other axis. This is why a ball thrown
horizontally will hit the Earth at the same time as a ball
dropped from the same height provided we neglect the minute
curvature of the Earth.
It is also why we were able to break rectilinear motion problems
into parts in your introductory physics course.

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Plane polar coordinate system (r,θ)
In polar coordinates, the position of a particle A, is determined
by the value of the radial distance to the origin, r, and the angle
that the radial line makes with an arbitrary fixed line, such as
the x axis. Thus, the trajectory of a particle will be determined if
we know r and θ as a function of t, i.e. r(t), θ(t). The directions
of increasing r and θ are defined by the orthogonal unit vectors
e r and eθ .
x = rcosθ and y = rsinθ
→
−r = x î + y ĵ
→
−r = rcosθî + rsinθĵ
eˆr = cosθî + sinθĵand eˆθ = −sinθî + cosθĵ

Figure: polar coordinate

.
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 21 / 337
Plane polar coordinate system (r,θ)

e˙r = −θ̇sinθî + θ̇cosθĵ = e˙r = θ̇(−sinθî + cosθĵ) → e˙r = θ̇eθ

e˙θ = −θ̇cosθî − θ̇sinθĵ → e˙θ = −θ̇(cosθî + sinθĵ) → e˙θ = −θ̇er

Remember that ẑ is the same in cylindrical and cartesian. For the
inverse relations we can solve the above simultaneously,
cosφ(eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ) =⇒ cosφeˆρ = cosφcosφî + cosφsinφĵ
−sinφ(eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ) =⇒ −sinφeˆφ = sinφsinφî + −sinφcosφĵ
cosφeˆρ = cos 2 φî + cosφsinφĵ
−sinφeˆφ = sin2 φî − sinφcosφĵ

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Plane polar coordinate system (r,θ)

Adding these together yields

=⇒ î = cosφeˆr − sinφeˆφ and ĵ = sinφeˆr + cosφeˆφ
→
−r = x î + y ĵ = rcosθ(cosφeˆ − sinφeˆ ) + rsinθ(sinφeˆ + cosφeˆ )
r φ r φ

= (ρcos 2 φ + ρsin2 φ)ρ̂ + (−ρsinφcosφ + ρsinφcosφ)φ̂ = r eˆr

or →
−r = (→
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→
r r
−r .eˆ )eˆ = r eˆ + 0 = r eˆ
θ θ r r
→
− d−
→
r →
− →
− →
−
v = dt but r = ( r .eˆr )eˆr + ( r .eˆθ )eˆθ = r eˆr + 0 = r eˆr
→
−
v = d−→
r
= d(r eˆr )
= ṙ eˆr + r e˙r but e˙r = θ̇eθ
dt dt

→
−
v = ṙ eˆr + r θ̇eθ = vr + vθ
The magnitude of the radial and transverse components of the
velocity vectors are vr = ṙ and vθ = r θ̇

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 23 / 337

Plane polar coordinate system (r,θ)

→
−
a = d−→
v
but →
−
v = ṙ eˆr + r θ̇eθ
dt

→
−
a = d−→
v
= d(ṙ eˆr +r θ̇eθ )
dt dt

= r̈ eˆr + ṙ e˙r + ṙ θ̇eˆθ + r θ̈eˆθ + r θ̇e˙θ

= r̈ eˆr + ṙ θ̇eˆθ + ṙ θ̇eˆθ + r θ̈eˆθ − r θ̇θ̇eˆr
a = eˆr (r̈ − r θ˙2 ) + eˆθ (ṙ θ̇ + ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)
a = (r̈ − r θ˙2 )eˆr + (2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)eˆθ
The magnitude of the radial and transverse components of the
acceleration vectors are ar = r̈ − r θ˙2 and aθ = 2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 24 / 337

QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS
Given two vectors;
→
−
x = 1î − 2ĵ − 2k̂
→
−
y = 2î − 1ĵ + 2k̂
Show that the vectors are orthogonal and a vector → −z which is
→
−
orthogonal to both x and y . →
−
Two vectors are said to be orthogonal if → −x .→
−
y = 0.
→
− →
− →
−
x x y . z = 0.
For the case of plane polar coordinatesr,r , θ, write the unit
vectors er (= r̂ ) and eθ in terms of îand ĵ. Hence show that
Der /Dθ = eθ and Deθ /Dθ = −er . By starting with r = r eˆr and
differentiating, rederive the expressions for the components of
the velocity and acceleration vectors.

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Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)

Position Vector (Cylindrical Coordinate System)

ρ -the magnitude of the projection of r on the xy plane, φ -an angle

between ρ and the x-axis and z-the magnitude of the projection of
the position vector on the z axis.
Consider 4oab;
sinφ = ab
ρ
=⇒ ab = ρsinφ
cosφ = abρ
=⇒ ab = ρcosφ

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Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)

→
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂ But, x = ρcosφ, y = ρsinφ and z = z
→
−r = ρcosφî + ρsinφĵ + z k̂

D−
→
r D(ρcosφî+ρsinφĵ+z k̂)
Dρ
= Dρ
= cosφî + sinφĵ
−
→
where, DDρr = eρ is a vector in the increasing direction of ρ = one of
the (covariant) basis vectors.
D−
→r −
→
eˆρ = Dρ
/| DDρr |
=⇒ eˆρ = √cosφ2î+sinφĵ2 =⇒ eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ
cos φ+sin φ

Where, eˆρ is a unit vector in the direction of ρ. (the base vector eˆρ is
tangential to the cylindrical surface)

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Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)

→
−r = ρcosφî + ρsinφĵ + z k̂

D−
→
r D(ρcosφî+ρsinφĵ+z k̂)
Dφ
= Dφ
= −ρsinφî + ρcosφĵ
−
→
where, DDφr is a vector in the increasing direction of φ.
D−
→ −
→ −ρsinφî+ρcosφĵ
eˆφ = r
Dφ
/| DDφr | =⇒ eˆφ = √
(ρ)2 (−sin2 )φ+(ρ)2 (cos 2 )φ
=⇒ eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ
Where, eˆφ is a unit vector in the direction of φ and parallel to the x-y
plane and perpendicular to eˆρ

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Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)

→
−r = ρcosφî + ρsinφĵ + z k̂

D−
→
r D(ρcosφî+ρsinφĵ+z k̂)
Dz
= Dz
= 0î + 0ĵ + 1k̂
−
→
Dr
where, Dz is a vector in the increasing direction of z.
D−
→ −
→
eˆz = r
Dz
/| DDzr | =⇒ eˆz = √1k̂ =⇒ eˆz = 1k̂
(1)2

Where, eˆz is a unit vector in the direction of z.

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Position (Cylindrical Coordinate System)

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Position Vector (Cylindrical Coordinate System)

In the Cylindrical Coordinate System, the 3 base vectors (unit

vectors) are eˆρ which points in the direction of ρ, eˆφ which points
in the direction of φ and eˆz which points in the +z direction.
Any point in space can be written in the form
→
−r = ρeˆ + φeˆ + z eˆ
ρ φ z
where (ρ, φ, z) are the coordinates of the point P in the
cylindrical space.
The distance
p of the point from the origin is given by,
|r | = ρ2 + z 2
The values of the 3 coordinates vary as follows, ρ[0, ∞),
φ[0, 2π) and z(−∞, ∞)
Interms of unit vectors eˆρ , eˆφ , eˆz
→
−r = (→−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→ −r .eˆ )eˆ
ρ ρ φ φ z z
where,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 31 / 337

Position Vector (Cylindrical Coordinate System)

where,
→
−r = ρcosφî + ρsinφĵ + z k̂
eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ,
eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ and
eˆz = 1k̂
→
−r .eˆ = ρcos 2 φ + ρsin2 φ + 0 = ρ(cos 2 φ + sin2 φ) = ρ
ρ
→
−r .eˆ = −ρsinφcosφ + ρsinφcosφ + 0 = 0
φ

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Position (Cylindrical Coordinate System)

→
−r .eˆ = z k̂
z

=⇒ → −r = (→−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→

ρ ρ
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→
φ φ
−r .eˆ )eˆ
z z
→
−r = (ρ)eˆ + (0)eˆ + (z)eˆ
ρ φ z
→
−r = (ρ)eˆ + (z)eˆ
ρ z

→
−r = ρeˆ + z eˆ
ρ z

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Velocity Vector (Cylindrical Coordinate System)
→
−
v = d−→
r
but →
−r = (ρ)eˆ + (z)eˆ
dt ρ z

→
−
v = d−→
r
= d(ρeˆρ +z eˆz )
dt dt

But,eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ =⇒

e˙ρ = −φ̇sinφî + φ̇cosφĵ == φ̇(−sinφî + cosφĵ)
eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ =⇒
e˙φ = −φ̇cosφî − φ̇sinφĵ = −φ̇(cosφî + sinφĵ)
eˆz = 1k̂ =⇒ e˙z = 0
→
−v = dtd
(ρeˆρ + z eˆz ) = ρ̇eˆρ + ρe˙ρ + ż eˆz + z e˙z
= ρ̇eˆρ + ρ(−φ̇sinφî + φ̇cosφĵ) + ż eˆz + z(0)

= ρ̇eˆρ + ρφ̇eˆφ + ż eˆz =⇒ →

−
v = ρ̇eˆρ + ρφ̇eˆφ + ż eˆz

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Acceleration Vector (Cylindrical Coordinate
System)
Find the components of the acceleration Vector in cylindrical
Coordinate System? →
−a = ddtv but →
−
−
→
v = ρ̇eˆρ + ρφeφ + ż eˆz
→
−
a = d−→
v
=
d(ρ̇eˆρ +ρφeφ +ż eˆz )
dt dt
→
−
a = d
(ρ̇eˆρ + ρφeφ + ż eˆz )
dt
→
−
a = ρ̈eˆρ + ρ̇e˙ρ + ρ̇φeφ + ρφ̇eφ + ρφe˙φ + z̈ez + ż e˙z
→
−
a = ρ̈eˆρ + ρ̇φ(−sinφî + cosφĵ) + ρφ̇eφ + ρφe˙φ + ρ̇(−φcosφî −
φsinφĵ) + z̈ez + ż(0)
→
−
a = ρ̈eˆ + ρ̇φ(eˆ ) + ρφ̇e + ρφe˙ + −φρ̇(cosφî + sinφĵ) + z̈e
ρ φ φ φ z
→
−
a = ρ̈eˆρ + ρ̇φ(eˆφ ) + ρφ̇eφ + ρφe˙φ + −ρφφ(eˆρ ) + z̈ez
→
−
a = (ρ̈ − ρφ̇2 )eˆρ + (2ρ̇φ̇ + ρφ̈)eˆφ + z̈ eˆz
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Coordinate transformations

Positions and vectors are the same no matter what coordinate system
we use. we can transform one set of coordinates to another.
Cartesian to cylindrical
Cylindrical to cartesian coordinate transformation is: x = ρcosφ,
y = ρsinφ and z = z p
Cartesian to cylindrical coordinate transformation is: r = x 2 + y 2
and φ = tan−1 ( yx )
How about the relationship between base vectors?

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Cylindrical Coordinate System (ρ, φ,z)

The base vectors transform to give: eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ

eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ
eˆz = √1k̂ 2 = 1k̂
(1)
Remember that ẑ is the same in cylindrical and cartesian. For the
inverse relations we can solve the above simultaneously,
cosφ(eˆρ = cosφî + sinφĵ) =⇒ cosφeˆρ = cosφcosφî + cosφsinφĵ
−sinφ(eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ) =⇒ −sinφeˆφ = sinφsinφî + −sinφcosφĵ
cosφeˆρ = cos 2 φî + cosφsinφĵ
−sinφeˆφ = sin2 φî − sinφcosφĵ Adding these together yields
=⇒ î = cosφeˆρ − sinφeˆφ
Similarly ĵ = sinφeˆρ + cosφeˆφ

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

A point P in space is represented by the ordered triple (r, θ, φ)

where
r - is the distance between P and the origin;
θ -the polar angle, the angle the radial vector makes with
respect to the z axis;
φ-(the Greek letter phi), the azimuthal angle φ,

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

is the angle formed by the positive z-axis and line segment OP,
where O is the origin and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π Consider 4bao;
ab
sinθ = r
=⇒ ab = rsinθ
ab
cosθ = r =⇒ oa = rcosθ

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

Position Vector (Spherical Coordinate System)

Since ab = oc, then Oc = rsinθ. Now Consider 4odc;
od
cosφ = oc
=⇒ od = occosφ =⇒ od = rsinθcosφ
dc
sinφ = oc
=⇒ dc = ocsinφ =⇒ dc = rsinθsinφ
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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

In terms of Cartesian coordinates, the spherical coordinates are given

by
x = rsinθcosφ, y = rsinθsinφ and z = rcosθ
p
r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2,
φ = tan−1 ( yx ) and
θ = cos −1 ( zr ) = cos −1 ( √ 2 z 2 2 )
x +y +z
To determine the spherical unit vectors in terms of cartesian
coordinates, we go back to how we defined the unit vectors. From
−
→ −
→
our definition, we see that we can write r̂ = eˆr = DDrr /| DDrr |
Now in Cartesian, the position vector is simply given by
→
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
→
−r = rsinθcosφî + rsinθsinφĵ + rcosθk̂

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

D−
→
r D(rsinθcosφî+rsinθsinφĵ+rcosθk̂)
Dr
= Dr
= sinθcosφî + sinθsinφĵ + cosθk̂
D−
→
r
where, Dr
is a vector in the increasing direction of r .
D−
→ −
→
eˆr = r
Dr
/| DDrr | =⇒ eˆr = √sinθcosφ
2 2
î+sinθsinφĵ+cosθk̂
2 2 2
sin θcos φ+sin θcos φ+cos θ

eˆr = sinθcosφî + sinθsinφĵ + cosθk̂

Where, eˆr is a unit vector in the direction of r .
Notice that eˆr depends on the angles θ and φ and thus depends on
position, as expected.

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

→
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
But,
x = rsinθcosφ, y = rsinθsinφ and z = rcosθ
→
−r = rsinθcosφî + rsinθsinφĵ + rcosθk̂

D−
→
r D(rsinθcosφî+rsinθsinφĵ+rcosθk̂)
Dθ
= Dθ
= rcosθcosφî + rcosθsinφĵ − rsinθk̂
D−
→
r
where, Dθ is a vector in the increasing direction of θ.
D−
→ −
→ rcosθcosφî+rcosθsinφĵ−rsinθk̂
eˆθ = r
Dθ
/| DDθr | =⇒ eˆθ = √
r 2 cos 2 θcos 2 φ+r 2 cos 2 θcos 2 φ+r 2 sin2 θ

eˆθ = cosθcosφî + cosθsinφĵ − sinθk̂

Where, eˆθ is a unit vector in the direction of θ.

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)
→
−r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
But,
x = rsinθcosφ, y = rsinθsinφ and z = rcosθ
→
−r = rsinθcosφî + rsinθsinφĵ + rcosθk̂

D−
→
r D(rsinθcosφî+rsinθsinφĵ+rcosθk̂)
Dφ
= Dφ
= −rsinθsinφî + rsinθcosφĵ + 0k̂
−
→
where, DDφr is a vector in the increasing direction of φ.
D−
→ −
→
eˆφ = r
Dφ
/| DDφr | =⇒ eˆφ = √ −rsinθsinφ
2 2 2
î+rsinθcosφĵ
2 2 2
r sin θsin φ+r sin θcos φ

eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ

Where, eˆφ is a unit vector in the direction of φ.

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Position (Spherical Coordinate System)
Interms of unit vectors eˆr , eˆθ , eˆφ
→
−r = (→
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→ −r .eφ)
ˆ eˆφ
r r θ θ

where,→
−r = rcosφsinθî + rsinφsinθĵ + rcosθk̂

eˆr = cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂,

eˆθ = cosφcosθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂ and eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ
→
−r .eˆ = rcos 2 φsin2 θ + rsin2 φsin2 θ + rcos 2 θ =
r
r [sin2 θ(cos 2 φ + sin2 φ) + cos 2 θ] = r (1) = r
→
−r .eˆ = rcos 2 φsinθcosθ + rsin2 φsinθcosθ − rsinθcosθ =
θ
rsinθcosθ(cos 2 φ + sin2 φ − 1) = 0
→
−r .eˆ = −rsinφcosφsinθ + rsiφsinθcosφ + 0 = 0
φ
→
−r = (→
−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→−r .eˆ )eˆ + (→
−r .eφ)
ˆ eˆφ = (r )eˆr + (0)eˆθ + (0)eˆφ
r r θ θ
→
−r = (r )eˆ
r

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Velocity Vector (Spherical Coordinate System)

→
−
v = d−→
r
= d((r )eˆr )
= ṙ eˆr + r e˙r Where,→
−r = (r )eˆ
dt dt r

→
−
v = ṙ eˆr + r d(e r)
dt
d der dφ
(e ) = de
dt r
r dr
. +
dr dt
der dθ
.
dθ dt
+ .
dφ dt

But,
der d
dr
= dr
(cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂) = 0
der d
dθ
= dθ (cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂) =
cosφcosθî + sinφcosθĵ − sinθk̂
der d
dφ
= dφ
(cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂) = −sinφsinθî + cosφsinθĵ

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Velocity Vector conti...

der d
dφ
= dφ
(cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂) = −sinφsinθî + cosφsinθĵ
dθ dφ
dt
= θ̇ and dt
= φ̇
→
−
v = ṙ eˆr + r ( de r dr
. + der dθ
. + der dφ
. ) =
dr dt dθ dt dφ dt
ṙ eˆr +r (0+[cosφcosθî +sinφcosθĵ −sinθk̂]+[−sinφsinθî +cosφsinθĵ])
→
−
v = ṙ eˆr + r (θ̇eˆθ + φ̇sinθeˆφ )

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Acceleration Vector (Spherical Coordinate System)

We can do a similar calculation for the acceleration. it proceeds

exactly as with the velocity, so it is straight forward but again rather
tedious.−
→
−a = ddtv but →
→ −v = ṙ eˆr + r (θ̇eˆθ + φ̇sinθeˆφ )
→
− −
→
a = ddtv =
d(ṙ eˆr +r (θ̇eˆθ +φ̇sinθeˆφ ))
dt
When the dust settles we get
→
−a = eˆr (r̈ + r φ̇2 ) + eˆθ (r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ + r φ̇2 sinθcosφ) + eˆφ (r φ̈sinθ +
2r θ̇φ̇cosθ + 2ṙ φ̇sinθ)

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Coordinate transformations

Spherical to cylindrical
Spherical to cartesian coordinate transformation is: x = rsinθcosφ,
y = rsinθsinφ and z = rcosθ
Cartesian
p to Spherical coordinate transformation is:
r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2,
φ = tan−1 ( yx ) and
θ = cos −1 ( zr ) = cos −1 ( √ 2 z 2 2 )
x +y +z

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Spherical Coordinate System (r, θ, φ)

The base vectors transform to give:

eˆr = cosφsinθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂,
eˆθ = cosφcosθî + sinφsinθĵ + cosθk̂ and eˆφ = −sinφî + cosφĵ
For the inverse relations we can solve the above simultaneously,
=⇒ î = sinθcosφeˆr + cosθcosφeˆθ − sinφeˆφ
Similarly ĵ = sinθsinφeˆr + cosθsinφeˆθ + cosφeˆφ k̂ = cosθeˆr − sinθeˆθ

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The generalized coordinate system

In order to change from one coordinate frame (u1 , u2 , u3 ) to another

one (here specifically the Cartesian frame: (x, y, z)), the following
equations have to be set up
u1 = u1 (x, y , z) x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )
u2 = u2 (x, y , z) and their inversion y = y (u1 , u2 , u3 )
u3 = u3 (x, y , z) z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 )
The radius vector is expressed as
r = r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )î + y (u1 , u2 , u3 )ĵ + z(u1 , u2 , u3 )k̂)
The total derivative of a function r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) is written as :
∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = ∂u 1
du1 + ∂u 2
du2 + ∂u 3
du3

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 52 / 337

The generalized coordinate system

∂r
The partial derivative du 1
means the rate of variation of r with u1 ,
while u2 and u3 are held fixed. The displacement vector can be also
expressed as
∂r
dr = ê1 h1 du1 + ê2 h2 du2 + ê3 h3 du3 , where hi = | du i
|
q
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Bhi = | ∂u i
| = ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
) which is the scale factor =
∂r
∂ui
the magnitude of the basis vector and êi = ∂r
| ∂u |
which is unit vector.
i

Questions
1. Find the scale factors h1 , h2 andh3 in:
a. cylindrical coordinate system (u1 = ρ, u2 = φ, u3 = z)
b. spherical coordinate system (u1 = r , u2 = θ, u3 = φ)

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The generalized coordinate system
Solutions
a. Cylindrical coordinate system (u1 = ρ, u2 = φ, u3 = z),
x = ρcosφ, yq = ρsinφandz = z
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
hi = | ∂ui | = ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
)
q
Bhρ = | ∂ρ | = ( ∂x
∂r
∂ρ
)2 + ( ∂y
∂ρ
)2 + ( ∂z
∂ρ
)2
q
Bhρ = ( ∂ρcosφ ∂ρ
)2 + ( ∂ρsinφ
∂ρ
)2 + ( ∂z
∂ρ
)2
p √
Bhρ = (cosφ)2 + (sinφ)2 + (0)2 = 1 = 1 =⇒ hρ = 1
q
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Bhφ = | ∂φ | = ( ∂φ ) + ( ∂φ ) + ( ∂φ )
q
Bhφ = ( ∂ρcosφ ∂φ
)2 + ( ∂ρsinφ
∂φ
∂z 2
)2 + ( ∂φ )

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The generalized coordinate system

Solutions
q
Bhφ = ( ∂ρcosφ
∂φ
)2 + ( ∂ρsinφ
∂φ
∂z 2
)2 + ( ∂φ )
p p
Bhφ = (−ρsinφ)2 + (ρcosφ)2 + (0)2 = ρ (sin2 φ) + (cos 2 φ) =
√
ρ 1 = ρ =⇒ hφ = ρ
q
Bhz = | ∂z | = ( ∂x
∂r
∂z
)2 + ( ∂y
∂z
)2 + ( ∂z
∂z
)2
q
Bhz = [ ∂(φcosφ)
∂z
]2 + [ ∂(φsinφ)
∂z
]2 + [ ∂(φsinφ)
∂z
]2
p √
Bhz = (0)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 = 1 = 1 =⇒ hz = 1

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The generalized coordinate system

Solutions
b. Spherical coordinate system (u1 = r , u2 = θ, u3 = φ),
x = rsinθcosφ, q y = rsinθsinφandz = rcosφ
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
hi = | ∂ui | = ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
)
q
Bhr = | ∂r∂r
| = [ ∂(rsinθcosφ)
∂r
]2 + [ ∂(rsinθsinφ)
∂r
]2 + [ ∂(rcosθ)
∂r
]2
p
Bhr = (sinθcosφ)2 + (sinθsinφ)2 + (cosθ)2
p
Bhr = sin2 θ[(cos 2 φ) + (sin2 φ)] + cos 2 θ
p √
Bhr == sin2 θ[1] + cos 2 θ = 1 = 1 =⇒ hr = 1

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The generalized coordinate system

Solutions
b. Spherical coordinate system (u1 = r , u2 = θ, u3 = φ),
x = rsinθcosφ, q y = rsinθsinφandz = rcosφ
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
hi = | ∂u i
| = ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂ui
) + ( ∂u i
)
q
Bhθ = | ∂θ | = [ ∂(rsinθcosφ)
∂r
∂θ
]2 + [ ∂(rsinθsinφ)
∂θ
]2 + [ ∂(rcosθ)
∂θ
]2
p
Bhθ = (rcosθcosφ)2 + (rcosθsinφ)2 + (−rsinθ)2
p
Bhθ = r 2 cos 2 θ[(cos 2 φ) + (sin2 φ)] + r 2 sin2 θ
p √
Bhθ == r cos 2 θ[1] + sin2 θ = r 1 = r =⇒ hθ = r

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The generalized coordinate system

Solutions
b. Spherical coordinate system (u1 = r , u2 = θ, u3 = φ),
x = rsinθcosφ, q y = rsinθsinφandz = rcosφ
∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
hi = | ∂ui | = ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
) + ( ∂u i
)
q
Bhφ = | ∂φ ∂r
| = [ ∂(rsinθcosφ)
∂φ
]2 + [ ∂(rsinθsinφ)
∂φ
]2 + [ ∂(rcosφ)
∂φ
]2
p
Bhφ = (−sinθsinφ)2 + (sinθcosφ)2 + (0)2
p
Bhφ = r 2 sin2 θ[(sin2 φ) + (cos 2 φ)] + 0
p
Bhφ = r 2 sin2 θ[1] = rsinθ =⇒ hφ = rsinθ

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Cont...

We call the square root of these coefficients the SCALE FACTORS

for the coordinate system.
For Cartesian coordinates, all scale factors are 1, so we can write :
h1 = hx = 1
h2 = hy = 1
h3 = hz = 1
For cylindrical coordinates, our scale factors are :
h1 = hρ = 1
h2 = hφ = ρ
h3 = hz = 1
For spherical coordinates, our scale factors are :
h1 = hr = 1
h2 = hθ = r
h3 = hφ = rsinθ

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Cont...

The base vectors are

∂r
bi = ∂u i
= êi hi
∂r
=⇒ b1 = ∂u 1
= ê1 h1
∂r
b2 = ∂u2 = ê2 h2
∂r
b3 = ∂u 3
= ê3 h3
The base vectors vectors in the increasing directions of ui . Their
magnitude is not necessarily one.They will be non − coplanar if
b1 .b2 × b3 = detA 6= 0. But when b1 .b2 × b3 = 0, they are coplanar
i.e found in the same plane. we can define a reciprocal basis vectors
b0j satisfying the condition
0 if i 6= j
n
bi .b0j = δij = 1 if i = j

The reciprocal vectors of b1 , b2 and b3 are given by

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Cont...

Cont...
b01 = b1b.b2 ×b 3
2 ×b3
, b02 = b1b.b3 ×b 1
2 ×b3
, and b03 = b1b.b1 ×b 2
2 ×b3
The generalized
coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are independent variables.
0 if i 6= j
n
∂ui
∂uj
= δij = 1 if i = j
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1
=⇒ ∂u2
= 0, ∂u1
= 1, ∂u3
=0

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Given
A = 5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂
b1 = 2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂
b2 = 2î − ĵ + 1k̂
b3 = 1î + 1ĵ − 1k̂
Answer the following questions;
1 Verify that b1 , b2 , and b3 are non − coplanar ?
2 Find the reciprocal basis vectors for b1 , b2 , and b3 ?
3 Express A interms of b0i s
4 Express A interms of b00i s (the reciprocal basis vectors)

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Solution: 1. If b1 .b2 × b3 = detA 6= 0, then they are non − coplanar .
or In other words, reciprocal vectors only exist if b1 , b2 and b3 are not
coplanar. Moreover, if they are mutually orthogonal unit vectors then
b01 = b1 , b02 = b2 and b03 = b3 , so that the two systems of vectors are
identical.
b2 X b3 = 2î − ĵ + 1k̂ × 1î + 1ĵ − k̂ = 0î + 3ĵ + 3k̂
b1 .b2 × b3 = 2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂.0î + 3ĵ + 3k̂ = 0 + 6 − 3 = 3, which is
different from 0. Therefore, they are non − coplanar .
2 2 −1
det A = 2 −1 1 = 3 6= 0.
1 1 −1
2. b2 × b3 = (2î − ĵ + 1k̂) × (1î + 1ĵ − 1k̂) = 0î + 3ĵ − 3k̂
b3 × b1 = (1î + 1ĵ − 1k̂) × (2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂) = 1î − 1ĵ − 0k̂
b1 × b2 = (2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂) × (2î − ĵ + 1k̂) = 1î − 4ĵ − 6k̂

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Solution:
gij b j = bi ,
which illustrates the fact that the covariant components gij of the
metric tensor can be used to lower an index. In other words, it
provides a means of obtaining the covariant components of a vector
from its contravariant components. By a similar argument, we have
g ij bj = b i
so that the contravariant components g ij can be used to perform the
reverse operation of raising an index. It is straightforward to show
that the contravariant and covariant basis vectors, ei and ei
respectively, are related in the same way as other vectors, i.e. by
ei = g ij ei and ei = gij ei .
We also note that, since ei and ei are reciprocal systems of vectors in
three dimensional space (see chapter 7),

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e ×e
we may write ei = ei .ej j ×ek k
for the combination of subscripts i, j, k = 1, 2, 3 and its cyclic
permutations. A similar expression holds for ei in terms of the ei
basis. Moreover, it may be shown that the triple scalar product
|e1 .(e2 × e3 )|
The two sets of vectors ei , ej , ek and e0i , e0j , e0k are called reciprocal
sets if ei .e0i = ej .e0j = ek .e0k = 1 and
e0i .ej = e0i .ek = e0j .ei = e0j .ek = e0k .ei = e0k .ej = 0
−
→
where, DDir = ei , ej , ek and e0i , e0j , e0k are the (covariant) and
(conntrovarant) basis vectors. It can be verified that the reciprocal
vectors of b1 , b2 and b3 are given by
b01 = b1b.b2 ×b 3
2 ×b3
= 0î+33ĵ−3k̂ = 0î + 1ĵ + 1k̂

b02 = b3 ×b1
b1 .b2 ×b3
= 1î−1ĵ−0k̂
3
= 31 (1î − 1ĵ + 0k̂)

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b03 = b1 ×b2
b1 .b2 ×b3
= 1î−4ĵ−6k̂
3
= 31 (1î − 4ĵ − 2k̂)

3. α1 = A.b01 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).(0î + 1ĵ + 1k̂) = 2 + 2 − 4 = −2

α2 = A.b02 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).( 13 (1î − 1ĵ + 0k̂)) = 53 − 23 + 0 = 1
α3 = A.b03 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).( 13 (1î − 4ĵ − 2k̂)) = 35 − 83 + 0 = 7
=⇒ A = α1 b1 + α2 b2 + α3 b3 = −2b1 + b2 + 7b3
4. We have: b01 = 1ĵ + 1k̂
b02 = 13 î − 13 ĵ
b03 = 13 î − 43 ĵ − 2k̂
=⇒ b02 × b03 = ( 13 î − 13 ĵ)X ( 13 î − 43 ĵ − 2k̂) = 32 î + 23 ĵ − 13 k̂
b03 × b01 = ( 31 î − 34 ĵ − 2k̂) × (1ĵ + 1k̂) = 23 î − 31 ĵ + 13 k̂
b01 × b02 = (1ĵ + 1k̂) × ( 13 î − 31 ĵ) = 13 î + 13 ĵ − 31 k̂

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2
b02 ×b03 î+ 23 ĵ− 31 k̂
=⇒ b001 = b01 .b02 ×b03
= 3
1 = 2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂
3

2
b03 ×b01 î− 13 ĵ+ 13 k̂
b002 = b01 .b02 ×b03
= 3
1 = 2î − 1ĵ + 1k̂
3

1
b01 ×b02 î+ 13 ĵ− 13 k̂
b003 = b1 .b2 ×b03
0 0 = 3
1 = 1î + 2ĵ − 1k̂
3

=⇒ α10 = A.b001 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).(2î + 2ĵ − 1k̂) = 10 + 4 + 4 = 18

α20 = A.b002 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).(2î − 1ĵ + 1k̂) = 10 − 2 − 4 = 4
α30 = A.b003 = (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).(1î + 2ĵ − 1k̂) = 5 + 2 + 4 = 11
=⇒ A = α10 b01 + α20 b02 + α30 b03 = 18b01 + 4b02 + 11b03

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Coordinate Transformations

Consider a point P which has coordinates (xl , x2 , x3 ) with respect to a

certain coordinate system. Next, consider a different coordinate
system which can be generated from the original system by a simple
rotation; let the coordinates of the point P with respect to the new
coordinate system be (xl0 , x20 , x30 ). The new coordinate x10 is the sum
of the projection of xl onto the xl0 axis (the line oa)
¯ plus the
0 ¯ ¯
projection of x2 onto the xl (the line ab + bc). That is,
x10 = oa
¯ + ac,
¯ but ac¯ = DE ¯
¯ = x1 cosθ + pDsinθ
x10 = x1 cosθ + DE ¯
x10 = x1 cosθ + x2 sinθ = x1 cosθ + x2 cos( π2 − θ)

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Coordinate Transformations

Figure: [].

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Coordinate Transformations

The coordinate x20 is the sum of similar projections : x20 = Od ¯ − de,

¯
¯ ¯
but the line de is just equal to the line Of . Therefore,
¯ − de,
x20 = Od ¯ but de ¯ = qs¯ = Of ¯ = x1 sinθ and Od ¯ = x2 cosθ
0
x2 = x2 cosθ − x1 sinθ
x20 = x2 cosθ + x1 cos( π2 + θ)
The cosine of (xi , Xj ) to be λij =cosine of (xi , Xj ):
λ11 = cos(x10 , X1 ) = cosθ
λ12 = cos(x10 , X2 ) = cos( π2 − θ) = sinθ
λ21 = cos(x20 , X1 ) = cos( π2 + θ) = −sinθ
λ22 = cos(x20 , X2 ) = cosθ
The equations of transformation now become
x10 = x1 cos(x10 , X1 ) + x2 cos(x10 , X2 ) = λ11 x1 + λ12 x2
x20 = x1 cos(x20 , X1 ) + x2 cos(x20 , X2 ) = λ21 x1 + λ22 x2

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Coordinate Transformations

Thus, in general, for three dimensions we have

x10 = λ11 x1 + λ12 x2 + λ13 x3
x20 = λ21 x1 + λ22 x2 + λ23 x3
x30 = λ31 x1 + λ32 x2 + λ33 x3
Or, in summation notation, xi0 = 3j=1 λij xj , i = 1, 2, 3
P

The inverse transformation is

x1 = x10 cos(x10 , X1 ) + x20 cos(x20 , X1 ) + x30 cos(x30 , X1 ) =
λ11 x10 + λ21 x20 + λ31 x30
or, in general, xi = 3j=1 λij xj0 , i = 1, 2, 3 or in matrix form
P

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Example 1:
A point P is represented in the (xl , x2 , x3 ) system by P(2, 1, 3). In
another coordinate system, the same point P is represented as
P(xl0 , x20 , x30 ) where x2 has been rotated toward x3 around the x1 axis
by an angle of 30o . Find the rotation matrix and determine
P(xl0 , x20 , x30 )

Figure: [].

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Solution

λ11 = cos(x10 , X1 ) = cos(0o ) = 1

λ12 = cos(x10 , X2 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ13 = cos(x10 , X3 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ21 = cos(x20 , X1 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ22 = cos(x20 , X2 ) = cos(30o ) = 0.866
λ23 = cos(x20 , X3 ) = cos(90o − 30o ) = 0.5
λ31 = cos(x30 , X1 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ32 = cos(x30 , X2 ) = cos(90o + 30o ) = −0.5
λ33 = cos(x30 , X3 ) = cos(30o ) = 0.866
1 0 0
λ= 0 0.866 0.5
0 −0.5 0.866

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Coordinate Transformations

When λij is defined in the manner above, and specifies the

transformation properties of the coordinates of a point, it is called a
transformation matrix or a rotation matrix. and P(xl0 , x20 , x30 ) is
x10 = λ11 x1 + λ12 x2 + λ13 x3 = x1 = 2
x20 = λ21 x1 + λ22 x2 + λ23 x3 = 0.866x2 + 0.5x3 = 2.37
x30 = λ31 x1 + λ32 x2 + λ33 x3 = 0.866x3 − 0.5x2 = 2.10
Notice that the rotation operator preserves the length of the position
vector.
p p
r = x12 + x22 + x32 == x102 + x202 + x302 = 3.74

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Example 2:
A point P is represented in the (xl , x2 , x3 ) system by P(2, 3, 4). In
another coordinate system, the same point P is represented as
P(xl0 , x20 , x30 ). Let it has been rotated about y − axis in the clockwise
direction around the x2 axis by an angle of 30o . Find the coordinate
of the new system? Find the transformation matrix?

Figure: [].

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Solution

λ11 = cos(x10 , X1 ) = cos(30o ) = 0.866

λ12 = cos(x10 , X2 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ13 = cos(x10 , X3 ) = cos(60o ) = 0.5
λ21 = cos(x20 , X1 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ22 = cos(x20 , X2 ) = cos(0o ) = 1
λ23 = cos(x20 , X3 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ31 = cos(x30 , X1 ) = cos(90o + 30o ) = −0.5
λ32 = cos(x30 , X2 ) = cos(90o ) = 0
λ33 = cos(x30 , X3 ) = cos(30o ) = 0.866
0.866 0 0.5
λ= 0 1 0
−0.5 0 0.866

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Coordinate Transformations

When λij is defined in the manner above, and specifies the

transformation properties of the coordinates of a point, it is called a
transformation matrix or a rotation matrix.
and P(xl0 , x20 , x30 ) is √
x10 = λ11 x1 + λ12 x2 + λ13 x3 = 2 + 3 = 3.37
x20 = λ21 x1 + λ22 x2 + λ23 x3 = 3 √
x30 = λ31 x1 + λ32 x2 + λ33 x3 = −1 + 2 3 = 2.46
Notice that the rotation operator preserves the length of the position
vector.
p p
r = x12 + x22 + x32 == x102 + x202 + x302 = 5.38

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Properties of rotation matrix
Consider the coordinate system below Let the angle between A and
the x1 − axis is α
Let the angle between A and the x2 − axis is β
Let the angle between A and the x3 − axis is γ
The projection of vector A on the x1 − axis is Acosα
The projection of vector A on the x2 − axis is Acosβ
The projection of vector A on the x3 − axis is Acosγ, where A is the
magnitude of A

Figure: [].

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Properties of rotation matrix

→
−
A = Acosαî + Acosβ ĵ + Acosγ k̂
−
→
A Acosαî+Acosβ ĵ+Acosγ k̂
êA = − → = A
= êA = cosαî + cosβ ĵ + cosγ k̂
|A|
p
|êA | = cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
A.A’ = AA00 cosθ
A.A’ = AA cosαcosα0 + AA0 cosβcosβ 0 + AA0 cosγcosγ 0
AA0 cosθ = AA0 cosαcosα0 + AA0 cosβcosβ 0 + AA0 cosγcosγ 0
AA0 cosθ AA0 cosαcosα0 +AA0 cosβcosβ 0 +AA0 cosγcosγ 0
AA0
= AA0

cosθ = cosαcosα0 + cosβcosβ 0 + cosγcosγ 0

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Properties of rotation matrix

Let (xl0 , x20 , x30 ) is the new coordinate of a point after the coordinate
system is rotated by an angle θ in any direction. The old coordinate
of the point.
x1 = x10 cos(x10 , X1 ) + x20 cos(x20 , X1 + x30 cos(x30 , X1 )

x2 = x10 cos(x10 , X2 ) + x20 cos(x20 , X2 ) + x30 cos(x30 , X2 )

x3 = x10 cos(x10 , X3 ) + x20 cos(x20 , X3 ) + x30 cos(x30 , X3 )

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Gradient

The gradient ∇f of a scalar function is a vector perpendicular to the

surface f = constant, defined by the equation df = ∇f .dr
To find the expression of ∇f in a curvilinear coordinate system, let us
assume
∇f = d1 ê1 + d2 ê2 + d3 ê3 ...................equation (∗)
1. r = r (u1 , u2 , u3 ). From this, the total derivative of a function
r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is written as :
∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = ∂u 1
du1 + ∂u 2
du2 + ∂u3
du3
∂r
∂u1 ∂r ∂r
But ê1 = ∂r
| ∂u |
=⇒ ∂u1
= | ∂u 1
| ê1 = h1 ê1
1
=⇒ dr = ê1 h1 du1 + ê2 h2 du2 + ê3 h3 du3 .......equation (∗∗)
2. f = f (u1 , u2 , u3 ). From this, the total derivative of a function
f (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is written as :

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Gradient

∂f ∂f ∂f
df = ∂u1
du1 + ∂u2
du2 + ∂u3
du3 .........equation (∗ ∗ ∗)
df = ∇f .dr = [d1 ê1 + d2 ê2 + d3 ê3 ].[ê1 h1 du1 + ê2 h2 du2 + ê3 h3 du3 ]
df = d1 h1 du1 + d2 h2 du2 + d3 h3 du3 .........equation (∗ ∗ ∗∗)
∂f ∂f ∂f
On the other hand df = ∂u 1
du1 + ∂u 2
du2 + ∂u 3
du3
∂f
By comparing equations (∗ ∗ ∗) and (∗ ∗ ∗∗), we have d1 h1 = ∂u1
,
∂f ∂f
d2 h2 = ∂u 2
, and d3 h3 = ∂u 3

1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
d1 = h1 ∂u1
, d2 = h2 ∂u2
, and d3 = h3 ∂u3

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Gradient
∇f = [ h11 ∂u∂f
1
∂f
]ê1 + [ h12 ∂u 2
∂f
]ê2 + [ h13 ∂u 3
]ê3
Therefore the del operator in a curvilinear coordinates can be written
as
∇ = [ h11 ∂u∂ 1 ]ê1 + [ h12 ∂u∂ 2 ]ê2 + [ h13 ∂u∂ 3 ]ê3
For cylindrical coordinates, our scale factors are : h1 = hρ = 1,
h2 = hφ = ρ, and h3 = hz = 1
∂
∇ = [ ∂ρ ]êρ + [ ρ1 ∂ρ∂
]êφ + [ ∂z ∂
]êz
For spherical coordinates, our scale factors are :h1 = hr = 1,
h2 = hθ = r , and h3 = hφ = rsinθ
∇ = [ ∂r∂ ]êr + [ 1r ∂θ
∂
]êθ + [ rsinθ1 ∂
]ê
∂φ φ
In particular, ∇u1 = [ h1 ∂u1 ]ê1 + [ h12 ∂u
1 ∂u1 1
∂u2 2
]ê + [ h13 ∂u 1
∂u3 3
]ê
Since u1 , u2 , and u3 are independent variables, ∂u1 = 1, ∂u ∂u1 1
∂u2
= 0,
∂u1
∂u3
=0
Therefore, ∇u1 = h11 ê1 , similarly ∇u2 = h12 ê2 , ∇u3 = h13 ê3

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Gradient

Starting from the definition of gradient in the Cartesian coordinates,

we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(ρ, φ,z).
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = î ∂x + ĵ ∂y + k̂ ∂z
but,î = cosφeˆρ − sinφeˆφ and ĵ = sinφeˆρ + cosφeˆφ
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = (cosφeˆρ − sinφeˆφ ) ∂x + (sinφeˆρ + cosφeˆφ ) ∂y + êz ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = (cosφ ∂x + sinφ ∂y )êρ + (−sinφ ∂x + cosφ ∂y )êφ + ê
∂z z
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
By chain rule and ∂ρ
= cosφ, ∂φ
= −ρsinφ, ∂ρ
= sinφ, ∂φ
= ρcosφ
∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂ρ
= ∂ρ ∂x
+ ∂ρ ∂y
= (cosφ ∂x + sinφ ∂y )êρ

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Gradient

∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂φ
= ∂φ ∂x
+ ∂φ ∂y
= (−sinφ ∂x + cosφ ∂y )êφ
With these expressions, it becomes
∇f = ∂f∂ρ ρ
∂f
ê + ρ1 ∂φ ∂f
êφ + ∂z êz
Thus, the gradient operator in the cylindrical coordinates can be
written as
∂
∇ = ∂ρ êρ + ρ1 ∂φ
∂ ∂
êφ + ∂z êz
Question; Show that ∇ρ = êρ , ∇φ = ρ1 êφ , ∇z = êz

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Gradient
Starting from the definition of gradient in the Cartesian coordinates,
we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(r , θ, φ).
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = î ∂x + ĵ ∂y + k̂ ∂z
but,î = sinθcosφêr + cosθcosφêθ − sinφêφ ,
ĵ = sinθsinφêr + cosθsinφêθ + cosφêφ and
k̂ = cosθêr − sinθêθ
∂f
∇f = (sinθcosφêr + cosθcosφêθ − sinφêφ ) ∂x + (sinθsinφêr +
∂f ∂f
cosθsinφêθ + cosφêφ ) ∂y + (cosθêr − sinθêθ ) ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = (sinθcosφ ∂x + sinθsinφ ∂y + cosθ ∂z )êr + (cosθcosφ ∂x +
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
cosθsinφ ∂y + −sinθ ∂z )êθ + (−sinφ ∂x + cosφ ∂y )êφ
The quantities in the brackets can be recognized if we use
x = rsinθcosφ, y = rsinθsinφ, z = rcosθ and the chain rule of
derivatives
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Gradient

∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂r
= ∂r ∂x
+ ∂r ∂y
+ ∂r ∂z
= sinθcosφ ∂x + sinθsinφ ∂y + cosθ ∂z
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z ∂
∂θ
= ∂θ ∂x
+ ∂θ ∂y
+ ∂θ ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= rcosθcosφ ∂x + rcosθsinφ ∂y − rsinθ ∂z
∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂ ∂
∂φ
= ∂φ ∂x
+ ∂φ ∂y
+ ∂φ ∂z
= −rsinθsinφ ∂x + rsinθcosφ ∂y
Thus, the gradient operator in the spherical coordinates can be
written as
∇ = ∂r∂ êr + 1r ∂θ
∂ 1 ∂
êθ + rsinθ ê
∂φ φ
1
Question; show that ∇r = êr , ∇θ = 1r êθ , ∇ = rsinθ êφ

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Newton’s laws of mechanics

Newton’s laws of mechanics :

I. A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon
by a force.
A body which remains at rest or in uniform (i.e., unaccelerated,
rectilinear) motion is subject to no force whatsoever. A body
which moves in this manner is termed a free body (or free
particle). Formally, we would write the first law as
F = 0 −→ v = constant.
II. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that
the time rate of change of momentum equals the force.
the Second Law may be expressed as F = dP dt
d
= dt (mv)
III. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

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Newton’s laws of mechanics

Newton’s laws of mechanics :

If we consider two isolated bodies, 1 and 2, then the Third Law
states that F1 = −F2
Using the definition of force as given by the Second Law, we
have The law applies only in the event that the force exerted by
dP1
dt
= − dP dt
2

d d
m1 [ dt (v1 )] = m2 [ dt (−v2 )]
and, since acceleration is the time derivative of velocity,
m1 (a1 ) = m2 (−a2 )
Hence, |a 1|
|a2 |
=m2
m1
one (point) object on another (point) object is
directed along the line connecting the objects. Such forces are
called central forces ; the Third Law applies whether a central
force is attractive or repulsive. Gravitational and electrostatic
forces are central forces, so Newton’s Laws may be used in
problems involving these

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Newton’s laws of mechanics

d
types of forces. dt (p1 + p2 ). This means that the sum p1 + p2 of the
two momenta is constant in time, i.e., the total momentum in this
system is conserved.
Of Newton’s three laws, the one that we actually use the most is the
second, which is often described as the equation of motion.
F = mr̈ = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ As we have already noted, the second law
is a second-order, differential equation for the position vector r as a
function of the time t. In the prototypical problem, the forces that
comprise F are given, and our job is to solve the differential equation
for r(t).

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Newton’s second law in Cartesian coordinates

r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂ ⇒ r̈ = ẍ î + ÿ ĵ + z̈ k̂
That is, the three Cartesian components of r are just the appropriate
derivatives of the three coordinates x, y, z of r, and the second law
becomes
Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ = mẍ î + mÿ ĵ + mz̈ k̂
(
Fx = mẍ
F = mr̈ ⇒ Fy = mÿ
Fz = mz̈
This beautiful result, that, in Cartesian coordinates, Newton’s second
law in three dimensions is equivalent to three one-dimensional
versions of the same law, is the basis of the solution of almost all
simple mechanics problems in Cartesian coordinates.

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Frames of Reference
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s Laws of
motion are valid. It is a non-accelerated frame of reference. An
inertial frame must be homogeneous and isotropic. Physical
experiments can be carried out in different inertial reference frames.
The Galilean transformation provides a means of converting between
two inertial frames of reference moving at a constant relative velocity.
Consider two reference frames O’ and O’ with O’ moving with
constant velocity V at time t.

Figure: Frame O’ moving with a constant velocity v with respect to frame

O at the time t.
.
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Frames of Reference

r0 = r − Vt and t = t’
The time differential of this transformation gives r˙0 = ṙ − V, r¨0 = r̈
Note that the forces in the primed and unprimed inertial frames are
related by F = dPdt
= mr̈ = mr¨0 = F0
Thus Newton’s Laws of motion are invariant under a Galilean
transformation, that is, the inertial mass is unchanged under Galilean
transformations. If Newton’s laws are valid in one inertial frame of
reference, then they are valid in any frame of reference in uniform
motion with respect to the first frame of reference. This invariance is
called Galilean invariance.

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Solving simple Newtonian mechanics problems

Perform the following steps when solving problems:

Sketch the problem, drawing all the forces as vectors.
Define a coordinate system.
Find the net force along each coordinate axis by breaking down
the forces into their components and write down Newton’s
second law component by component.
Apply the constraints, which will produce relationships among
the different equations.
Solve the equations to find the acceleration along each
coordinate.
Depending on what result is desired, one either can use the
acceleration equations directly or one can integrate them to find
the velocity and position as a function of time.
If so desired, apply initial conditions to obtain the full solution.

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Example 1
A Consider a block of mass m sliding down a smooth frictionless
incline which subtends an angle θ = 30o to the horizontal, as
depicted in the Figure. What is the block’s acceleration. a. Sketch:

Figure: A block of mass m sliding down a smooth frictionless incline

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Cont...

The weight mg of the block is the gravitational force on the block

and FN is the normal force, which is exerted by the plane on the
block to keep it in place on top of the plane.
b. Coordinate system: x pointing down along the surface of the
incline, y perpendicular to the surface of the incline. The constraint
of the block sliding on the plane forces there to be no motion along y,
hence the choice of coordinate system. C. Forces along each axis:
From Newton’s laws of mechanics, we know that
F = dPdt
= mr̈ and the forces acting on the block F = Wx + FN = mr̈
Applying the last
Pequation in the two directions, we have
y − direction : Fy = 0 =⇒ −mgcosθ + FN = mÿ = 0
P
x − direction : Fx = mẍ =⇒ Wx = mẍ

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Cont...

d. Apply constraints: there is no motion along the y axis, so ÿ = 0,

which gives FN = mg cos θ. The constraint actually turns out to be
unnecessary for solving for the motion of the block, but in more
complicated cases the constraint will be important.
e. Solve the remaining equations: Here, we simply have the x
equation, which gives:
mgsinθ = mẍ =⇒ ẍ = gsinθ

=⇒ ẍ = 9.8 sm2 sin30o = 4.9 sm2

b. Find the velocity of the block after it moves from rest a distance
of xo . To find the velocity after time t, we have ẍ = gsinθ.

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Cont...

Multiply both sides this equation by 2ẋ

=⇒ ẍ2ẋ = 2ẋgsinθ
d ẋ
=⇒ dt
2ẋ = 2ẋgsinθ
2d ẋ
=⇒ dt
= 2gsinθ dx
dt
d ẋ 2
=⇒ dt
= 2gsinθ dx
dt
R v2 Rx
=⇒ d ẋ 2 = 2gsinθdx =⇒ vo
d ẋ 2 = 2gsinθ xo
dx
2
=⇒ v 2 |vvo = 2gsinθx|xxo If vo = 0 at t = 0
=⇒ v 2 = 2gsinθ(x − xo )
p
=⇒ v = 2gsinθ(x − xo )

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Cont...

C. Find velocity and position as a function of time: This is just trivial

integration: Rv Rx
=⇒ ẍ = gsinθ =⇒ ddtẋ = gsinθ =⇒ vo d ẋ = gsinθ 0 dt
Rv Rx
=⇒ vo d ẋ = gsinθ 0 dt =⇒ v |vvo = gsinθt|t0
=⇒ v − vo = gsinθ(t − 0) =⇒ v = vo + gtsinθ
and the position can be calculated from the velocity as follows. We
have
v = vo + gtsinθ =⇒ v = dx dt

=⇒ dx = vdt =⇒ dx = (vo + gtsinθ)dt

Rx
=⇒ dx = 0 (vo + gtsinθ)dt
=⇒ x(t) = x0 + vo t + 21 gt 2 sinθ. The solution for y is y (t) = 0

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Consider a rough inclined

Consider a rough inclined (coefficient of friction µ) plane which

subtends a variable angle θ to the horizontal, on which plane we have
placed a box of mass m.

Figure: a mass on an inclined plane

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Consider a rough inclined

Consider a rough inclined (coefficient of friction µ) plane which

subtends a variable angle θ to the horizontal, on which plane we have
placed a box of mass m. The weight mg of the block can be resolved
into components mg cos θ, acting normal to the incline, and mg sin
θ, acting parallel to the incline. The reaction of the incline to the
weight of the block acts normally outwards from the incline, and is of
magnitude mg cos θ. Parallel to the incline, the block is subject to
the downward gravitational force mg sin θ, and the upward frictional
force f (which acts to prevent the block sliding down the incline). It
is convenient to resolve the weight into two mutually perpendicular
components: Wx = mg sin θ , along the plane, and Wy = mg cos θ,
normal to it. Depending on the value of θ, the following two physical
situations are possible:

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Cont...

a. For θ < θP c , the body stays at rest. By the condition for

equilibrium, F = N + w + fs = 0
or,
P in terms of components,
P Fx = 0 ⇒ mg sin θ − fs = 0 ⇒ mg sin θ = fs
Fy = 0 ⇒ N − mg cos θ = 0 ⇒ mg cos θ = N
By dividing the equation mg sin θ = fs by equation mg cos θ = N, we
get:
tan θ = Nfs ⇒ fs = N tan θ. But
fs ≤ fs,max ⇒ N tan θ ≤ µs N ⇒ tan θ ≤ µs
In the limiting case θ < θc , we have fs = fs,max and tan θc = µs =⇒
θ = tan−1 (0.4) = 22o
By measuring the angle θc , we determine the coefficient µs .

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Cont...

b. Assume the block is moving (i.e its initial velocity is non-zero) and
that it is subject to sliding friction. Determine the acceleration of the
block for the angle θ = 30o assuming the frictional force obeys
Ff = µk FN where µk = 0.3 is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
By Newton’s law, andPby taking into account that the body does not
accelerate, we have: F = N + w + fk P = ma
Taking components, as before, we find: Fx = max ⇒
mg
P sin θ − f k = mẍ ⇒ mg sin θ − µ F
k N = mẍ
Fy = may ⇒ N − mg cos θ = 0 ⇒ mg cos θ = N
=⇒ mg sin θ − uk mg cos θ = mẍ =⇒ g sin θ − uk g cos θ = ẍ
=⇒ ẍ = g [sin θ − uk cos θ]
That is all that was asked for. For θ = 30o , the numerical result is
=⇒ ẍ = 9.8[sin 30o − 0.3 cos 30o ] = 024(9.8 sm2 )

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 103 / 337

Atwood’s machine problems

Another class of problems Newtonian mechanics problems you have

no doubt seen before are Atwood’s machine problems, where an
Atwood’s machine is simply a smooth, massless pulley (with zero
diameter) with two masses suspended from a (weightless) rope at
each end and acted on by gravity. These problems again require only
Newton’s second equation.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 104 / 337

Example 1: Single-rope pulley
Atwood’s machine consists of a smooth pulley with 2-masses m1 and
m2 suspended from a light string at each end. Find the acceleration
of the masses and the tension of the string (a) when the pulley center
is at rest and
a. Sketch:

Figure: Pulley
.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 105 / 337

Cont...

b. Coordinate system: There is only vertical motion, so use the y

coordinates of the two masses m1 and m2 .
C. Forces along each axis: Just the y-axis, but now for two particles:
Forces affecting m1 :
T − m1 g = m1 a 1
Forces affecting m2 :
T − m2 g = m2 a 2
and adding the two previous equations we obtain
where T is the tension in the rope. We have assumed the rope
perfectly transmits force from one end to the other.
d. Apply constraints: The rope length l cannot change (If the string
is inextensible), so y1 + y2 = l is constant, ẏ1 + ẏ2 = 0 and ÿ1 = −ÿ2 .

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Cont...

e. Solve: The differential equation for x is:

m1 g − m2 g = m1 a 2 + m2 a 2 ,
and our concluding formula for acceleration
1 −m2
a2 = −a1 = g m m1 +m2
Equation for tension
It can be useful to know an equation for the tension in the string. To
evaluate tension, substitute the equation for acceleration in either of
the 2 force equations.
T − m1 g = m1 a1 =⇒ T = m1 a1 + m1 g =⇒ T = m1 (a1 + g )
m2 −m1
but a1 = g m 1 +m2
. Let us substitute this in to T = m1 (a1 + g ). =⇒
m2 −m1
T = m1 ([g m1 +m2 ] + g ) and this results in
T = 2m 1 m2 g
m1 +m2
= 1/m12g+1/m2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 107 / 337

Example 2: Single-rope pulley
Atwood’s machine consists of a smooth pulley with 2-masses m1 and
m2 suspended from a light string at each end. Find the acceleration
of the masses and the tension of the string. (b) when the pulley is
descending in an elevator with constant acceleration α.
a. Sketch:

Figure: Pulley
.
The pulley center is no longer an inertial.
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 108 / 337
Cont...

b. Coordinate system: There is only vertical motion, so use the y

coordinates of the two masses m1 and m2 .
C. Forces along each axis: Just the y-axis, but now for two masses:
Forces affecting m1 :
00
T − m1 g = m1 ÿ1
Forces affecting m2 :
00
T − m2 g = m2 ÿ2
d. Apply constraints: The rope length l cannot change, so
y1 + y2 = l is constant, ẏ1 + ẏ2 = 0 and ÿ1 = −ÿ2 . But, as it is clear
00 0 00 0
from the figure, y1 = y1 + y1 and y2 = y2 + y2
0
=⇒ Forces affecting m1 : T − m1 g = m1 (ÿ1 + ÿ1 )
0
Forces affecting m2 : T − m2 g = m2 (ÿ2 + ÿ2 )
0 0
Knowing that ÿ1 = ÿ2 and ÿ1 = ÿ2 = α
=⇒ T − m1 g = m1 (α + ÿ1 ) and m2 : T − m2 g = m2 (α − ÿ1 )

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Cont...

e. Solve: Solving the last 2-equations for the acceleration and the
tension we get
Equation for acceleration
2 −m1
ÿ2 = −ÿ1 = (g − α) m
m1 +m2
Equation for tension
It can be useful to know an equation for the tension in the string. To
evaluate tension, substitute the equation for acceleration in either of
the 2 force equations.
T − m1 g = m1 ÿ1 =⇒ T = m1 ÿ1 + m1 g =⇒ T = m1 (ÿ1 + g )
m2 −m1
but ÿ1 = (g − α) m1 +m2
. Let us substitute this in to T = m1 (ÿ1 + g ).
m2 −m1
=⇒ T = m1 ([(g − α) m1 +m2 ] + g ) and this results in
2m1 m2 (g −α) 2(g −α)
T = m1 +m2
= 1/m1 +1/m2

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Cont...

Note that the result are just as if the acceleration of gravity were
reduced by an amount of the elevator acceleration. If the elevator is
ascending rather than descending we expect
Equation for acceleration
2 −m1
ÿ2 = −ÿ1 = (g + α) m m1 +m2
Equation for tension
T = 2mm 1 m2 (g +α)
1 +m2
2(g +α)
= 1/m 1 +1/m2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 111 / 337

Example 3:

A weight W1 = M1 g hangs at the end of a rope. Here, g = 9.81 sm2 is

the gravitational acceleration of all bodies at the surface of the earth.
At the other end of the rope, hanging over a roller, a boy of weight
W2 = M2 g pulls himself upward. Let his acceleration relative to the
tightly mounted roller be ÿ2 . What is the acceleration ÿ1 of the
weight W1 ?
a. Sketch:

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Cont...

b. Coordinate system: There is only vertical motion, so use the y

coordinates of the two masses m1 and m2 .
C. Forces along each axis: Just the y-axis, but now for two particles:
Forces affecting m1 :
m1 g − T = m1 ÿ1
Forces affecting m2 :
T − m2 g = m2 ÿ2
d. Apply constraints: The rope length l cannot change (If the string
is inextensible), so y1 + y2 = l is constant, ẏ1 + ẏ2 = 0 and ÿ1 = −ÿ2 .

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Cont...

e. Solve: The differential equation for x is:

= ÿ1 = g − mT1 and T = m2 (ÿ2 + g )
=⇒ = ÿ1 = g − [m2 (ÿm21+g )]
acceleration
=⇒ = ÿ1 = (m1 − m2 )g − m2 ÿ2
If m1 = m2 , it follows that ÿ1 = −ÿ2 , as it should be.
On the other hand, If ÿ2 = 0, it follows that = ÿ1 = (m1 − m2 )g and
vanishes for the case m1 = m2 , as expected

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 114 / 337

Example 4: Double-rope pulley

A mass M1 hangs at one end of a rope that is led over a large roller.
The other end carries a second roller of mass M2 , which in turn
carries a rope with the masses m1 and m2 fixed to its ends. The
gravitational force is acting on all masses. Calculate the acceleration
of the masses am1 nd m2 , as well as the tensions T1 and T in the
ropes.
a. Sketch:

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Cont...

b. Coordinate system: There is only vertical motion, so use the y

coordinates.
C. Forces along each axis: Just the y-axis, but now for four masses:
Forces affecting on each masses :
T − M1 g = M1 a1 ......................................(1)
T − M2 g − 2T1 = M2 (−a1 )...........................(2)
T − m1 g = m1 (a2 − a1 ).............................(3)
T − m2 g = m2 (−a2 − a1 )................................(4)
d. Apply constraints: The rope length l cannot change (If the string
is inextensible).
e. Solve:
Subtraction of the second equation from the first one yields
(M1 + M2 )a1 = −(M1 − M2 )g + 2T1 .....................(5)

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Cont...

Subtraction of equations (3) and (4) yields

−(m1 + m2 )a1 + (m1 − m2 )a2 = −(m1 + m2 )g + 2T1 .....(6)
Subtraction of the equation (6) from equation (5) yields a relation
between a1 and a2 .
(M1 +M2 +m1 +m2 )a1 −(m1 −m2 )a2 = (−M1 +M2 +m1 +m2 )g ........(7)
Subtraction of the equation (4) from equation (3) yields
−(m1 − m2 )a1 + (m1 + m2 )a2 = −(m1 − m2 )g .................(8)
The accelerations a1 and a2 can be found from equation (7) and
equation (8) by solving simultaneously.
−M1 (m1 +m2 )+M2 (m1 +m2 )+4m1 m2
a1 = (m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g

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Cont...
−2M1 (m1 −m2 )
a2 = (m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g
such that the total acceleration of mass m1 is obtained as
−M1 m1 +3M1 m2 −M2 (m1 +m2 )−4m1 m2
a2 − a1 = (m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g
and that of mass m2 is
−a2 − a1 = −M1 (3m 1 −m2 )−M2 (m1 +m2 )−4m1 m2
(m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g
If all of masses were identical (M1 = M2 = m1 = m2 ), then
a2 − a1 = −12
g , a2 = 0, −a2 − a1 = −1
2
g , and a1 = 12 g as one would
expect.
The tension T1 in the string can be derived from the expression of a1
after a simple calculation as
T1 = 12 (M1 + M2 )a1 + 12 (M1 − M2 )g

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Cont...
4m1 m2 M1
= (m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g
The rope tension T is obtained as
(M1 −M2 )a1 (M1 +M2 )g
T = 2
+ 2
g + T1
= M1 a1 + M1 g = M1 (a1 + g )
2(m1 +m2 )M1 M2 +8m1 m2 M1
= (m1 +m2 )(M1 +M2 )+4m1 m2
g
The rope tension T1 vanishes if one of the masses m1 , m2 , M1
vanishes. In this case, the rope is rolling without tension. The rope
tension T vanishes if either the masses M1 = 0, or M2 and one of the
masses m1 or m2 , (or both) vanishes. If m1 =m2 = 0 and if M1 6= 0 ,
M1 6= 0, a limit m → 0 can be taken.
2M1 M2
T =m 1 +m2
g

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 119 / 337

Time dependent forces

Many problems involve action in the presence of a time dependent

force. There are two extreme cases that are often encountered. One
case is an impulsive force that acts for a very short time, for example,
striking a ball with a bat, or the collision of two cars. The second
case involves an oscillatory time dependent force. The response to
impulsive forces is discussed below whereas the response to oscillatory
time-dependent forces.
Translational impulsive forces An impulsive force acts for a very short
time relative to the response time of the mechanical system being
discussed. In principle the equation of motion can be solved if the
complicated time dependence of the force, F(t) is known. However,
often it is possible to use the much simpler approach employing the
concept of an impulse and the principle of the conservation of linear
momentum.

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Time dependent forces

Define the linear impulse P to be the first-order time integral of the

time-dependent force.
p = Fdt, since F = dp
R
Rt R tdt
=⇒ p = 0 dp dt
dt = 0
dp = pt − p0 = ∆p
Rt Rt
=⇒ p = 0 Fdt =⇒ mv = 0 Fdt
R v (t) Rt
=⇒ vo dv = m1 0 Fdt
v (t) Rt
=⇒ v |vo = v (t) − vo = m1 0 Fdt
Rt
=⇒ v (t) = vo + m1 0 Fdt

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Time dependent forces

We have v = drdt Rt
=⇒ dr = vdt but v (t) = vo + m1 0 Fdt
R r(t) Rt Rt
=⇒ ro dr = 0 [vo + m1 0 Fdt]
r(t) Rt Rt
=⇒ r |ro = vo t + 0 [ m1 0 Fdt]
Rt Rt
=⇒ r(t) − ro = vo t + 0 [ m1 0 Fdt]
Rt Rt
=⇒ r(t) = ro + vo t + 0 [ m1 0 Fdt] In general this is complicated.
However, for the case of a constant force F (t) = F0 , this simplifies to
the constant acceleration equation
=⇒ r(t) = ro + vo t + 12 FmO t 2 , where the constant acceleration a = FmO .

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 122 / 337

Retarding Forces

A next level of complexity is introduced by considering forces that are

not static but rather depend on the velocity of the moving object.
This is interesting not just for the physics but because it introduces a
higher level of mathematical complexity. Such a force can frequently
be written as a power law in the velocity: Fr = Fr (v ) = −kv
k is a constant that depends on the details of the problem (is a
positive constant that specifies the strength of the retarding force).
Note that the force is always directed opposite to the velocity of the
object.
For the simplest power law retarding forces, the equation of motion
can be solved analytically. For more complicated dependence on
velocity, it may be necessary to generate the solution numerically.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 123 / 337

Example 1:

Find the velocity and position as a function of time for a particle

initially having velocity v0 along the +x axis and experiencing a linear
retarding force (Fr (v ) = −kv ), which is proportional to the velocity.
a. Sketch:

b. Coordinate system: only one dimension, so trivial. Have the initial

velocity ẋ0 be along the +x direction.
C. Forces along each axis: From Newton’s laws of mechanics, Just
the x-axis.
F = dP
dt
= mẍ = −k ẋ
P
x − direction : Fx = mẍ = −k ẋ

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Cont...

d. Apply constraints: none.

e. Solve: The differential equation for x is:
m ddtẋ = −k ẋ =⇒ ddtẋ = − mk ẋ
=⇒ dv = − mk vdt
let mk = K =⇒ dv = −Kvdt =⇒ dv v
= −Kdt
This is different than we have seen before since the right side is not
fixed, but depends on the left side. We can solve by separating the
variables
R v and integrating:
Rx
=⇒ vo dv v
= −K 0 dt
lnv
=⇒ lnv |vvo = −Kt|t0 =⇒ lnv − lnvo = −Kt =⇒ vo
= exp(−Kt)
k
=⇒ v = vo e −Kt = vo e − m t , where mk = K
That is, the velocity decreases exponentially, going to 0 as t → ∞

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Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

We have v = dxdt
=⇒ dx = vdt but v = vo e −Kt
=⇒ dx = (vo e −Kt )dt
Rt
=⇒ x = 0 (vo e −Kt )dt
=⇒ x(t) = ( −1
K
)vo e −Kt |t0
=⇒ x(t) = vo
K
(e −Kt − 1
e −K 0
)
=⇒ x(t) = vKo (e −Kt − 1) but K = mk
k
The solution for x is x(t) = mvk o (e − m t − 1)
mvo
The object asymptotically moves a distance k
.

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Free Fall Example 2:

Find the displacement and the velocity of a particle undergoing

vertical motion in a medium with a retarding force is proportional to
the velocity.
a. Sketch:

b. Coordinate system: only one dimension, so trivial. Have the initial

velocity ẏ0 be along the +y direction.

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Cont...

C. Forces along each axis: From Newton’s laws of mechanics, Just

the y-axis.
F = dP dt
= mÿ = −mg − k ẏ
P
y − direction : Fy = mÿ = −mg − k ẏ
d. Apply constraints: none.
e. Solve: The differential equation for y is:
m ddtẏ = −mg − k ẏ =⇒ ddtẏ = −(g + mk )ẏ let K = mk
dv
=⇒ dv = −(g + kv )dt =⇒ g +kv = −dt
Now we have both constant and velocity-dependent terms on the
rightRside. Again, we
R x solve by separating variables and integrating:
v dv
=⇒ vo g +kv = − 0 dt
du
= d(gdv
+kv )
= K =⇒ du
R
Let u = g + kv =⇒ dv u
= lnu

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Cont...

=⇒ k1 ln(g + kv )|vvo = −t|t0 =⇒ ln(g + kv ) − ln(g + kvo ) = −kt

ln(g +kv )
=⇒ (g +kvo )
= exp(−kt) =⇒ g + kv = (g + kvo )e −kt
(g +kvo ) −kt g
=⇒ v (t) = k
e − k
k
(g +( m )vo ) −kt g k
=⇒ v (t) = k
e − k
(m )
but K = m

k
=⇒ v (t) = ( mg
k
+ vo )e − m t − mg
k
We see the phenomenon of terminal velocity: as t → ∞, the second
term vanishes and we see vo → −mg /k. At this value the net force
vanish. One would have found this asymptotic speed by also solving
the equation of motion for the speed at which the acceleration
vanishes.

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Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

k
We have v = dydt
=⇒ dy = vdt but v = ( mgk
+ vo )e − m t − mg
k
dt
k
=⇒ dy = (( mg
k
+ vo )e − m t − mg
k
)dt
R y (t) Rt k
=⇒ yo dy = 0 [( mg k
+ vo )e − m t − mgk
]dt
Rt k
=⇒ y − yo = 0 [( mgk
+ vo )e − m t − mg
k
]dt
mg k mg t mg t
=⇒ y (t) = yo + ( −1
k )[( k + vo )e
−mt
− k
]|0 − k
t|0
m

m mg +vo k mg
=⇒ y (t) = yo − K
[ k (e − m t − 1
k )] − k
t
e m0
k
=⇒ y (t) = yo − m
K
[ mgk+vo (e − m t − 1
k )] − mg
k
t
e m0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 130 / 337

Cont...
2 k
The solution for y is y (t) = yo − mg
k
t + [ m kg + mv
K
o
](1 − e − m t )
The third term deals with the portion of the motion during which the
velocity is changing, and the second term deals with the terminal
velocity portion of the trajectory.
If vo exceeds the terminal velocity in magnitude, then the body
begins to slow down and v approaches the terminal speed from the
opposite direction.

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PROJECTILES

A body that moves freely under uniform gravity, and possibly air
resistance, is called a projectile. Projectile motion is very common. In
ball games, the ball is a projectile, and controlling its trajectory is a
large part of the skill of the game. On a larger scale, artillery shells
are projectiles, but guided missiles, which have rocket propulsion, are
not.
the effect of the air is to exert a drag force opposing the current
velocity of the projectile.. It is then evident by symmetry that each
projectile motion takes place in a vertical plane; this vertical plane
contains the initial position of the projectile and is parallel to its
initial velocity.
The first (and easiest) problem is that of a projectile moving without
air resistance. This is fine on the Moon, but will be only an
approximation to projectile motion on Earth. The effect of air
resistance can be very significant, as our later examples will show.

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Example 3:Inclined throw

Find the velocity and position as a function of time for a projectile

initially having velocity v0 and angle of elevation be θ without
considering air resistance.
a. Sketch:

b. Coordinate system: 2 − dimensions. Have the initial velocity ẋ0 be

along the +x direction and ẏ0 be along the +y direction.
C. Forces along each axis: From Newton’s laws of mechanics, the
equations of motion are.
x − direction : F = dP
dt
= mẍ = 0
dP
y − direction : F = dt = mÿ = −mg

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Motion along the x - direction

Let us solve the velocity and position of a projectile as a function of

time separately.P
x − direction : Fx = mẍ = 0
d. Apply constraints: none.
e. Solve: The differential equation for x is:
m ddtẋ = 0 =⇒ ddtẋ = 0
=⇒ dv = 0
We can
R v solve by integrating:
=⇒ vo cos θ dv = 0
=⇒ v |vvo cos θ = 0 =⇒ v − vo cos θ = 0
=⇒ v = vo cos θ
That is, the velocity along the x − axis.

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Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

We have v = dxdt
=⇒ dx = vdt but v = vo cos θdt
=⇒ dx = (vo cos θ)dt
R x(t) Rt
=⇒ xo =0 x = 0 (vo cos θ)dt
x(t)
=⇒ x(t)|xo = vo cos θt
=⇒ x(t) − xo = vo cos θt
=⇒ x(t) = xo + vo t cos θ at t = 0, xo = 0
The solution for x is x(t) = vo t cos θ

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 135 / 337

Motion along the y - direction

Let us solve the velocity and position of a projectile as a function of

time separately.P
x − direction : Fy = mẍ = −mg
d. Apply constraints: none.
e. Solve: The differential equation for y is:
m ddtẏ = −mg =⇒ ddtẏ = −mg
=⇒ dv = −gdt
We can
R v solve by integrating:
Rt
=⇒ vo sin θ dv = −g 0 dt
=⇒ v |vvo sin θ = −gt =⇒ v = vo sin θ − gt
=⇒ v = vo sin θ − gt
That is, the velocity along the y − axis.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 136 / 337

Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

We have v = dydt
=⇒ dy = vdt but v = vo sin θ − gt
=⇒ dy = (vo sin θ − gt)dt
R y (t) Rt
=⇒ yo y = 0 (vo sin θ − gt)dt
y (t)
=⇒ y (t)|yo = vo sin θt − 21 gt 2
=⇒ y (t) − yo = vo sin θt − 21 gt 2
=⇒ y (t) = yo + vo sin θt − 12 gt 2 at t = 0, yo = 0
The solution for y is y (t) = vo sin θt − 21 gt 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 137 / 337

Example 4:

Find the velocity and position as a function of time for a projectile

initially having velocity v0 and angle of elevation be θ by considering
the effect of the air resistance retarding force (Fr (v ) = −kv ), which
is directly proportional to the projectile’s velocity.
a. Sketch:

b. Coordinate system: 2 − dimensions. Have the initial velocity ẋ0 be

along the +x direction and ẏ0 be along the +y direction.
C. Forces along each axis: From Newton’s laws of mechanics, the
equations of motion are.
x − direction : F = dP
dt
= mẍ = −k ẋ
dP
y − direction : F = dt = mÿ = −mg − k ẏ

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Motion along the x - direction
d. Apply constraints: none.
e. Solve: The differential equation for x is:
m ddtẋ = −k ẋ =⇒ ddtẋ = − mk ẋ
=⇒ dv = − mk vdt
let mk = K =⇒ dv = −Kvdt =⇒ dv v
= −Kdt
This is different than we have seen before since the right side is not
fixed, but depends on the left side. We can solve by separating the
variables
R v anddvintegrating:
Rx
=⇒ vo cos θ v = −K 0 dt
=⇒ lnv |vvo cos θ = −Kt|t0 =⇒ lnv − lnvo cos θ = −Kt =⇒
lnv
vo cos θ
= exp(−Kt)
k
=⇒ v = vo cos θe −Kt = vo cos θe − m t , where mk = K
That is, the velocity decreases exponentially, going to 0 as t → ∞

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 139 / 337

Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

We have v = dxdt
=⇒ dx = vdt but v = vo cos θe −Kt
=⇒ dx = (vo cos θe −Kt )dt
Rt
=⇒ x = 0 (vo cos θe −Kt )dt
=⇒ x(t) = ( −1
K
)vo cos θe −Kt |t0
=⇒ x(t) = vo cos θ
K
(e −Kt − 1
e −K 0
)
=⇒ x(t) = vo cos
K
θ
(e −Kt − 1) but K = mk
k
The solution for x is x(t) = mvokcos θ (e − m t − 1)
The object asymptotically moves a distance mvokcos θ .

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 140 / 337

Vertical motion under gravity with linear resistance

C. Forces along each axis: From Newton’s laws of mechanics, Just

the y-axis. P
y − direction : Fy = mÿ = −mg − k ẏ
d. Apply constraints: none.
e. Solve: The differential equation for y is:
m ddtẏ = −mg − k ẏ =⇒ ddtẏ = −(g + mk )ẏ let K = mk
dv
=⇒ dv = −(g + kv )dt =⇒ g +kv = −dt
Now we have both constant and velocity-dependent terms on the
rightRside. Again, we solve
R x by separating variables and integrating:
v dv
=⇒ vo sin θ g +kv = − 0 dt
du
= d(gdv
+kv )
= K =⇒ du
R
Let u = g + kv =⇒ dv u
= lnu

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 141 / 337

Cont...

=⇒ k1 ln(g + kv )|vvo sin θ = −t|t0 =⇒

ln(g + kv ) − ln(g + kvo sin θ) = −kt
ln(g +kv )
=⇒ (g +kvo sin θ)
= exp(−kt) =⇒ g + kv = (g + kvo sin θ)e −kt
(g +kvo sin θ) −kt g
=⇒ v (t) = k
e − k
k
(g +( m )vo sin θ) −kt g k
=⇒ v (t) = k
e − k
(m )
but K = m

k
=⇒ v (t) = ( mg
k
+ vo sin θ)e − m t − mg
k
We see the phenomenon of terminal velocity: as t → ∞, the second
term vanishes and we see vo → −mg /k. At this value the net force
vanish. One would have found this asymptotic speed by also solving
the equation of motion for the speed at which the acceleration
vanishes.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 142 / 337

Cont...

The position can be calculated from the velocity as follows.

k
We have v = dydt
=⇒ dy = vdt but v = ( mgk
+ vo sin θ)e − m t − mg
k
dt
k
=⇒ dy = (( mg
k
+ vo sin θ)e − m t − mg
k
)dt
R y (t) Rt k
=⇒ yo dy = 0 [( mg k
+ vo sin θ)e − m t − mgk
]dt
Rt k
=⇒ y − yo = 0 [( mgk
+ vo sin θ)e − m t − mg
k
]dt
mg k mg t mg t
=⇒ y (t) = yo + ( −1
k )[( k + vo sin θ)e
−mt
− k
]|0 − k
t|0
m

m mg +vo sin θ k mg
=⇒ y (t) = yo − K
[ k
(e − m t − 1
k )] − k
t
e m0
k
=⇒ y (t) = yo − m
K
[ mg +vko sin θ (e − m t − 1
k )] − mg
k
t
e m0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 143 / 337

Cont...
2 k
The solution for y is y (t) = yo − mg
k
t + [ m kg + mvoKsin θ ](1 − e − m t )
The third term deals with the portion of the motion during which the
velocity is changing, and the second term deals with the terminal
velocity portion of the trajectory.
If vo exceeds the terminal velocity in magnitude, then the body
begins to slow down and v approaches the terminal speed from the
opposite direction.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 144 / 337

Example: Charged Particle

Consider a charged particle entering a region of uniform magnetic

field By ĵ. Determine its subsequent motion.
a. Sketch:
r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂ =⇒ ṙ = v = ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂
=⇒ B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
F = qv × B
î ĵ k̂
v×B= vx vy vz
Bx By Bz
v × B = (vy Bz − vz By )î + (vx Bz − vz Bx )ĵ + (vx By − vy Bx )k̂
v × B = (vy 0 − vz By )î + (vx 0 − vz 0)ĵ + (vx By − vy 0)k̂

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 145 / 337

Example: Charged Particle

v × B = (−vz By )î + 0ĵ + (vx By )k̂

F = qvX B = q[(−vz By )î + 0ĵ + (vx By )k̂] = m[ẍ î + ÿ ĵ + z̈ k̂]
That is, the three Cartesian components of r are just the appropriate
derivatives of the three coordinates x, y, z of r, and Newton’s second
law becomes
Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ = mẍ î + mÿ ĵ + mz̈ k̂
−qvz By = mẍ ........(1)
(
F = mr̈ ⇒ 0 = mÿ ........(2)
qvx By = mz̈........(3)
From equation (2), We have 0 = mÿ
m ddtẏ = 0 =⇒ ddtẏ = 0
=⇒ dv = 0
We can solve by integrating:

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 146 / 337

Example: Charged Particle
Rv
=⇒ voy
dv = 0
=⇒ v |vvoy = 0 =⇒ vy − voy cos θ = 0
=⇒ vy = voy = constant
That is, the velocity along the y − axis.
vy = dy
dt
=⇒ dy = vy dt but vy = voy dt
=⇒ dy = voy dt
R y (t) Rt
=⇒ yo y = 0 (voy )dt
y (t)
=⇒ y (t)|yo = voy t
=⇒ y (t) − yo = voy t
=⇒ y (t) = yo + voy t
The solution for y is y (t) = yo + voy t

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 147 / 337

Example: Charged Particle

From equation (1), We have −qvz By = mẍ

ẍ = −qB m
y
ż ........(4)
From equation (3), We have qvx By = mz̈
z̈ = −qBm
y
ẋ ........(5)
Let us derivable both equations (4) and (5) to get
... ...
=⇒ x = −qB m
y
z̈ and z = −qB
m
y
ẍ
Let’s substitute equations (4) and (5) in these equations to get
... 2 2 ... 2 2
=⇒ x = −qm2B ẋ and z = −qm2B ż
... ...
let qB
m
y
= α =⇒ x = −α2 ẋ and z = −α2 ż
Let the solutions for these differential equations be
x = A0sin αt − B cos 0
αt and
z = A sin αt − B cos αt

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 148 / 337

Example: Charged Particle
Check
ẋ = −αA cos αt + αB sin αt and
ẍ...= −α2 A sin αt − α2 B cos αt and
−α3 A sin αt + α3 B sin αt and
x = ...
=⇒ x = −α2 ẋ
=⇒ −α3 A sin αt + α3 B sin αt = −α2 (A sin αt − B cos αt)
Similarly, the later one can be verified. =⇒
x = A sin αt − B cos αt + xo , and
0 0
z = A sin αt − B cos αt + zo

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 149 / 337

position dependent forces

are very common

all fundamental forces (gravitational force, electrostatic
force, nuclear force...)
F = ma =⇒ F = ma = m dv
dt
= m dv dx
dx dt
= mv dv
dx
m dv 2 dv 2
=⇒ F(x) = mv dv
dx
= 2 dx
, where, dx
= 2v dv
dx
d mv 2 mv 2
=⇒ F(x) = dx
( 2 ) but 2
= KE = T
=⇒ F(x) = dT
dx
=⇒ F(x)dx = dT
R RT
=⇒ W = F(x)dx = To dT = ∆T
] W = ∆T , Work energy theorem with a variable force (position
dependent force)
Q. For a conservative force, show that F = −∇v (r )?

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 150 / 337

position dependent forces
Solution
Whenever the work done by a force in moving an object from an
initial point to a final point is independent of the path, the force is
called a conservative force. If the force acting on a particle is
conservative, then the total energy of the particle is conserved. i.e
T +v =E
d d d d
dt
E = dt (T + V ) =⇒ 0 = dt T + dt V
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m free to move in 3D is
2
defined as T = mv2 = 12 mṙ 2 where ṙ 2 = ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2
=⇒ T = 21 m(ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 )
=⇒ dT dt
= 12 m(2ẋ ẍ + 2ẏ ÿ + 2ż z̈)
=⇒ dT dt
= m(ẋ ẍ + ẏ ÿ + ż z̈)
dT
=⇒ dt = m(ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂).(ẍ î + ÿ ĵ + z̈ k̂)
=⇒ dT dt
= mṙ .r̈ = mr̈ ṙ = F .ṙ , and
The potential energy V is a function V(r), now the rate of the
potential energy is v (r ) = v (x, y , z)
From this, the total derivative of a function v (r ) = v (x, y , z) is
written as :
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 151 / 337
position dependent forces
dv = ∂v
∂x
∂v
dx + ∂y dy + ∂v∂z
dz
Let us divide both sides of this equation by dt
∂v dy
=⇒ dvdt
= ∂v dx
∂x dt
+ ∂y dt
+ ∂v dz
∂z dt
∂v ∂v ∂v
=⇒ v̇ = ∂x
ẋ + ∂y
ẏ + ∂z
ż

=⇒ v̇ = ( ∂v
∂x
î + ∂v
∂y
ĵ + ∂v
∂z
î)(ẋ î + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂)
˙ ) = ( ∂ î + ∂ ĵ + ∂ î)v ṙ = ∇v ṙ =⇒
=⇒ v (r dv
= ∇v ṙ
∂x ∂y ∂z dt
We have dT
dt
= F .ṙ , and dv
dt
= ∇v ṙ
d d d d
=⇒ 0 = dt
T + dt
V = dt
(F .ṙ ) + dt
(∇v ṙ )
d
=⇒ dt
(F + ∇v ) = 0
=⇒ F = −∇v

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 152 / 337

position dependent forces

=⇒ F = −∇v
=⇒ W = F(x)dx, but F = − dv
R
dx
R dv Rv
=⇒ W = − dx dx = vo −dv
=⇒ W = −v |vvo = −(v − vo ) = −∆v
=⇒ W = −∆v
=⇒ From these, we can relate
W = ∆T = −∆v =⇒ T − To = vo − v =⇒ T + v = To + vo
=⇒ MEf = MEi
When only internal conservative forces act in a closed system, the
sum of the changes of the kinetic and potential energies of the
system is zero.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 153 / 337

position dependent forces

Q. For a conservative force, show that ∇ × F = 0? R

For a conservative system, the work done by the force is w = F .ds
The work done around a closed circuit HW=0. R
H theoremR of Gauss’s divergence A.ds = (∇ × A)dv
By the
=⇒ F .dr = (∇ × F )dv = 0
=⇒ ∇ × F = 0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 154 / 337

Energy

The linear restoring force is an example of a conservative field. The

total energy E is conserved, and if the field is time independent, then
the conservative forces are a function only of position.
In today’s physics, energy is more popular than Newton’s laws. Most
of physical problems are solved by means of energy.
Consider a particle under the influence of a conservative,
1-dimensional, force. The total energy is written as E = T + U
Consider a conservative force in one dimension. Since it was shown
that the total energy E = T + U is conserved for a conservative field,
then R2
U2 − U1 = 1 F.dr

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 155 / 337

Energy

Knowing U(x) it is possible to solve this equation as a function of

time.
Therefore: T + U = 12 mv 2 + U(x) = E =⇒ v 2 = 2(E −U(x))
m
q
=⇒ mv 2 = 2(E −U(x))
m
=⇒ v = ± 2(E −U(x))
m
q
=⇒ v = dx dt
= ± 2(E −U(x))
m
Rx
Integration of this gives tf − to = x √ 2 ±dx o
m
(E −U(x))

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 156 / 337

Energy

The motion is bounded for E1 and E2 , i.e it can’t move off to ∞.

For E1 the motion is periodic between xa and xb , i.e., xa ≤ x ≤ xb .
For E2 the motion is periodic in two possible regions: between
xc ≤ x ≤ xd and xe ≤ x ≤ xf .
For Eo the particle is at rest since here E=U.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 157 / 337

Energy

For E3 the particle comes from ∞, stops and turns at x = xg and

returns to ∞. Here the motion is unbounded.
For E4 the motion is unbounded and the particle may be at any
position.
The point x = xo is called an equilibrium point. In general, the
equilibrium state is characterized by dU(x)
dx
=0
If f(x) is degree n, it will have n − 1 turning points. Two check
wether the points are stable or unstable, there are two techniques.
1. Evaluating the energies at these points and
2. The second derivative test. 2 U(x)
The equilibrium is said to be stable if d dx 2 |x=a > 0
=⇒ x = a is a stable equilibrium point.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 158 / 337

Energy

2
The equilibrium is said to be unstable if d dx
U(x)
2 |x=a < 0
=⇒ x = a is unstable equilibrium point. An equilibrium is considered
stable if the system always returns to equilibrium after small
disturbances. If the system moves away from the equilibrium after
small disturbances, then the equilibrium is unstable.
Example: Consider the potential U(x) = 13 x 3 + 3x 2 + 8x.
1. Find the equilibrium points?
2. Find the energy at equilibrium points?
3. Identify which point is stable and which is unstable?

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 159 / 337

Solution

dU(x) d 1 3
1. dx
= 0 =⇒ ( x
dx 3
+ 3x 2 + 8x) = 0
=⇒ 3 31 x 2 + 2 × 3x + 8 = 0 =⇒ x 2 + 6x + 8 = 0
=⇒ x 2 + 2x + 4x + 8 = 0 =⇒ x(x + 2) + 4(x + 2) = 0
=⇒ (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 0 =⇒ x + 2 = 0orx + 4 = 0
=⇒ The equilibrium points are x = −2orx = −4
2. U(x) = 31 x 3 + 3x 2 + 8x.
−20
=⇒ U(−2) = 13 (−2)3 + 3(−2)2 + 8(−2) = 3
.
−16
=⇒ U(−4) = 31 (−4)3 + 3(−4)2 + 8(−4) = 3
.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 160 / 337

Solution

3.2 The second derivative test.

d U(x) d 1 3 d
dx 2
= dx ( 3 x + 3x 2 + 8x) = dx
(x 2 + 6x + 8) = 2x + 6
d 2 U(x)
|
dx 2 x=−2
= 2(−2) + 6 = 2 > 0 =⇒ x = −2 is unstable equilibrium
point.
d 2 U(x)
|
dx 2 x=−4
= 2(−4) + 6 = −2 < 0 =⇒ x = −4 is stable equilibrium
point.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 161 / 337

Problem
A particle of mass 1 unit moves in the xy plane under the influence of
a force field having a potential of U(x) = 3xy − 4x 2 . The particle
starts from rest at t =0 at the point with ro = 10i − 10j.
1 Is the force field conservative
2 Determine the differential equation
3 Determine the acceleration, velocity and position of this object
at any time t and at t=2s.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 162 / 337

Problem

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 163 / 337

Problem

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 164 / 337

Linear oscillations

Oscillations are a physical phenomenon seen in a wide variety of

physical systems. Examples are periodic motion of planets, the rise
and fall of the tides, water waves, pendulum in a clock, musical
instruments, sound waves, electromagnetic waves, and wave-particle
duality in quantal physics. The key features of this chapter are the
properties of free undamped oscillations, free damped oscillations,
driven oscillations, and coupled oscillations.
In this chapter we study the classical linear theory of oscillations,
which is important for two reasons:
(i) the linear theory usually gives a good approximation to the motion
when the amplitude of the oscillations is small, and
(ii) in the linear theory, most problems can be solved explicitly in
closed form.

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Linear oscillations

An oscillatory system requires that there be a stable equilibrium

about which the oscillations occur. Consider a conservative system
with potential energy U for which the force is given by
F = −∇U

The restoring force or the gradient of the potential is zero at points

1, 2 and 3. Stable oscillations occur only around locations 1 and 3
whereas the system is unstable at the zero gradient location 2.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 166 / 337

Linear oscillations

In the potential energy curve, since U(x) + T(x) = E, Since

T (x) = 12 mv 2 , it can never be negative. Hence the particle can never
move to the left of x1 . At x1 , dU/dx is negative, hence the force on
the particle is positive, and the particle will turn back and move to
the right. x1 is called a turning point.
Equilibrium Points - Positions where no forces act on the particle, i.e.
U(x) has zero slope.
Types of Equilibrium:
Stable equilibrium
- If slightly displaced, a restoring force appears and the particle
returns to the original position. They correspond to the minima in
U(x). e.g. when E = 1 J and x = x4 .

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 167 / 337

Unstable equilibrium
-If slightly displaced, a force pushes it further away from the original
position. They correspond to the maxima in U(x). e.g. when E = 3 J
and x = x3 .
Neutral equilibrium -
If slightly displaced, no forces act on the particle and it remains
there. e.g. when E = 4 J and x is beyond x5 .
Types of Motion:
Equilibrium e.g. when E = 0 J.
Bounded motion e.g. when E = 1 J. e.g. when E = 2 J, the motion
may be bounded in the left or the right valley, depending on the
initial condition.
Unbounded motion e.g. when E = 5 J.

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Linear oscillations

Stability requirements
1) The potential has a stable position for which the restoring force is
zero, i.e. dU(x) |
dx x=xo
=0
2) The potential U must be positive and an even function of
n U(x)
displacement x = xo . That is. d dx n |xo > 0 where n is even.
If the second derivative is positive, the equilibrium is stable; if it is
2 U(x)
negative, the system is unstable. If d dx 2 |xo = 0 , one must look at
higher derivatives. If all derivatives vanish so that U is constant in a
region about xo , the system is said to be in a condition of neutral.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 169 / 337

Linear oscillations

The requirement for the restoring force to be linear is that the

restoring force for perturbation about a stable equilibrium at xo is of
the form F (x) = −k(x − xo ) = ma = mẍ
The potential energy function for a linear oscillator has a pure
parabolic
R shape aboutR the minimum location, that is,
w = Fx (x − xo ) = −k(x − xo )(x − xo ) = ∆U = 12 k(x − xo )2
where xo is the location of the minimum.
Fortunately, oscillatory systems involve small amplitude oscillations
about a stable minimum. For weak non-linear systems, where the
amplitude of oscillation ∆x about the minimum is small, it is useful
to make a Taylor expansion of the potential energy about the
minimum. That is

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 170 / 337

Linear oscillations

U(∆x) =
2 U(x ) 3 U(x )
Uo (xo ) + ∆x( dU(x
dx
o)
)x=0 + 2!1 ∆x 2 ( d dx 2
o
)x=0 + 3!1 ∆x 3 ( d dx 3
o
)x=0 + ...

By definition, at the minimum ( dU(x

dx
o)
)x=0 and thus
∆U = 12 k(x − xo )2 = U(∆x) − U(xo ) =
2 U(x ) 3 U(x )
1
2!
∆x 2 ( d dx 2
o
)x=0 + 3!1 ∆x 3 ( d dx 3
o
)x=0 + ...
For small amplitude oscillations, the system is linear if the
2 U(x )
second-order 2!1 ∆x 2 ( d dx 2
o
)x=0 term in is dominant.

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Linear oscillations

Consider the motion of a particle that is constrained to move in one

dimension. If a particle located at the origin is displaced, then there
exists some force which acts to restore the particle to its equilibrium
position.If the restoring force possesses continuous derivatives of all
orders, it can be expanded in a Taylor series :
2 F (x)
1 3 d 3 F (x)
F (x) = Fo (x) + x( dFdx(x) )x=0 + 2!1 x 2 ( d dx 2 )x=0 + 3! x ( dx 3 )x=0 + ...
The term F0 is the value of the force at the equilibrium position,
which must vanish at the equilibrium. Then, if we take the
displacements of the particle are sufficiently small, all terms involving
x 2 and higher powers of x can be neglected. We have, therefore, the
approximate relation
F (x) = −kx .......Hook’s law

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 172 / 337

Linear oscillations

where we have substituted k = −(dF /dx)0 . Since the restoring force

is always directed toward the equilibrium position (the origin), the
derivative (dF /dx)0 is negative and therefore k is a positive constant.
The motion of a particle under the influence of a linear restoring
force can be described in terms of sines and cosines. A system
undergoing such motion is called a linear harmonic oscillator.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 173 / 337

The Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Consider a spring − mass system lying on a frictionless horizontal

surface with one end of the spring fixed to a wall and the other end
attached to an object of mass m.

The spring force is an internal conservative force. The wall exerts an

external force on the spring-object system but since the point of
contact of the wall with the spring undergoes no displacement, this
external force does no work.

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The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Choose the origin at the position of the center of the object when the
spring is relaxed (the equilibrium position). Let x be the displacement
of the object from the origin. We choose the +î unit vector to point
in the direction the object moves when the spring is being stretched.
The equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator may be
obtained by equating the Hooke’s law force to the Newtonian force.
Thus,
F (x) = −kx = ma = mẍ
mẍ + kx = 0 =⇒ ẍ + mk x = 0, let k
m
= ω2
=⇒ ẍ + ω 2 x = 0, Let the solution be x = Be λt
=⇒ ẋ = Bλe λt =⇒ ẍ = Bλ2 e λt
Then, ẍ + ω 2 x = 0
ẍ + ω 2 x = 0 =⇒ Bλ2 e λt = −ω 2 (x = Be λt )
√ √ √
=⇒ Bλ2 = ω 2 =⇒ Bλ = −ω 2 = − ω 2 = iω

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Cont...

=⇒ x = Be iωt
but, e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ and e −iθ = cos θ − i sin θ
=⇒ x = Be iωt = B(cos ωt + i sin ωt = B cos ωt + Bi sin ωt, let Bi =
D
=⇒ x = B cos ωt + D sin ωt

√
A = B 2 + D 2 , B = Asinδ and D = A cos δ.
=⇒ x = B cos ωt + Bi sin ωt
x = Asinδ cos ωt + A cos δ sin ωt = A(sinδ cos ωt + cos δ sin ωt)

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Cont...
so that the solution is x = Asin(ωt + δ)
where A and δ are the constants of integration. A is clearly the
maximum amplitude of the motion and δ is a phase angle which
depends upon the initial conditions.
We could equally as well have written for the solution
x = Acos(ωt + δ 0 )
where δ 0 = δ − π2 . An alteration in the value of the phase angle
corresponds to a change of the instant that we designate as t = 0,
the origin of the time scale.
The kinetic energy of the particle is T = 12 mẋ 2 , where
x = Asin(ωt + δ) =⇒ x = Aωcos(ωt + δ) =⇒
T = 12 m[Aωcos(ωt + δ)]2
=⇒ T = 12 A2 cos 2 (ωt + δ), where k = mω 2
The potential Renergy mayR be obtained from the expression for the
force: U = − Fdx = k xdx = 21 kx 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 177 / 337

Cont...

where the zero of U is chosen at x = 0. Then, U = 12 k[Asin(ωt + δ)]2

=⇒ U = 21 kA2 sin2 (ωt + δ)
Combining the expressions for T and U to find the total energy E, we
have
T +U = 21 kA2 sin2 (ωt +δ)+ 12 kA2 cos 2 (ωt +δ) = 21 kA2 + 12 kA2 = 12 kA2
so that the total energy is proportional to the square of the
amplitude; this is a general result for linear systems.
The general form of the motion is most easily deduced from the form
x = Asin(ωt + δ). This is called simple harmonic motion (SHM).
The body makes infinitely many oscillations of constant amplitude A;
the constant A is simply a ’phase factor’ which shifts the whole graph
by ωδ nin the t-direction.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 178 / 337

Cont...

The period τ is the time interval between successive repetitions of

the particle’s position and direction of motion. The sine function
repeats itself.
This occurs when the argument of the sine in x = Asin(ωt + δ)
increases by 2π :
, it follows that the period of the oscillations is given by ω = 2π
τ
=⇒
τ = 2π mk , where mk = ω and ω represents the angular frequency
p p
of the motion
The frequency (the number of oscillations per unit time) ν is τ1 =⇒
q
1 k
ν = 2π m
Note that the period of the simple harmonic oscillator is independent
of the amplitude (or total energy); a system which exhibits this
property is said to be isochronous.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 179 / 337

The Simple pendulum

The simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits

periodic motion. It consists of a particle like bob of mass m
suspended by a light string of length L that is fixed at the upper end,
as shown below. The motion occurs in the vertical plane and is
driven by the force of gravity. The plane pendulum is an example of
an oscillator that is approximately isochronous, if the amplitude of
oscillation is small.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 180 / 337

Cont...

The forces acting on the bob are the force T exerted by the string
and the gravitational force mg. The tangential component of the
gravitational force, mg sin θ, always acts toward θ = 0, opposite the
displacement. Therefore, the tangential force is a restoring force, and
we can apply Newton’s second law for motion in the tangential
direction:
mgsinθ = −ma =⇒ mẍ = −mgsinθ, where a is the acceleration
along the arc, s = x is the bob’s displacement measured along the arc
and the minus sign indicates that the tangential force acts toward the
equilibrium (vertical) position. θ=x
L
=⇒ ẍ = θ̈L Because L is
constant, this equation reduces to θ̈L + gsinθ = 0
If θ represents the angle that the pendulum makes with the vertical,
then for small θ (i.e, sin θ ∼
= θ) the equation of motion is the familiar
expression.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 181 / 337

Cont...

θ̈L + g θ = 0
=⇒ θ̈ + gL θ = 0
Now we have an expression of the same form as mass spring system.
Therefore, θ can be written as
θ = θmax cos(ωt + φ), where θmax is the maximum angular
displacement and the angular frequency ω is gL
q
2π
ω = τ =⇒ τ = 2π gL
The frequency (the number of oscillations per unit time) ν is τ1 =⇒
q
1 L
ν = 2π g
The period is therefore independent of the mass of the pendulum bob
and depends only on the length L and the gravitational acceleration g.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 182 / 337

Physical pendulum

Physical pendulum is an object that oscillates about a fixed axis

which does not go through the object’s center of mass.
Consider a rigid body pivoted at a point O that is a distance d from
the CM.The magnitude of the net torque provided by the gravity is

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 183 / 337

Cont...

τ = I α = r × F ⇒ τ = I θ̈ = d × −mg sin θ ⇒ I θ̈ + d × mg sin θ = 0

⇒ θ̈ + mgd
I
θ=0
Now we have an expression of the same form as mass spring system.
Therefore, θ can be written as
θ = θmax cos(ωt + φ), where θmax is the maximum angular
displacement and the angular frequency ω is mgd
I
q
2π I
ω = τ =⇒ τ = 2π mgd
The period is therefore dependent of the mass of the physical
pendulum bob.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 184 / 337

Torsion Pendulum

When a rigid body is suspended by a wire to a fixed support at the

top and the body is twisted through some small angle q, the twisted
wire can exert a restoring torque on the body that is proportional to
the angular displacement.
τ = I α = −kθ, k is the torsion constant of the wire.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 185 / 337

Cont...

Applying the Newton’s second law of rotational motion.

τ = I α = −kθ ⇒ τ = I θ̈ + kθ,
⇒ I θ̈ + kθ = 0
⇒ θ̈ + kI θ = 0
Now we have an expression of the same form as mass spring system.
Therefore, θ can be written as
θ = θmax cos(ωt + φ), where θmax is the maximum angular
displacement and the angular frequency ω is kI
q
ω = τ =⇒ τ = 2π kI
2π

This result works as long as the elastic limit of the wire is not
exceeded

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 186 / 337

Damped Harmonic Motion

The motion represented by the simple harmonic oscillator is termed

as a free oscillation; once set into oscillation, the motion would never
cease. This is, of course, an oversimplification of the actual physical
case in which dissipative or frictional forces would eventually damp
the motion to the point that the oscillations would cease. a particle
of mass m moves under the combined influence of a restoring force
−kx (as does the simple harmonic oscillator) and a damping or
resistive force −bv = −b ẋ, then the differential equation which
describes the motion is F (x) = ma = mẍ = −kx − b ẋ.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 187 / 337

Example:
Consider a mass m attached to the end of a spring with spring
constant k. Let the mass be subject to a drag force proportional to
its velocity, Ff = −bv ;

F (x) = ma = mẍ = −kx − b ẋ.

mẍ + b ẋ + kx =⇒ ẍ + mb ẋ + mk x = 0, let k
m
= ωo2 and b
2m
=β
=⇒ ẍ + 2β ẋ + ωo2 x = 0........2nd order non − linear homogenous
equation
Let the solution be x = Ae λt

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 188 / 337

Cont...
=⇒ ẋ = Aλe λt =⇒ ẍ = Aλ2 e λt
Then, ẍ + 2β ẋ + ωo2 x = 0
=⇒ (Aλ2 e λt ) + 2β(Aλe λt ) + ωo2 (Ae λt ) = 0
=⇒ (λ2 ) + 2β(λ) + ωo2 = 0 .......Characterstic equation.
Here A = 1, B = 2β, C = ωo2
√
−2β± 4β 2 −4ωo2 p
=⇒ λ = 2
= −β ± β 2 − ωo2
p p
=⇒ λ1 = −β + β 2 − ωo2 and λ2 = −β − β 2 − ωo2
=⇒ x(t) = c1 e λ1 t + c2 e λ2 t
√ 2 2 √ 2 2
=⇒ x(t) = c1 e (−β+ β −ωo )t + c2 e (−β− β −ωo )t
√ 2 2 √
−βt β −ωo t − β 2 −ωo2 t
=⇒ x(t) = e [c1 e + c2 e ]

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 189 / 337

Cont...

There are three general cases of interest :

Under damping : β 2 < ωo2
Critical damping: β 2 = ωo2
Over damping: β 2 > ωo2
As we will see, only the case of under damping results in oscillatory
motion. These three cases will be discussed separately.
2 2
UNDERDAMPED √ OSCILLATION. √ 2 β 2< ωo p
2 2
x(t) = e −βt [c1 e β −ωo t + c2 e − β −ωo t ], let β 2 − ωo2 = iω1
=⇒ x(t) = e −βt (c1 e iω1 t + c2 e −iω1 t )
=⇒ x(t) = e −βt [c1 (cos ω1 t + sin ω1 t) + c2 (cos ω1 t − sin ω1 t)]

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 190 / 337

Cont...

x(t) = e −βt (c1 cos ω1 t + c1 sin ω1 t + c2 cos ω1 t − c2 sin ω1 t)

x(t) = e −βt (c1 cos ω1 t + c2 cos ω1 t + c1 sin ω1 t − c2 sin ω1 t)
=⇒ x(t) = e −βt [(c1 + c2 ) cos ω1 t + (c1 − c2 ) sin ω1 t],
let c1 + c2 = A1 and c1 − c2 = A2
=⇒ x(t) = e −βt (A1 cos ω1 t + A2 sin ω1 t)

=⇒ x(t) = AA e −βt (A1 cos ω1 t + A2 sin ω1 t)

=⇒ x(t) = Ae −βt ( AA1 cos ω1 t + A2
A
sin ω1 t)

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 191 / 337

Cont...
=⇒ x(t) = Ae −βt (cos φ cos ω1 t + sin φ sin ω1 t). This may be
rewritten as
=⇒ x(t) = Ae −βt cos(ω1 t − φ)
=⇒ x(t) = eAβt cos(ω1 t − φ), where eAβt is amplitude.
The maximum amplitude of the motion of the damped oscillator
decreases with time because of the factor exp(−βt) (β > 0). Note
that the frequency of the motion, β 2 < ωo2 , is less than the natural
frequency, ωo , of the undamped oscillator.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 192 / 337

Cont...

The kinetic energy is T = 21 mẋ 2 ,

where x = Ae −βt cos(ω1 t − φ) =⇒
ẋ = −Aβe −βt cos(ω1 t − φ) − Aω1 e −βt sin(ω1 t − φ)
How E(t) depends on time can be found by calculating the kinetic
and potential energies K(t) and U(t). The velocity v is given by
ẋ = v (t) = −ω1 Ae −βt [sin(ω1 t − φ) + ωβ1 cos(ω1 t − φ)]
If the motion is only lightly damped, ωβ1 << 1, and the coefficient of
the second term in −βt
the bracket is small. Then
ẋ = v (t) = −ω1 Ae sin(ω1 t − φ).
ẋ 2 = v 2 = A2 ω12 e −2βt sin2 (ω1 t − φ).

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 193 / 337

Cont...

The kinetic energy may be obtained from the expression T = 12 mv 2

T = 21 mv 2 = 12 m(A2 ω12 e −2βt sin2 (ω1 t − φ))
The potential Renergy mayR be obtained from the expression for the
force: U = − Fdx = k xdx = 12 kx 2
where the zero of U is chosen at x = 0. Then,
U = 21 k[Ae −βt (ω1 t − φ)]2
=⇒ U = 12 kA2 e −2βt cos 2 (ωt − φ)
Combining the expressions for T and U to find the total energy E, we
have E = T + U
E = [ 21 m(A2 ω12 e −2βt sin2 (ω1 t − φ))] + [ 12 kA2 e −2βt cos 2 (ωt − φ)]
E = 21 A2 e −2βt [mω12 sin2 (ω1 t − φ) + kcos 2 (ωt − φ)]
Since the damping is assumed to be small,
ω02 = ω12 + β12 = ω12 [1 + ωβ2 ] = ω12 and taking k = mω02
1

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 194 / 337

Cont...

E = 12 A2 e −2βt [k sin2 (ω1 t − φ) + kcos 2 (ωt − φ)]

E = 12 kA2 e −2βt [sin2 (ω1 t − φ) + cos 2 (ωt − φ)] but
sin2 (ω1 t − φ) + cos 2 (ωt − φ) = 1
E = 21 kA2 e −2βt
The motion is similar to the undamped case except that the
amplitude decreases exponentially in time and the frequency of
oscillation ω1 is less than the undamped frequency ω0 . Therefore, the
total energy of a damped oscillator on the average decreases
uniformly with time. This loss of energy, for a mechanical system,
goes into the heating of the medium which produces the damping.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 195 / 337

Cont...

Physically, E(t) decreases with time because the friction force

continually dissipates energy.

The energy decreases exponentially in time. At t=o, Eo = 12 kA2 and

E (t) = 21 kA2 e −2βt at any time t.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 196 / 337

CRITICALLY DAMPED MOTION. β 2 = ωo2

In the event that the damping force is sufficiently large (i.e if β 2 is no

longer less than ωo2 ), then the system is prevented from undergoing
oscillatory motion. For a given set of initial conditions, a critically
damped oscillator will approach equilibrium at a rate more rapid than
that for either an overdamped or an underdamped oscillator.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 197 / 337

Cont...

√ √
β 2 −ωo2 t − β 2 −ωo2 t
−βt
p
x(t) = e [A1 e β 2 = ωo2
+ A2 e ], but
p p
=⇒ λ1 = −β + β 2 − β 2 = −β and λ2 = −β − β 2 − β 2 = −β
=⇒ λ1 = λ2 = −β
We have got two similar values of λ0 s. If the roots of the auxiliary
equation are then equal and the function √ x must be√ written as
2 −β 2 2 2
A1 e λ1 t + A2 te λ2 t x(t) = e −βt [A1 e β t
+ A2 e β −β t ]
−

=⇒ x(t) = A1 e λ1 t + A2 te λ2 t

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 198 / 337

Cont...
To get a second solution, we consider somewhat a stronger damped
vibration.
β 2 = ωo2 + α2
Then, there exist two solutions that may be expanded into a Tayler
series.
e λ1 t = e −βt .e αt = e −βt (1 + αt + 2!1 t 2 (α2 ) + 3!1 t 3 (α3 ) + ...)
e λ1 t = e −βt .e −αt = e −βt (1 − αt + 2!1 t 2 (α2 ) − 3!1 t 3 (α3 ) + ...)
We subtract the second solution from the first one and divide by α.
Then, we let α approach 0.
−βt
lim x1 −x
α
2
= lim e α (2αt + 3!2 t 3 (α3 ) + 5!2 t 5 (α5 )...)
lim x1 −x
α
2
= lime −βt (2t + 2 3
3!
t (α2 ) + 2 5
5!
t (α4 )...)
lim x1 −x
α
2
= 2te −βt
Because the differential equation is linear, the linear combination also
must be a solution.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 199 / 337

Cont...

We shall check that and insert te −βt in the differential equation to be

solved. Then, actually,
ẍ + 2β ẋ + ω 2 x = 0
0 = (β 2 te −βt − 2βe −βt ) + 2β(e −βt − βte −βt ) + ω 2 βte −βt
(ω 2 − β 2 )te −βt = 0
=⇒ x = te −βt is a solution of the differential equation.
We now have two particular solutions, and with
=⇒ x1 (t) = A1 e λ1 t and
x2 (t) = A2 te λ2 t
We may write the general solution as x1 (t) = (A1 + Bt)e λt

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 200 / 337

OVERDAMPED MOTION. β 2 > ωo2

If the damping parameter β 2 is even larger than ωo2 , then

overdamping results. Somewhat surprisingly, the body does not
oscillate at all. For example, if the body is released from rest, then it
simply drifts back towards the equilibrium position. On the other
hand, if the body is projected towards the equilibrium position with
sufficient speed, then it passes the equilibrium position once and then
drifts back towards it from the other side.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 201 / 337

OVERDAMPED MOTION. β 2 > ωo2

√ √ 2 2
β 2 −ωo2 t
+ c2 e − β −ωo t ], let β 2 − ωo2 = ω2
p
x(t) = e −βt [c1 e
=⇒ x(t) = e −βt (c1 e ω2 t + c2 e −ω2 t )
=⇒ x(t) = c1 e (ω2 −β)t + c2 e −(ω2 +β)t )

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 202 / 337

Forced Harmonic Oscillation

In forced harmonic oscillation, energy is continually supplied to the

oscillator by some external force, thereby preventing the system from
coming to rest, even in the presence of damping. The differential
equation which describes such motion is the same as that previously
encountered except that now a forcing function is to be added. Thus,
the equation becomes a linear inhomogeneous differential equation.
Consider a spring with spring constant k a mass m at the end of it in
subject to a drag force (f = −bv ) and an external driving force
(F (t) = −Fd cos ωt). Determine the position as a function of time t.
F (x) = ma = mẍ = −kx − b ẋ + F (t).
F (t)
mẍ + b ẋ + kx = F (t) =⇒ ẍ + mb ẋ + mk x = m
,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 203 / 337

Cont...

let mk = ωo2 , b
m
= 2β and F(t) is time harmonic forcing and given by
Fd cos ωt.
=⇒ ẍ + 2β ẋ + ωo2 x = Fmd cos ωt Since this equation is linear and
inhomogeneous, its general solution is the sum of
(i) the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation
mẍ + b ẋ + kx = 0 (the complementary function, let it be xh (t)) and
(ii) any particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation
ẍ + 2β ẋ + ωo2 x = Fmd cos ωt (the particular integral, let it be xp (t)).
Then For weak damping, the general solution, x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t).
The solution of √ the complementary √ function is
−βt β 2 −ωo2 t − β 2 −ωo2 t
x(t) = e [c1 e + c2 e ]

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 204 / 337

Cont...

We then assume that the solution is in the form:

xp = p cos(ωt − δ)
=⇒ ẋp = −pω sin(ωt − δ)
=⇒ ẍp = −pω 2 cos(ωt − δ)
Fd
Let us substitute this into ẍ + 2β ẋ + ωo2 x = fo cos ωt, where m
= fo
and we can rewrite
cos ωt = cos(ωt − δ + δ) = cos(ωt − δ) cos δ + sin(ωt − δ) sin δ
=⇒ 2
(−pω cos(ωt − δ)) + 2β(−pω sin(ωt − δ)) + ωo2 (p cos(ωt − δ)) =
fo cos(ωt − δ) cos δ + fo sin(ωt − δ) sin δ

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 205 / 337

Cont...

=⇒ [−ω 2 + ωo2 ]p cos(ωt − δ) + [−2βpω] sin(ωt − δ) =

fo cos(ωt − δ) cos δ+ = fo sin(ωt − δ) sin δ
By comparing the left and right sides
=⇒ [−ω 2 + ωo2 ]p cos(ωt − δ) = fo cos(ωt − δ) cos δ and
[−2βpω] sin(ωt − δ) = fo sin(ωt − δ) sin δ
=⇒ (−ω 2 + ωo2 )p = fo cos δ and ...................................(1)
(−2βpω) = fo sin δ...........................................(2)
Square both equations
=⇒ (ωo2 − ω 2 )2 p 2 = fo2 cos2 δ and ...................................(3)
(−2βpω)2 = fo2 sin2 δ........................................(4)

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 206 / 337

Cont...

Adding equation (3) and equation (4) yields

[(−ω 2 + ωo2 )2 + 4β 2 ω 2 ]p 2 = fo2 (cos2 δ + sin2 δ)
fo2
=⇒ p 2 = [(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2 ]

=⇒ p = √ fo
where ω is the frequency of the driving
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2
force and ωo is the natural frequency.
xp = p cos(ωt − δ) = ( √ fo
) cos(ωt − δ)
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 207 / 337

Cont...

The amplitude of driven oscillator , in the steady state , is given by

p = √ 2 f2o 2 2 2 = m F √
2
1
2 2 2 2
.
(ωo −ω ) +4β ω (ωo −ω ) +4β ω
It depends upon (ωo2 2
− ω ). If it is very small, then the amplitude of
forced oscillation increases.
We can have the following conditions
Note that if ω is close to ωo , then the magnitude of this
is large.
F √ 1 F √ 1
p=m 2 2 2 2 2
=m 2 2 2 2 2
(ωo −ω ) +4β ω (ωo −ωo ) +4β ω

p= F
m
√ 1
= F 1
m 2βω
.
4β 2 ω 2
This phenomena is resonance. It is responsible for the
breakdown of certain physical processes.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 208 / 337

Cont...

Amplitude of the oscillation becomes much larger when the angular

frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the
undamped oscillator as shown in the figure below. Dramatic example
- Tacoma Narrows bridge.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 209 / 337

Cont...
Note that if ω = ωo , then the amplitude of the particular solution
becomes unbounded. In practice, one probably can’t get the
frequency to be the same, but even if it is close the physical system
in question will break down. This can be observed in the playing
certain high notes causing breaking of glass, the destruction of
bridges in strong winds, etc.

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If β = 0,
F √ 1 F √ 1
p=m = m
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4×0×ω 2 (ωo2 −ω 2 )2

F 1
p= m ωo2 −ω 2
suppose ω is close to ωo , β = 0,
F √ 1 F 1
p=m 2 2 2 2
=m 0
=∞
(ωo −ωo ) +4×0×ω

Dividing equation (2) and equation (1) yields δ. The phase difference
δ between the oscillator and the driving force or between the
displacement and driving is δ = tan−1 √2βω2 2 ωo −ω
This shows that there is a delay between the action of the driving
force and response of the oscillator.

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Then For weak damping, the general solution, x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t).
x(t) = √ √ 2 2
2 2
e −βt [c1 e β −ωo t + c2 e − β −ωo t ] + ( √ fo
) cos(ωt − δ)
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2

x(t) = c1 cos(ωo t) + c2 sin(ωt) + ( √ fo

) cos(ωt − δ)
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2

x(t) = R cos(ωo t − δ) + ( √ fo
) cos(ωt − δ)
(ωo2 −ω 2 )2 +4β 2 ω 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 212 / 337

Example

An undamped oscillator is driven at its resonance frequency ω 0 by a

harmonic force F = F0 sinωo t. The initial conditions are x0 = 0 and
v0 = 0.
(a) Determine x(t).
Solution (a) The equation of motion
ẍ + ωo2 x = Fmd cos ωt
has the complementary function
where A and φ are constants that are to be determined from the
initial conditions. A particular integral for (1) is

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Summary

1 The second order linear harmonic oscillator (damped or

undamped) with sinusoidal forcing can be solved by using the
method of undetermined coefficients.
2 In the undamped case, beats occur when the forcing frequency is
close to (but not equal to) the natural frequency of the oscillator.
3 In the undamped case, resonance occurs when the forcing
frequency is the same as the natural frequency of the oscillator.
4 In the damped case (b > 0), the homogeneous solution decays
to zero as t increases, so the steady state behavior is determined
by the particular solution.
5 In the damped case, the steady state behavior does not depend
on the initial conditions.
6 The amplitude and phase of the steady state solution depend on
all the parameters in the problem.

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Problem

A 0.500-kg mass is vibrating in a system in which the restoring

constant is 100 N/m; the amplitude of vibration is 0.200 m. Find
1 the energy of the system
2 the maximum kinetic energy and maximum velocity
3 the PE and KE when x = 0.100 m
4 the maximum acceleration
5 the equation of motion if x = A at t =0

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Solution

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 216 / 337

Problem

Circle the correct answer(s) for each question.

1 Simple harmonic motion has the following characteristic(s): a.
period b. linear restoring force c. natural frequency d. zero
amplitude e. none of these
2 The period of a simple pendulum is equal to: a. time for one
swing b. amplitude/velocity c. 1/frequency d. 2π SQR RT
[m/k] e. none of these
3 The phase angle of a SHM system where x = Acos(ωt + θ) at t
= 0 is 90◦ . The correct form of this SHM as a function of time,
is: a. Acos(ωt + 90◦ ) b. Acos(ωt + π/2) c. Acos(ωt − 90◦ ) d.
Acos(ωt − π/2) e. Acos90◦
4 Damping of periodic motion always results in: a. decreasing
amplitude b. energy gain in vibration c. resonance d. energy loss
to friction e. none of these

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 217 / 337

Problem
Circle the correct answer(s) for each question.
1 If you know the force constant of a spring is 100 N/m, the mass
on the spring is 1 kg, and the amplitude is 0.04 m, then the
period in seconds of the SHM is: a. 20 π b. π/5 c. 5π d. 5/π
e. π/20
2 For the system described in question 7, the maximum velocity
(in m/s) of SHM is: a. 100 b. 0.04 c. 0.4 d. 4.0 e. 0.004
3 For this same system (question 7) the maximum acceleration
(m/s2) of SHM is: a. 4 b. 0.4 c. 0.04 d. 100 e. 25
4 The minimum speed (m/s) of SHM for the system of the
question 7 is a. 0.04 b. 0.4 c. 0.004 d. 100 e. 0
5 The maximum displacement for this sytem is: a. 0.4 m b. 0.04
m c. 0.004 m d. 100 m e. 9.8 m
6 The equation for displacement for this system could be written
as a. y = 0.04 cos (10πt) b. y = 0.04 cos (10t + θ) c. y =
0.04 sin(10t + θ) d. y = 0.04 sin (10πt)
7 For the spring system in question 7 the maximum PE is a. 0.08
J b. 0.4 J c. 0.16 J d. 1.6 J e. 0.8 J
8 The kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy when the
displacementc is
([email protected] a. 0.04 mClassical
M.A) b. 0.04 x SQR RT [2] m
Mechanics c.7, 0.04/SQR
March 2023 218 / 337
Problem

Circle the correct answer(s) for each question.

1 If you know the force constant of a spring is 100 N/m, the mass
on the spring is 1 kg, and the amplitude is 0.04 m, then the
period in seconds of the SHM is: a. 20 π b. π/5 c. 5π d. 5/π
e. π/20
2 For the system described in question 7, the maximum velocity
(in m/s) of SHM is: a. 100 b. 0.04 c. 0.4 d. 4.0 e. 0.004
3 For this same system (question 7) the maximum acceleration
(m/s2) of SHM is: a. 4 b. 0.4 c. 0.04 d. 100 e. 25
4 The minimum speed (m/s) of SHM for the system of the
question 7 is a. 0.04 b. 0.4 c. 0.004 d. 100 e. 0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 219 / 337

Problem

Circle the correct answer(s) for each question.

1 The maximum displacement for this sytem is: a. 0.4 m b. 0.04
m c. 0.004 m d. 100 m e. 9.8 m
2 The equation for displacement for this system could be written
as a. y = 0.04 cos (10πt) b. y = 0.04 cos (10t + θ) c. y =
0.04 sin(10t + θ) d. y = 0.04 sin (10πt)
3 For the spring system in question 7 the maximum PE is a. 0.08
J b. 0.4 J c. 0.16 J d. 1.6 J e. 0.8 J
4 The kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy when the
displacement is a. 0.04 m b. 0.04 x SQR RT [2] m c. 0.04/SQR
RT [2] m d. SQR RT [2] m e. 0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 220 / 337

LC CIRCUIT

Now we’ll consider simple single-loop circuits containing inductors

and capacitors: LC circuits.
We’ll see that LC circuits have currents and voltages that vary
sinusoidally with time, rather than increasing or decreasing
exponentially with time, as in RC and RL circuits

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 221 / 337

Cont...

These variations of voltage and current in LC circuits are called

electromagnetic oscillations.
Consider a simple single-loop circuit consisting of an inductor and a
capacitor.
As capacitor gets discharged, q also decreases. So, current at that
situation is given by I = dq
dt
.
As q decreases, electric field energy (Energy stored in electric field )
gradually decreases .This energy is transferred to magnetic field that
appears around the inductor. At a time,all the charge on the
capacitor becomes zero,the energy of capacitor is also Zero. Even
though q equals to zero,the current is zero at this time.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 222 / 337

Cont...

Mathematically, Let the potential difference across the two plates of

capacitor at any instance V is given by v = qc
In the inductor due to increases in the value of flow of current, the
strength of magnetic field ultimately the magnetic lines of force cut
link with inductor changes. So a back emf develops which is given by
dI
= −L dt
Now applying KVL to this LC circuit,
V − = 0 −→ qc + L dt dI
, where I = dq
dt
2
−→ qc + L ddt q2
2 q
−→ ddt q2 + Lc . This represents the general equation of SHM,
Here there is periodic execution of energy between electric field of
capacitor and magnetic field of inductor. Here this LC oscillation act
as an source of electromagnetic wave.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 223 / 337

Cont...

Here,ω = √1LC like ω = mk

⇒ q̈ + ω 2 q = 0...Identical to equation of mass on spring
Solution is same as mass on spring oscillations q = qmax cos(ωt + θ)
⇒ qmax is the maximum charge on capacitor
⇒ θ is an unknown phase (depends on initial conditions)
Calculate current: I = dq/dt
d
⇒ I = dt [qmax cos(ωt + θ)]
⇒ I = −ωqmax sin(ωt + θ)
Realizing that the magnitude of the maximum current in the circuit is
given by Imax = ωqmax , we get I = −Imax sin(ωt + θ).
Thus both charge and current oscillate and Current and charge differ
in phase by 90

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 224 / 337

Cont...

Having expression for the charge as a function of time we can write

an expression for the electric energy
2
U = 2C1 2 q 2 = 2C qmax cos2 (ωt + θ) = q2C
1 2 max
cos2 (ωt + θ)
Having expression for the current as a function of time we can write
and expression for the magnetic energy
2
U = 21 LI 2 = 12 LImax
2
sin2 (ωt + θ) = LImax
2
sin2 (ωt + θ)
Remembering that Imax = ωqmax and ω = √1LC
We then see that 2
Umax = 21 LImax
2
= 12 L(ωqmax )2 = 21 L([ √1LC ]qmax )2 = q2C
max

The maximum possible magnetic energy in the circuit is exactly the

same as the maximum possible electric energy.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 225 / 337

Cont...

We can write an expression for the total energy in the circuit by

adding the electric energy and the magnetic energy.
2 2 2
U = UB + UE = q2C max
cos2 (ωt + θ) + q2C
max
sin2 (ωt + θ) = q2C
max

Thus the total energy in the circuit remains constant with time and is
proportional to the square of the original charge put on the capacitor.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 226 / 337

Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit
If we add a resistor in series with the capacitor and inductor we will
provide a method of energy loss in the system. Whenever current
flows some energy will be lost to heat in the resistor, and hence the
oscillations will eventually damp out to zero. The exact path the
charge will take as it oscillates to zero depends on the relative sizes
of L, R and C, but will typically look something like the curve to the
left, where the oscillations are bounded by an envelope which is
exponentially decaying to zero as a function of time.
A RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit, tuned circuit, or
LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an
inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected in series or in parallel.
This configuration forms a harmonic oscillator.
Tuned circuits have many applications particularly for oscillating
circuits and in radio and communication engineering. They can be
used to select a certain narrow range of frequencies from the total
spectrum of ambient radio waves. For example, AM/FM radios with
analog tuners typically use an RLC circuit to tune a radio frequency.
Most commonly a variable capacitor is attached to the tuning knob,
which allows you to change the value of C in the circuit and tune to
stations on different frequencies.
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 227 / 337
Cont...
Now let’s consider a single loop circuit that has a capacitor C and an
inductance L with an added resistance R
We observed that the energy of a circuit with a capacitor and an
inductor remains constant and that the energy translated from
electric to magnetic and back gain with no losses.
If there is a resistance in the circuit, the current flow in the circuit
will produce ohmic losses to heat.
Thus the energy of the circuit will decrease because of these losses.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 228 / 337

Cont...

Now applying KVL to this RLC circuit,

Vc − VL − VR =0, −→ qc − L dt dI
− IR=0, where I = − dq dt
2
−→ qc + L ddt q2 + R dq
dt
= 0
d 2q R dq q
−→ dt 2 + L dt + Lc = 0.
−→ q̈ + RL q̇ + ω 2 q = 0. Putting ω = √1LC and β = 2L R

−→ q̈ + 2β q̇ + ω 2 q = 0.
−R
The solution of this differential equation is qq= qmax e 2L t cos(ωt + θ)
R 2
(damped harmonic oscillation!), where ω = (ωo2 − 2L
)
−R
d
I = dt [qmax e 2L t cos(ωt + θ)]
The charge varies sinusoidally with time but the amplitude is damped
out with time
After some time, no charge remains in the circuit

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 229 / 337

Cont...

We can study the energy in the circuit as a function of time by

calculating the energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor
−2R 2 −R
UE = 2C1 2 q 2 = 2C qmax e 2L t cos2 (ωt + θ) = q2C
1 2 max
e L t cos2 (ωt + θ)
We can see that the energy stored in the capacitor decreases
exponentially and oscillates in time

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 230 / 337

Driven AC circuits
Now we consider a single loop circuit containing a capacitor, an
inductor, a resistor, and a source of emf
This source of emf is capable producing a time varying voltage as
opposed the sources of emf we have studied in previous chapters.
We will assume that this source of emf provides a sinusoidal voltage
as a function of time given by vemf = vm cos ωt
Where ω is the angular frequency and Vmax is the amplitude or
maximum value of the emf

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 231 / 337

Cont...

Now applying KVL to this RLC circuit,

Vc − VL − VR = vm cos ωt −→ qc − L dt dI
− IR = vm cos ωt, where
dq
I = − dt
2
−→ qc + L ddt q2 + R dq
dt
= vm cos ωt
d 2q R dq q
−→ dt 2 + L dt + Lc = vLm cos ωt.
−→ q̈ + RL q̇ + ω 2 q = vLm cos ωt. Putting ω = √1LC and β = 2LR

−→ q̈ + 2β q̇ + ω 2 q = vLm cos ωt.

Since this equation is linear and inhomogeneous, its general solution
vm
is the sum of we discussed sofar. =⇒ p = √ 2 2L 2 2 2
(ωo −ω ) +4β ω

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 232 / 337

Example 1
In an oscillating LC circuit, L = 1.10 mH and C = 4.00 µF. The
maximum charge on the capacitor is 3.00 µC. Find the maximum
current.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 233 / 337

Example 2
An oscillating LC circuit consists of a 75.0 mH inductor and a 3.60
µF capacitor. If the maximum charge on the capacitor is 2.90 µC,
(a) what is the total energy in the circuit and (b) what is the
maximum current?

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 234 / 337

Example 3
In an oscillating LC circuit with L = 50 mH and C = 4.0 µF, the
current is initially a maximum. How long will it take before the
capacitor is fully charged for the first time?

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 235 / 337

Extra Example 1

Find the general solution of the second order differential equation:

ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 10t
Since this equation is linear and inhomogeneous, its general solution
is the sum of
(i) the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation
ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 0 (the complementary function, let it be xc (t) and
(ii) any particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation
ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 10t (the particular integral, let it be xp (t).
Then the general solution, x(t) = xc (t) + xp (t).
To find the solution of the complementary function, use the
undetermined coefficients. We then assume that the solution is in the
form:
xp = At + B =⇒ ẋp = A =⇒ ẍp = 0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 236 / 337

Cont...

Let us substitute this into ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 10t

=⇒ 0 + 2(A) + 5(At + B) = 10t + 0) =⇒ 2(A) + B = 0 and
5At = 10t =⇒ 2A = −B and A = 2 =⇒ B = −4 and A = 2
=⇒ xp = At + B =⇒ xp = 2t − 4
To find the solution of the complementary function, let’s assume that
the solution is in the form:xc = Ae λt
=⇒ ẋp = Aλe λt =⇒ ẍp = Aλ2 e λt
Let us substitute this into ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 0
=⇒ Aλ2 e λt + 2(Aλe λt ) + 5(Ae λt ) = 0 =⇒ [λ2 + 2λ + 5]Ae λt = 0
=⇒ If Ae λt is not zero, then λ2 + 2λ + 5 = 0, which is the
characteristic equation

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 237 / 337

Cont...

√ √
−2± 22 −4(5) −2± 4−20
=⇒ λ = 2
= 2
.
√ √
=⇒ λ = −1 ± −4 = −1 ± i 4. It has complex roots. ω = 2 and
α = −1.
If the second order differential equation has
Imaginary roots (α + iω), then its solution is given by
x = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt)
two real distinct roots (r1 6= r2 ), then its solution is given by
x = c1 e λ 1 t + c2 e λ 2 t
real double roots (r1 = r2 ), then its solution is given by
x = c1 e λt + c1 te λt

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 238 / 337

Cont...

In this case, it has complex roots, so its solution is given by

x = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt)
=⇒ xc = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt), ω = 2 and α = −1.
=⇒ xc = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t) = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t)
Then the general solution,
x(t) = xc (t) + xp (t) = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t) + 2t − 4

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 239 / 337

Extra Example 2

Find the general solution of the second order differential equation:

ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 68 cos 2t
Since this equation is linear and inhomogeneous, its general solution
is the sum of
(i) the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation
ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 0 (the complementary function, let it be xc (t) and
(ii) any particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation
ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 68 cos 2t (the particular integral, let it be xp (t).
Then the general solution, x(t) = xc (t) + xp (t).
To find the solution of the complementary function, use the
undetermined coefficients. We then assume that the solution is in the
form:
xp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 240 / 337

Cont...

=⇒ ẋp = −2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t =⇒ ẍp = −4A cos 2t − 4B sin 2t

Let us substitute this into ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 68 cos 2t
=⇒ −4A cos 2t − 4B sin 2t + 2(−2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t) +
5(A cos 2t + B sin 2t) = 68 cos 2t + 0 sin 2t
=⇒ (−4A cos 2t + 5A cos 2t − 4B cos 2t) + (−4B sin 2t +
5B sin 2t − 4A sin 2t) = 68 cos 2t + 0 sin 2t
Let’s equate coefficients of like terms.
=⇒ −4A cos 2t + 5A cos 2t − 4B cos 2t = 68 cos 2t =⇒
−4B sin 2t + 5B sin 2t − 4A sin 2t = 0 sin 2t
=⇒ −4A + 5A − 4B = 68 =⇒ −4B + 5B − 4A = 0 =⇒ A = 4 and
B=1
=⇒ xp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t =⇒ xp = 4 cos 2t + sin 2t

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 241 / 337

Cont...

To find the solution of the complementary function, let’s assume that

the solution is in the form:xc = Ae λt
=⇒ ẋp = Aλe λt =⇒ ẍp = Aλ2 e λt
Let us substitute this into ẍ + 2ẋ + 5x = 0
=⇒ Aλ2 e λt + 2(Aλe λt ) + 5(Ae λt ) = 0 =⇒ [λ2 + 2λ + 5]Ae λt = 0
=⇒ If Ae λt is not zero, then λ2 + 2λ + 5 = 0, which is the
characteristic equation
√ √
−2± 22 −4(5) −2± 4−20
=⇒ λ = 2
= 2
.
√ √
=⇒ λ = −1 ± −4 = −1 ± i 4. It has complex roots. ω = 2 and
α = −1.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 242 / 337

Cont...
If the second order differential equation has
Imaginary roots (α + iω), then its solution is given by
x = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt)
two real distinct roots (r1 6= r2 ), then its solution is given by
x = c1 e λ 1 t + c2 e λ 2 t
real double roots (r1 = r2 ), then its solution is given by
x = c1 e λt + c1 te λt
In this case, it has complex roots, so its solution is given by
x = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt)
=⇒ xc = e αt (c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt), ω = 2 and α = −1.
=⇒ xc = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t) = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t)
Then the general solution,
x(t) = xc (t) + xp (t) = e −t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t) + 4 cos 2t + sin 2t

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 243 / 337

Cont...

cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) − sin(A) sin(B);

cos(A − B) = cos(A) cos(B) + sin(A) sin(B):
Subtracting the first equation from the second gives
cos(A − B) − cos(A + B) = 2 sin(A) sin(B):

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 244 / 337

Cont...

Beats: Again suppose ω is close to ωo , β = 0, and the motion begins

with x(0) = 0 and x 0 (0) = 0. Then, the constants c1 ; c2 satisfy
c1 = m(ω2fo−ω2 ) , c2 = 0
o
So, the solution is
x(t) = R cos(ωo t − δ) + m(ω2fo−ω2 ) cos(ωt − δ)
o

fo fo
x(t) = m(ωo2 −ω 2 )
cos(ωo t − δ) + m(ωo2 −ω 2 )
cos(ωt − δ)

x(t) = m(ω2fo−ω2 ) (cos(ωo t − δ) − cos(ωt − δ)) which is the difference

o
of two cosine functions with the same amplitude and different
frequencies. To get an idea of the graph of such a function, let us
rewrite it.
Recall the identities

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 245 / 337

Cont...
An undamped oscillator is driven at its resonance frequency ωo by a
harmonic force F = F0 sin ω0 t. The initial conditions are x0 = 0 and
v0 = 0. The equation of motion ẍ + ωo2 x = Fmo sin ω0 t has a
complementary function Asin(ω0 t + α) and a particular function
Fo
ω t cos ω0 t. This implies that its general solution x(t) = xc + xp
2mωo2 0
is given by
Fo
x(t) = Asin(ω0 t + α) − ω0 t cos ω0 t
2mωo2
where A and α are constants that are to be determined from the
initial conditions.(10 points)
a. Show that its general solution x(t) = xc + xp is given by
Fo
x(t) = Asin(ω0 t + α) − ω0 t cos ω0 t
2mωo2
where A and α are constants that are to be determined
from the initial conditions.
b. Determine the amplitude A and the phase angle α from
the initial conditions
([email protected] c M.A)
(2 points)
Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 246 / 337
Introduction

Question: What is a central force?

Answer: Any force which is directed towards a center, and
depends only on the distance between the center and the particle
in question.
Question: Any examples of central forces in nature?
Answer: Two fundamental forces of nature, gravitation, and
Coulomb forces are central forces
Question: But gravitation and Coulomb forces are two body
forces, how could they be central?
Answer: Correct, these two forces are indeed two-body forces,
but they can be reduced to central forces by a mathematical trick

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 247 / 337

Reduction of a two − body central force problem
to aone − body problem

Gravitational force acting on mass m1 due to mass m2 is

F12 = Gmr 21 m2 r̂12
12
i.e, it acts along the line joining the two masses

Similarly, the Coulomb force between two charges q1 and q2 is

given by
F12 = kqr 12q2 r̂12
12

An ideal central force is of the form F = f (r )r̂ = f (r )r/r

i.e., it is a one-body force depending on the coordinates of only
the particle on which it acts

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 248 / 337

Cont...
But gravity and Coulomb forces are two-body forces, of the form
F (r12 ) = f (r12 )r̂12 = f (r12 )r12 /r12
Can they be reduced to a pure one-body form? Yes, and this is
what we do next
Relevant coordinates are shown in the figure
We define r = r1 − r2 r = |r| = |r1 − r2 |
Given F12 = f (r )r̂ , we have
m1 r1 = f (r )r̂ and m2 r2 = −f (r )r̂

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 249 / 337

Decoupling equations of motion

Both the equations above are coupled, because both depend

upon r1 and r2 .
In order to decouple them, we replace r1 and r2 by r = r1 − r2
(called relative coordinate), and center of mass coordinate R
R = mm 1 r1 +m2 r1
1 +m2

m1 r̈1 +m2 r̈1 f (r̂)−f r̂

Now R̈ = m1 +m2
= m1 +m2

R = R0 + Vt
above R0 is the initial location of center of mass, and v is the
center of mass velocity.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 250 / 337

Cont...

This equation physically means that the center of mass of this

two-body system is moving with constant velocity, because there are
no external forces on it.
We also obtain
r̈ = r̈1 − r̈2 = f (r )( m11 + m12 )r
r̈ = ( mm11+m
m2
2
)f (r )r
µr̈ = f (r )r
m1 m2
where µ = m1 +m2
, is called reduced mass.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 251 / 337

Cont...

Note that this final equation is entirely in terms of relative

coordinate r
It is an effective equation of motion for a single particle of mass
m, moving under the influence of force f (r) r̂.
There is just one coordinate ( r) involved in this equation of
motion
Thus the two body problem has been effectively reduced to a
one-body problem
This separation was possible only because the two-body force is
central, i.e., along the line joining the two particles
In order to solve this equation, we need to know the nature of
the force, i.e., f (r)

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 252 / 337

CENTRAL FORCES
Suppose that a force acting on a particle of mass m is such that
(a) it is always directed from m toward or away from a fixed point 0,
(b) its magnitude depends only on the distance r from O.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 253 / 337

Cont...

Forces having these properties are called central forces. The particle
is said to move in a central force field. The point O is referred to as
the center of force. Mathematically, F is a central force if and only if:
F = f (r )r̂ = f (r )r/r
where r̂ = r/r is a unit vector in the direction of r.
If f (r ) < 0 the force is said to be attractive towards O. If f (r ) > 0
the force is said to be repulsive from O.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 254 / 337

Properties of a Particle Moving under the Influence
of a Central Force.
1. If a particle moves in a central force field then the following
properties hold:
1. The path of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., it must lie in
a plane.
Q Prove that if a particle moves in a central force field, then its path
must be a plane curve.
Let F = f (r )r̂ be the central force field.
since r̂ is a unit vector in the direction of the position vector r.
Then r × F = f (r )r × r̂ = 0
r × F = f (r )r × r̂ = 0. Because r × r̂ = r × rr = |r| × |r|r sin 0◦ = 0 but
F = ma = Fmdv /dt
d
r × F = r × dv/dt = dt (r × v ) = 0
Integrating, we find r × v= h, where h is a constant vector.
Multiplying r × v= h by r.
r.(r× v) =(r× r).v = r.h=0. Because A.(B × C) = (A × B).C
Thus r is perpendicular to the constant vector h,and so the motion
takes place in a plane. We shall assume that this plane is taken to be
the xy plane whose origin is atClassical
([email protected] c M.A)
theMechanics
center of force. March 7, 2023 255 / 337
Cont...

Q. Show that the irrotational condition ∇ × F = 0 for a central force

F = F (r )r̂ to be conservative can be expressed as
1 ∂F
x ∂x
= y1 ∂F
∂y
= z1 ∂F
∂z
.
Solution p
Recall that r̂ = rr −1 = (x, y , z)/r , where r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . Then

∇ × F (r )r̂ = 1r [z ∂y
∂ ∂
− y ∂z ∂
, x ∂z ∂
− z ∂x ∂
, y ∂x ∂
− x ∂y ]
1 ∂F 1 ∂F 1 ∂F
which is zero everywhere if x ∂x = y ∂y = z ∂z . is satisfied.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 256 / 337

Cont...

2. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved, i.e. It is

constant.
Q. Prove that for a particle moving in a central force field the angular
momentum is conserved.
we have r × v= h, where h is a constant vector. Then multiplying by
mass m, it will be m(r × v) = mh.
Since (r × mv)=(r × p) is the angular momentum L, it follows that
the angular momentum is conserved, i.e. is always constant in
magnitude and direction.

Direction of L is fixed, and because r ⊥ L, so r must be in the same

plane

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 257 / 337

Cont...

The motion of a particle under a central force F always remains in

the plane defined by its initial position and velocity. This may be seen
by symmetry. Since the position r, velocity v and force F all lie in the
same plane, there is never an acceleration perpendicular to that
plane, because that would break the symmetry between ”above” the
plane and ”below” the plane.
To demonstrate this mathematically, it suffices to show that the
angular momentum of the particle is constant. This angular
momentum L is defined by the equation
L = r × p = r × mv where m is the mass of the particle and p is its
linear momentum. Therefore, the angular momentum vector L is
always perpendicular to the plane defined by the particle’s position
vector r and velocity vector v.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 258 / 337

Cont...

In general, the rate of change of the angular momentum L equals the

net torque r × F.
dL
=ṙ × mv + r × mv̇=v × mv + r × F
dt
=0 + r × F = 0 + 0 = 0
The first term m v × v is always zero, because the vector cross
product is always zero for any two vectors pointing in the same or
opposite directions. However, when F is a central force, the
remaining term r × F is also zero because the vectors r and F point
in the same or opposite directions. Therefore, the angular momentum
vector L is constant. Then
r · L = r · (r × p) = p · (r × r) = 0
Consequently, the particle’s position r (and hence velocity v) always
lies in a plane perpendicular to L.

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Cont...

3. The particle moves in such a way that the position vector (from
the point O) sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In other words,
the time rate of change in area is constant. This is referred to as the
Law of Areas.
Q Prove that for a particle moving in a central force field the areal
velocity is constant.
The velocity in polar coordinates is v = ṙr̂ + r θ̇θ̂
We have h = r × v = ṙ (r × r̂ ) + r θ̇(r × θ̂) = r 2 θ̇k̂
since r×r = 0 and r× θ̂ = rk where k is the unit vector in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of motion [the xy plane], i.e. in the
direction r × v. Using h = hk̂, we see that r 2 θ̇= h.
Suppose that in time ∆t the position vector moves from r to r + ∆r.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 260 / 337

Cont...
Then the area swept out by the position vector in this time is
approximately half the area of a parallelogram with sides r and ∆r.
We give a proof of this:
Area of parallelogram = height × |r|,
= |∆r| sin θ|r|,
= |r× ∆ r|,

∆A = 12 |r × ∆r|

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 261 / 337

Cont...

Dividing by ∆t,
limx→0 ∆A ∆t
= limx→0 12 |r × ∆t∆r
| = 21 |r × v|
Ȧ = 12 |r × v|, but r × v = r 2 θ̂
Ȧ = 21 r 2 θ̇
The vector quantity
Ȧ = Ȧk̂ = 12 (r × v) = 12 r 2 θ̇k̂ is often called the areal velocity.
We know that r 2 θ̇ = h = constant. Then the areal velocity is
Ȧ = 12 r 2 θ̇k̂ = 12 hk̂ = 21 h, a constant vector
The result is often stated as follows: If a particle moves in a central
force field with O as center, then the radius vector drawn from O to
the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times. This result is
sometimes called the law of areas.

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Equations of Motion for a Particle in a Central
Force Field.
The motion of a particle in a central force field takes place in a plane.
Choosing this plane as the xy plane and the coordinates of the
particle as polar coordinates (r , θ), the velocity and the acceleration
are given by →
−v = ṙ eˆr + r θ̇eˆθ
and a = (r̈ − r θ˙2 )eˆr + (2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)eˆθ

Since a central force F acts only along the radius, only the radial
component of the acceleration is nonzero. By Newton’s second law
of motion, the magnitude of F equals the mass m
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 263 / 337
Cont...

of the particle times the magnitude of its radial acceleration. We

know that net force is given by
F = ma = m(r̈ − r θ˙2 )r̂ + m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)θ̂ = f (r )r̂ , Then, the equations
of motion are found to be
m(r̈ − r θ˙2 ) = f (r ), and
m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈) = 0, where dots denote differentiations with respect to
time.
These are the basic equations of motion for a particle in a central
force field. They will be the starting point for many of our
investigations.
Q. From m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈) = 0, show that r 2 θ̇ = h = constant.
m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈) = 0 can be written as
m
r
(2r ṙ θ̇ + r 2 θ̈) = mr dt
d
(r 2 θ̇) = 0
d
dt
(r 2 θ̇) = 0 and so r 2 θ̇ = h, where h is a constant.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 264 / 337

Q. What important equations can be deduced?

The following equations can be deduced from the fundamental

equations m(r̈ − r θ˙2 ) = f (r ), and m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈) = 0, which are often
proved to be useful.
2
1. r̈ − hr 3 = f m
(r )

d 2u
2. dθ2
+ u = − mh12 u2 f ( u1 ), where u = 1/r
2
d r 2 (dr 2 4
r f (r )
3. dθ 2 − r dθ) − r = mh2

Q. Show by means of the substitution r= 1/u that the differential

equation for the path of the particle in a central field is
d 2u
dθ2
+ u = − mh12 u2 f ( u1 )
Solution; We have r 2 θ̇ = h and from this θ̇ = h/r 2 = hu 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 265 / 337

Cont...
m(r̈ − r θ˙2 ) = f (r ) =⇒ m(r̈ − r (h/r 2 )2 ) = m(r̈ − h2 /r 3 ) = f (r ), now
if r= 1/u
This is part of the coordinate transformation. We will also use θ as a
new ’time’ variable. Coordinate transformation are effected by the
chain rule, since this allows us to express derivatives of ’old’
coordinates in terms of the ’new’ coordinates. We have
d(r −1 )
ṙ = dr
dt
= dr dθ
dθ dt
= dr h
dθ r 2
= h dr
r 2 dθ
= −h dθ
, but 1/r=u
du
=⇒ ṙ = −h dθ
d ṙ d du d du dθ 2
r̈ = dt
= dt
(−h dθ ) = dθ
(−h dθ dt
) = −h2 u 2 ddθu2
m(r̈ − h2 /r 3 ) = f (r ) can be then written as
m(−h2 u 2 d 2 u/dθ2 − h2 u 3 ) = f (1/u) or as required
d 2u
dθ2
+ u = − mh12 u2 f ( u1 )

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 266 / 337

Cont...

Q. Show by means of the substitution r= 1/u that the differential

equation for the path of the particle in a central field is
d 2r (dr 2 4 f (r )

dθ2
− 2r dθ) − r = r mh 2

Solution: Start from ṙ = dr dt

= dθ dr dθ
dt
dr h
= dθ r2
= rh2 dθ
dr
, where dθ
dt
= rh2
r̈ = ddtṙ = dθ
d ṙ dθ
dt
= dθd ṙ h
r2
= rh2 dθ
d ṙ
, but ṙ = rh2 dθ dr
2
=⇒ r̈ = rh2 dθ d h dr
( r 2 dθ ) = rh2 [ dθ d h d h dr
2 ( r 2 ) + dθ ( r 2 ) dθ )] =
h d 2 2 2
[ ( h ) − 2( rh3 ) dθ
r 2 dθ2 r 2
dr dr
dθ
)] = hr 4 [ dθ d 2 dr 2
2 − r ( dθ ) ]

r̈ − h2 /r 3 = f m (r )
can be then written as
h2 d 2
[
r 4 dθ2
− r ( dθ ) ] − h2 /r 3 = f m
2 dr 2 (r )

d 2r 2 (dr 2 r 4 f (r )
=⇒ dθ2
− r dθ)
−r = mh2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 267 / 337

Central Force Fields are Conservative

If a central force is conservative then the work done by the force in

moving a particle between two points is independent of the path
taken between the two points, i.e., it only depends on the endpoints
of the path.
F.dr = −dv , where F = f (r )r̂ is the central force. We have
F.dr = f (r )r̂ .dr = f (r ) rr .dr = f (r ).dr , since r.dr = rdr
This potential which depends only on r is, apart from an arbitrary
additive constant,is given by
R
v (r ) = − f (r )dr
This is also the potential energy of a particle in the central force
field. The arbitrary additive constant can be obtained by assuming,
for example, V = 0 at r =0 or v → ∞ as r→ ∞ .

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 268 / 337

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Since central forces are conservative forces, we know that total
energy must be conserved. Now we derive expressions for the total
energy of a particle of mass m in a central force field. We will do this
in two ways.
First Method.
Choosing this plane as the xy plane and the coordinates of the
particle as polar coordinates (r , θ), the velocity of the particle is given
by v = ṙ eˆr + r θ̇eˆθ .
=⇒ v.v = v 2 = ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 .
In polar coordinates the kinetic energy of a particle will be
T = 12 mv 2 == 12 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 )
=⇒ v.v = v 2 = ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 . the equation for conservation of energy
can be written
T+V(r)=E =⇒ 21 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 )+V(r)=E, where E is the total energy
and is constant.
or

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Cont...

Second Method.
The second method deals directly with the equations of motion and
realizes the expression for the total energy as an integral of the
equations of motion. We multiply m(r̈ − r θ˙2 ) = f (r ) by ṙ , multiply
m(2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈) = 0 by r θ̇,yields
m(ṙr̈ − ṙ r θ̇2 ) = ṙ f (r ) and m(r θ̇2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̇r θ̈) = 0 respectively and add
the resulting two equations to obtain:
m(ṙr̈ + r ṙ θ̇2 + r 2 θ̇θ̈) = ṙ f (r ) = dr d
R
dt
f (r ) = dt
f (r )dr
=⇒ 12 m dtd d
R
(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 ) = dt f (r )dr Integrating both sides of this
equation with respect to time gives:
=⇒ 12 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 ) − f (r )dr = constant =E
R

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 270 / 337

Cont...

Q. Show that the differential equation describing the motion of a a

particle in a central field can be written as
mh2 (dr 2 2
R
4 [
2r dθ)
+ r ] − f (r )dr = E
Solution: From the conservation of energy, we have
1
2
m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 ) + V (r ) = E , θ̇ = rh2 , and
dr dr dθ dr dr h
ṙ = dt
= dθ dt
= dθ
θ̇ = ( )
dθ r 2
mh2 dr 2
=⇒ 21 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 ) = 12 m[( dθ
dr h 2
r2
) + r 2 ( rh2 )2 ] = 2r 4
[( dθ ) + r 2]
2
=⇒ mh dr 2 2
R
2r 4 [( dθ
) + r ] − f (r )dr = E

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 271 / 337

Cont...

Q. Prove that the conservation of energy equation becomes

) + u 2 = 2(Emh−V
du 2
( dθ 2
)

We have θ̇ = hu 2 , ṙ = −hdu/dθ, and thus

du 2
v 2 = ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 = (−h dθ du 2
) + u12 (hu 2 )2 = h2 [( dθ ) + u2]
1
2
mv 2 = 12 mh2 [( dθ
du 2
) + u2]
1 du 2
2
mh2 [( dθ ) + u2] + V = E
du 2 2(E −V )
=⇒ ( dθ ) + u2 = mh2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 272 / 337

DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRAL FORCE
FROM THE ORBIT

Conversely if we know the orbit or path of the particle, then we can

find the corresponding central force. If the orbit is given by r= r(θ)
or u = u(θ) where u =1/r, the central force can be found from
2 d 2r
f (r ) = mh [
r 4 dθ2
− 2r ( dθ
dr 2
) − r]
2
f ( u1 ) = −mh2 u 2 [ ddθu2 + u] It is important to note that given an orbit
there may be infinitely many force fields for which the orbit is
possible. However, if a central force field exists it is unique, i.e. it is
the only one.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 273 / 337

CONIC SECTIONS, ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND
HYPERBOLA
Consider a fixed point 0 and a fixed line AB distant D from 0,as
shown in the figure. Suppose that a point P in the plane of O and
AB moves so that the ratio of its distance from point O to its
distance from line AB is always equal to the positive constant .

Then the curve described by P is given in polar coordinates (r,θ) by

r = 1+Pcos θ . The point O is called a focus, the line AB is called a
directrix and the ratio is called the eccentricity. The curve is often
called a conic section since it can be obtained by intersecting a plane
and a cone at different angles. Three possible types of curves exist,
depending on the value of the eccentricity.

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P
Derive equation r = 1+e cos θ for a conic section.

By definition of a conic section we have for any point P on it,r/d=e

or d=r/e.
Corresponding to the particular point Q, we have p/D =e Or P= eD.
But
D = d + r cos θ = er + r cos θ = er (1 + e cos θ), but P/e= D
P
e
= er (1 + e cos θ)
p
P = r (1 + e cos θ) or r = (1+e cos θ)

The equation is a circle if e=0, an ellipse if 0 < e < 1, a parabola if

e=1 and a hyperbola if e > 1.

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1. Ellipse: < 1
If C is the center of the ellipse and CV = CU = a is the length of the
semi-major axis, then the equation of the ellipse can be written as
a(1−2 )
r = 1+ cos θ
Note that the major axis is the line joining the vertices V and U of
the ellipse and has length 2a.

If b is the length of the semi − minor axis CW or CS and c is the

distance
√ CO from center to focus, then we have the important result
c = a2 − b 2
A circle can be considered as a special case of an ellipse with
eccentricity equal to zero.

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Derive equation for a ellipse.
P
When θ = 0, r=OV, Then r = 1+e cos θ
becomes
P
OV = 1+e Pcos 0o = 1+e
P
and when θ = π, r=OU, Then r = 1+e cos θ
becomes
P P
OU = 1+e cos 180o
= 1−e
But since 2a is the length of the major axis, OV+OU = 2a or
P P
1+e
+ 1−e = 2a
From which P = a(1 − e 2 ), then the equation of the ellipse is
a(1−e 2 )
r= 1+e cos θ
P
We can also express OV = 1+e
but P = a(1 − e 2 ) =⇒
a(1−e 2 )
OV = 1+e
= a(1 − e).
P
We can also express OU = 1−e
but P = a(1 − e 2 ) =⇒
a(1−e 2 )
OU = 1−e
= a(1 + e).
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 277 / 337
√ √
Prove that c=ae,c = a2 − b2 and b = a 1 − e 2

Let c is the distance from the center of the focus to the focus of the
ellipse. a is the length of the semi-major axis, b is the length of the
semi-minor axis and e is the eccentricity.
a. c=CO=CV-OV= a-a(1-e)=ae.
−CO
b. From the definition of ellipse, we have e = OV
VE
= CVVE = a−c
VE
or
a−c
VE = e
Since the eccentricity is the distance from O to W divided by the
distance from W to the directrix AB [which is equal to CE], we have
OW
CE
= e. =⇒
OW = eCE = e(CV + VE ) = e[a + (a − c)/e] = ea + a − c = a
√
=⇒ (OW )2 = (OC )2 + (CW )2 or a2 = b 2 + c 2 i.e c = a2 − b 2
√
c.=⇒ a2 = b 2 + a2 e 2 i.e b = a 1 − e 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 278 / 337

2. Parabola: : e = 1

The equation of the parabola is

P
r = 1+cos θ
We consider a parabola to be a limiting case of the ellipse where e→
1, which means that a e→ ∞ [i.e the major axis becomes infinite] in
such away that a(1 − e 2 ) = P.

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3. Hyperbola: : e > 1
The hyperbola consists of two branches. The hyperbola is asymptotic
to the dashed lines of the figure which are called its asymptotes. The
intersection C of the asymptotes is called the center. The distance
CV =a from the center C to vertex V is called the semi-major axis
[the major axis being the distance between vertices V and U by
analogy with the ellipse]. The equation of the hyperbola can be
a(e 2 −1)
written as r = 1+e cos θ

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 280 / 337

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
A solar system is composed of a star [such as our sun] and objects
called planets which revolve around it. The path of a planet or
satellite is called its orbit. The point in the trajectory which is closest
to the focus is called
the point in the trajectory which is farthest away from the focus is
called The largest and smallest distances of a planet from the sun
about which it revolves are called the aphelion and perihelion
respectively. Before Newton had enunciated his famous laws of
motion, Kepler, using voluminous data accumulated by Tycho Brahe
formulated his three laws concerning the motion of planets around
the sun.
First law Each of the planets moves on an elliptical path with the Sun
at one focus of the ellipse.
Second law For each of the planets, the straight line connecting the
planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Third law The squares of the periods of the planets are proportional
to the cubes of the major axes of their orbits.

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Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Prove that if a planet is to revolve around the sun in an elliptical

path with the sun at a focus [Kepler’s first law], then the central
force necessary varies inversely as the square of the distance of the
planet from the sun.
If the path is an ellipse with the sun at a focus, then calling r the
distance from the sun, we have r = 1+epcos θ or u = 1r = P1 + Pe cos θ
where e < 1.
2
Then the central force is given f (1/u) = −mh2 u 2 ( ddθu2 + u), but
d 2u d2 1 e e
dθ2
= dθ 2 ( P + P cos θ) = − P cos θ)
2 2 2 2 1
f (r ) = −mhr2
( ddθu2 + u) = −mh
r2
[− Pe cos θ + ( P1 + Pe cos θ)] = −mh
r2
[P ]
−mh2 −K
=⇒ f (r ) = Pr 2 = r 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 282 / 337

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 283 / 337
NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF
GRAVITATION

By using Kepler’s first law and equations

2 d 2r
f (r ) = mh [
r 4 dθ2
− 2r ( dθ
dr 2
) − r ], Newton was able to deduce his famous
law of gravitation between the sun and planets, which he postulated
as valid for any objects in the universe. Newton’s Law of Gravitation.
Any two particles of mass m1 and m2 respectively and distance r
apart are attracted toward each other with a force
F(r) = − Gmr12m2 r̂ ,
where G is a universal constant called the gravitational constant.
By using Newton’s law of gravitation we can, conversely, deduce
Kepler’s laws see Problems.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 284 / 337

Calculus Derivation of Kepler’s First Law
The force acting on a particle (planet) of mass m is given by
Newton’s law of universal gravitation
F(r) = − GMmr2
r̂,
where M is the mass of the larger attracting body, assumed fixed at
the origin of coordinates. The equation of motion of the satellite
(mass m) is
F(r ) = ma = − GMm r2
r̂
a = − GM
r2
r̂
r̈ = − GMr2
r̂,
We evaluated the acceleration r̈ in polar coordinates, obtaining
r̈ = (r̈ − r θ˙2 )eˆr + (2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)eˆθ
Equating the radial component leads to r̈ − r θ˙2 = − GM
r2
,
This equation is a pair of coupled second order ordinary differential
equation. This isnt ready to integrate yet, because ω varies too. But
since the angular momentum L is constant, L = mr 2 ω , we can get
rid of ω in the equation.
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 285 / 337
Cont...
The angular momentum L is given by
L = r × p = rmv = rm(rω) = r 2 mω.
L = r 2 mω = r 2 m dθ
dt
⇒ r 2Lm = dθ
dt
=ω
2
d r L 2 GM
⇒ dt 2 − r ( mr 2 ) = − r 2 .
This equation can be integrated, using two very unobvious tricks,
figured out by hindsight. The first is to change go from the variable r
to its inverse, u = 1r . The other is to use the constancy of angular
momentum to change the variable t to θ .
2 Lu 2 Lu 2
⇒ dr
dt
= dθ dr
dt dθ
= ( Lum ) dθ
d
(u −1 ) = m
(u −2 ) dθ
du
, where L
r 2m
= dθ
dt
= m
.
dr −L du d dθ d 2
⇒ dt
= m dθ
, and dt
= dt dθ
= ( Lum ) dθ
d

d dr L2 3
⇒ dt dt
− m2
u = −GMu 2 .
−L du Lu 2 d L2 3
⇒ m dθ
[( m ) dθ ] − m2
u = −GMu 2
−L2 d 2 u L2 3
⇒ m2 dθ2
− m2
u = −GMu 2
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 286 / 337
Cont...
2 2
⇒ ddθu2 + u = GMmL2
This is a very interesting equation. It looks like the equation for
simple harmonic motion except for the additional constant term on
the right hand side. It can be made to look exactly like the simple
harmonic motion equation by defining a new variable.
2
w = u − GMm L2
Then, since the last term is a constant.
dw du 2 2 2
dθ
= dθ ⇒ ddθw2 = ddθu .
d 2u GMm2
dθ2
+u = L2
can now be written in the form of the SHM equation:
d 2w
+w =0
dθ2
The solution is sinusoidal and we can write
w = Acosθ,
where A is integration constant,determined by the initial conditions.
Consequently,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 287 / 337

Cont...
GMm2
u = Acosθ + L2

Now u is just the inverse of r, so the derivation finally gives an

equation for r in terms of θ:
1 1
r= U
= 2
Acosθ+ GMm
2 L

GMm2
Dividing top and bottom by L2
puts this in a nicer form:
L2
GMm2
r= 2 .
1+ L 2 Acosθ
GMm
This is equivalent to the standard (r,θ) equation of an ellipse of semi
major axis a and eccentricity e, with the origin at one focus, which
can be expressed in the form
a(1−e 2 )
r = 1+ecosθ .
A term by term comparison of these two equations shows that
L2 L2
GMm2
= a(1 − e 2 ) and e = GMm 2A

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 288 / 337

Deriving Keplers Third Law for Elliptical Orbits
dA
dt
= 21 r 2 θ̇,
The area
R 1 2of an ellipse is πab,which is also
A = 2 r θ̇dt = 2 r θ̇T = 12 rvT = 21 mL T , where,
1 2

L = r × p = rmv = r 2 mω = r 2 m dθ
dt
.
1 L 2πabm (2πabm)2
⇒ πab = 2m
T ⇒T = L
⇒ T2 = L2

But from the proof of Law 1, we have L2 = GMm2 a(1 − e 2 )

2 1
(2πabm) 4π 2 b 2 a
⇒ T 2 = GMm 2 a(1−e 2 ) = GM(1−e 2 )
. But from b = a(1 − e 2 ) 2 , we have
b = a (1 − e 2 )
2 2

4π 2 a2 (1−e 2 )a 4π 2 a3
⇒ T2 = GM(1−e 2 )
= GM
.
4π 3 2
⇒ T 2 = GM a .
We have established, then, that the time for one orbit depends only
on the semi − major axis of the orbit: it does not depend on how
eccentric the orbit is.
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 289 / 337
Cont...

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INTRODUCTION

In 2-Ds the positions of a point can be specified either by

its rectangular coordinates (x, y) or
by its polar coordinates (r, R).
In 3-Ds there are the options of
rectangular coordinates (x, y, z), or
cylindrical coordinates (r, ρ, z) or
spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ)
or others that may be of use for specialized purposes
The state of a molecule might be described by parameters, such as
the bond lengths and the angles between the bonds,
varying periodically with time as the molecule vibrates and
twists, and these bond lengths and angles constitute a set of
coordinates which describe the molecule.

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GENERAL METHODS OF MECHANICS
Up to now we have dealt primarily with the formulation of problems
in mechanics by Newton’s laws of motion. It is possible to give
treatments of mechanics from rather general viewpoints, in particular
those due to Lagrange and Hamilton.
Although such treatments reduce to Newton’s laws, they are
characterized not only by the relative ease with which many problems
can be formulated and solved but by their relationship in both theory
and application to such advanced fields as quantum mechanics,
statistical mechanics, celestial mechanics and electrodynamics.
System of Particles
With respect to a system of 3-dimensional coordinates, we need 3n
number of independent variables to describe the position of a system
consisting of n number of particles. If there are k number of
constraints (restrictions ), then we need only 3n-k number of
independent variables. We define Degrees of freedom of the system
as 3n-k. By looking at the system we can define these independent
variables and they are called generalized coordinates and they are
denoted by q1 , q2 , ..., qn .

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GENERALIZED COORDINATES

Suppose that a particle or a system of N particles moves subject to

possible constraints, as for example a particle moving along a circular
wire or a rigid body moving along an inclined plane. Then there will
be a minimum number of independent coordinates needed to specify
the motion. These coordinates denoted by
q1 , q2 , ..., qn
are called generalized coordinates and can be distances, angles or
quantities relating to them. The number n of generalized coordinates
is the number of degrees of freedom.
Many sets of generalized coordinates may be possible in a given
problem, but a strategic choice can simplify the analysis considerably.
NOTATION
In the following, the subscript j will range from 1 to n, the number of
degrees of freedom means the number of independent variables
required to describe the system, while the subscript i will range from
1 to N, the number of particles in the system.

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TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

Let ri = xi î + yi ĵ + zi k̂
be the position vector of the i th particle with respect to an xyz
coordinate system. The relationships of the generalized coordinates
q1 , q2 , ..., qn to the position coordinates are given by the
transformation equations.
xi = xi (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t)
yi = yi (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t)
zi = zi (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t)
where t denotes the time. In vector form, it can be written as
ri = ri (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t)
This function is supposed to be continuous and to have continuous
derivatives.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical systems can be classified according as they are

scleronomic or rheonomic,
holonomic or non − holonomic,and
conservative or non − conservative.

SCLERONOMIC AND RHEONOMIC SYSTEMS

In many mechanical systems of importance the time t does not enter
explicitly in
ri = ri (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t).
Such systems are sometimes called scleronomic.
In others, as for example those involving moving constraints, the time
t does enter explicitly. Such systems are called rheonomic.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 295 / 337

Cont...

HOLONOMIC AND NON − HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS

can be expressed as a function of the space coordinates and time.
A constraint that can be described by an equation having the form
φ(q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t) = 0
relating the coordinates (and perhaps also the time) is called a
holonomic constraint, and the equation that describes the constraint
is a holonomic equation, otherwise the system is said to be
non − holonomic.

CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE

SYSTEMS
If all forces acting on a system of particles are derivable from a
potential function [or potential energy] V, then the system is called
conservative, otherwise it is non − conservative.

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LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS
The generalized force can be related to the kinetic energy by the
equations.
d ∂T ∂T
( ) − ∂q
dt ∂ q̇j j
= φj
If the system is conservative so that the forces are derivable from a
potential or potential , energy V, we can write it as
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂q
dt ∂ q̇j j
=0
where L = T − V is called the Lagrangian function of the system, or
simply the Lagrangian.
This equation is called Lagrange’s equation and are valid for
holonomic systems which may be scleronomic or rheonomic.
If some of the forces in a system are conservative so as to be
derivable from a potential v’ while other forces such as friction, etc.,
are non-conservative, we can write Lagrange’s equations as
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂q
dt ∂ q̇j j
= φ.j
where L = T − V 0 and φ.j are the generalized forces associated with
the non-conservative forces in the system.

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LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS
Suppose ri is the position vector of the i th particle and qj is the j th
generalized coordinate. ri = ri (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t).
N
∂ri ∂ri ∂ri ∂ri X ∂ri ∂ri
dri = dq1 + dq2 +...+ dqN + dt = dqj + dt
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂qN ∂t j=1
∂q j ∂t
Divide both sides by dt
N N
dri X ∂ri dqj ∂ri dt X ∂ri ∂ri
= + ⇒ ṙi = q̇j +
dt j=1
∂qj dt ∂t dt j=1
∂qj ∂t

N N
∂ ∂ X ∂ri ∂ri X ∂ ∂ri ∂ ∂ri
⇒ (ṙi ) = [ q̇j + ]= ( )q̇j + ( )
∂qj ∂qj j=1 ∂qj ∂t j=1
∂qj ∂qj ∂q j ∂t

N
d ∂ṙi X ∂ ∂ri ∂ ∂ri
⇒ = ( )q̇j + ( )
dt ∂qj j=1
∂qj ∂qj ∂t ∂qj
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LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS
Suppose the system of particles changed slightly without changing
the time t ri = ri (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) not ri = ri (q1 , q2 , ..., qN , t), then
N
∂ri ∂ri ∂ri X ∂ri
dri = dq1 + dq2 + ... + dqN = dqj
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂qN j=1
∂qj

The work done

N N N N X N N
X X X ∂ri X ∂ri X
dw = Fi · dri = Fi · dqj = Fi · dqj = Qj dq
i=1 i=1 j=1
∂qj
j=1 i=1
∂qj
j=1

N
X ∂ri
Qj = Fi ·
i=1
∂qj
is called generalized force associated with generalized coordinate qj
and Here Fi is the external force on the i th particle.
Also w = w (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ), then
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 299 / 337
LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS
N
∂w ∂w ∂w X ∂w
dw = dq1 + dq2 + ... + dqN = dqj
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂qN j=1
∂qj

Equating the two expressions yields:

N N
X ∂w X
dqj = Qj dqj
j=1
∂qj j=1

N
X ∂w ∂w
( − Qj ) dqj = 0 ⇒ Qj =
j=1
∂qj ∂qj

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law, Fi = mi r̈i to the i th particle, we have

∂ri ∂ri
Fi = mi r̈i ⇒ Fi · ∂qj
= mi r̈i · ∂q j
∂ri d ∂ri
⇒ Fi · ∂qj
= mi dt (ṙi ) · ∂qj

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 300 / 337

∂ri d ∂ri d ∂ri
But, r̈i · ∂qj
= dt (ṙi · ∂q j
) − ṙi · dt ( ∂qj )
r̈i · ∂ri
∂qj
= dt d ∂ri
(ṙi · ∂q j
) − ṙi · ∂q∂ j ( dr
dt
i
)
∂ri d ∂ri ∂ṙi
r̈i · ∂qj
= dt (ṙi · ∂qj ) − ṙi · ∂qj
∂ri d ∂ri ∂ṙi
⇒ Fi · ∂qj
= mi [ dt (ṙi · ∂q j
) − ṙi · ∂q j
]
Therefore, generalized force will be
N N
X ∂ri X d ∂ri ∂ṙi
Qj = Fi · = mi [ (ṙi · ) − ṙi · ]
i=1
∂qj i=1
dt ∂qj ∂q j

Kinetic energy of the system is

N N
X 1 ∂T ∂ X1
T= mi ṙi · ṙi ⇒ = mi ṙi · ṙi
i=1
2 ∂qj ∂qj i=1 2

N N
∂T X1 ∂ X1 ∂ṙi ∂ṙi
= mi (ṙi · ṙi ) ⇒ mi [ · ṙi + ṙi · ]
∂qj i=1
2 ∂q j
i=1
2 ∂q j ∂q j

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N N
∂T X1 ∂ṙi X ∂ṙi
= mi 2[ṙi · ]= mi ṙi ·
∂qj i=1
2 ∂qj i=1
∂qj
Also the T can be written
N N
X 1 ∂T ∂ X1
T= mi ṙi · ṙi ⇒ = mi ṙi · ṙi
i=1
2 ∂ q̇j ∂ q̇j i=1 2

N N
∂T X1 ∂ X1 ∂ṙi ∂ṙi
= mi (ṙi · ṙi ) ⇒ mi [ · ṙi + ṙi · ]
∂ q̇j i=1
2 ∂ q̇j
i=1
2 ∂ q̇j ∂ q̇j

N N
∂T X1 ∂ṙi X ∂ṙi ∂ṙi ∂ri
= mi 2[ṙi · ]= mi ṙi · , but =
∂ q̇j i=1
2 ∂ q̇j i=1
∂ q̇j ∂ q̇j ∂qj
N
∂T X ∂ri
= mi ṙi ·
∂ q̇j i=1
∂qj
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 302 / 337
N N
d X ∂ri X ∂ṙi d ∂T ∂T
Wehave, Qj = mi ṙi · − mi ṙi · = −
dt i=1 ∂qj i=1
∂qj dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj

d ∂T ∂T
− = Qj
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
This is called Lagrange’s equation of motion.
Suppose all the forces are conservative. i.e. there exists a scalar
function V = V (q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t) called potential function. By the
definition of the potential function ∂∂V q̇j
=0
Definition: Lagrangian or Lagrange’s Function L of the system is
defined as the difference of Kinetic energy and the Potential energy
and denoted by L. i.e L = T-V
Here dw = F · dr = −∇r · dr = −dV ⇒ ∂∂w q̇j
= Qj = − ∂∂V
q̇j

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d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− =− = Qj
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj

d ∂T ∂V ∂T ∂V d ∂T − V ∂T − V
[ −( )]− −(− )=0⇒ − = 0, butT −
dt ∂ q̇j ∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj

d ∂L ∂L
( )− =0
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
This is the Lagrange’s equation for a conservative system

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LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS FOR
NON − HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS

Suppose
P that there arePm equation of constraint having the form
j Aj dq j + Adt = 0, j Bj dqj + Bdt = 0
or
P equivalently P
j Aj q̇j + Adt = 0, j Bj q̇j + Bdt = 0
We must of course have m < n where n the number of coordinates qj .
These equations may or may not be integrable so as to obtain a
relationship involving the qj0 s. If they are not integrable the
constraints are non − holonomic or non − integerable; otherwise they
are holonomic or integrable.

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Cont...

In either case Lagrange’s equations can be replaced by

d ∂T ∂T
( ) − ∂q
dt ∂ q̇j j
= φj + λ1 Aj + λ2 Bj + ...
where the m parameters λ1 , λ2 , ... are called Lagrange multipliers.
If the forces are conservative, this equation can be written in terms of
the Lagrangian L = T − V as
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂q
dt ∂ q̇j j
= λ1 Aj + λ2 Bj + ...
It should be emphasized that above results are applicable to
holonomic (as well as non − holonomic) systems since a Constraint
condition of the form
φ(q1 , q2 , ..., qn , t)
can
P by differentiation be written as
∂φ ∂φ
j ( ∂qj )dqj + ∂t dt = 0

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LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS WITH IMPULSIVE
FORCES

Suppose R τ that the forces Fi acting on a system are such that

lim o Fi dt = Ii
where τ represents a time interval. Then we call
Fi impulsive forces and Ii are called impulses.
If we let the subscripts 1 and 2 denote respectively quantities before
and after application of the impulsive forces, Lagrange’s equations
become
( ∂∂Tq̇j )2 − ( ∂∂Tq̇j )1 = Γi
P ∂ri
where Γi = i Ii . ∂q j
If we call Γi the generalized impulse, this can be written
generalized impulse = change in generalized momentum

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KINETIC ENERGY
The total PNkinetic2 energy of the system is
1
T = 2 i=1 mi ṙi
The kinetic energy can be written as a quadratic form in the
generalized velocities q̇j . If the system is scleronomic [i. e.
Independent of time t explicitly], then the quadratic form has only
terms of the form
aj q̇j q̇β .
If it is rheonomic, linear terms in q̇j are also present.
GENERALIZED FORCES
If W is the total work done on a system of particles by forces Fi
acting P on the i th particle, then
dw = nj=1 φj dqj
where, φj = Ni=1 Fi ∂q ∂ri
P
j
is called the generalized force associated with the generalized
coordinate qj .

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GENERALIZED MOMENTA

We define
pj = ∂∂Tq̇j
to be the generalized momentum associated with the generalized
coordinate qj . We often call pj the momentum conjugate to qj , or
the conjugate momentum.
If the system is conservative with potential energy depending only on
the generalized coordinates, then
pj = ∂∂Tq̇j
can be written in terms of the Lagrangian L = T − V as
pj = ∂∂Lq̇j

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Hamilton’s principle of least action
The principle of least action states that of all the paths qa (t) that a
system of particles could take to go from an initial configuration
qa (to ) to a final configuration qa (t1 ), the paths qa (t) that the
particles actually takeR tare the ones that minimize the action
functional. S[qa] = ti f L(qa , q˙a )dt where L = T V is the Lagrangian
function of the mechanical system.
The Lagrangian can be expressed in any system of generalized
coordinates qa . Because the Lagrangian is a scalar function (as
opposed to a vectorial function), the choice of coordinates is
immaterial to the formulation of Hamilton’s principle. In particular, it
is not necessary to adopt Cartesian coordinates attached to an
inertial frame.
Theorem: Principle of Least Action: The actual path taken by the
system is an extremum of S.
Proof: Consider varying a given path slightly, so xa (t) → xa (t) +
δxa (t) where we fix the end points of the path by demanding δxa (ti )
= δxa (tf ) = 0.

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Cont...
Then the
R tfchange in the Raction is R
tf t ∂L
δs = δ[ ti L(q, q̇)dt] = ti δLdt = ti f ∂q dq + ∂∂Lq̇j dq̇dt
R tf ∂L j
We integrate the second term i.e ti ∂ q̇j dq̇dt by parts to get
Let u = ∂∂Lq̇j ⇒ du = d( ∂∂Lq̇j )
dv = δ q̇dt = δ dq dt = δdq
Rdt Rt
udv − uv = vdu ⇒ ti f ∂∂Lq̇j dq̇dt = ∂∂Lq̇ ∂q|ttfi − δqd( ∂∂Lq̇ )
R R

But, ∂∂Lq̇ ∂q|ttfi = 0 This term vanishes since we have fixed the end
pointsR of the pathRso δxa (ti ) = δxa (tf ) = 0.
t ∂L
δs = ti f ∂q dq − δqd( ∂∂Lq̇ )
R tf ∂Lj R d ∂L
δs = ti ∂qj dq − δq dt ( ∂ q̇ )dt
R tf ∂L d ∂L
δs = ti [ ∂qj − dt ( ∂ q̇ )]δqdt The requirement that the action is an
extremum says that δS = 0 for all changes in the path δxa (ti ). This
holds if and only if
d ∂L ∂L
( )− =0
([email protected] c M.A)
dt ∂Classical
q̇j Mechanics
∂qj March 7, 2023 311 / 337
Derivation of the Hamilton Equations
d ∂L ∂L
( )− =0
dt ∂ q̇ ∂qj
∂L ∂ 1 ∂L
∂ q̇
= ( mq̇ 2
∂ q̇ 2
− V) = mq̇ = p ⇒ ∂ q̇
=p
d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L
( )− =0⇒ ( )=
dt ∂ q̇ ∂qj dt ∂ q̇ ∂qj
∂L d ∂L d
⇒ = ( )= (p) = ṗ
∂qj dt ∂ q̇ dt
Let us try to transform our Lagrange function into a quantity that is
described by generalized coordinates and momenta. L = T − V ⇒
L = 21 mq̇ 2 − V ⇒ L = mq̇ 2 − 12 mq̇ 2 − V
⇒ 21 mq̇ 2 + V = mq̇ 2 − L ⇒ H = mq̇ 2 − L = (mq̇)q̇ − L = (p)q̇ − L,
we call it the ’Hamiltonian’ or ’Hamilton’s function of the system.
We define the Hamiltonian function as the LegendreP transform of the
Lagrangian function, i.e. we define it to be ⇒ H = nj=1 q̇j pj − L
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 312 / 337
Cont...

Note that in this definition we used the notation for the dot product
n
X
p · q̇ = q̇j pj
j=1

∂L
⇒ H(p, q) = p q̇ − L(q, q̇) ⇒ dH = pdq̇ + q̇dp − ∂∂Lq̇ dq̇ − ∂q dq but,
∂L ∂L
∂ q̇
= p and ṗ = ∂q
⇒ dH = pdq̇ + q̇dp − pdq̇ − ṗdq
∂L
⇒ dH = pdq̇ − pdq̇ + q̇dp − ∂q dq = q̇dp − ṗdq
⇒ dH = q̇dp − ṗdq .....................(*)
The total differential of the Hamiltonian is given by H = H(p, q)
⇒ dH = ∂H ∂P
dp = ∂H∂q
dq.....................(**)

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Cont...

By equating the two stars, we can derive the required equations of

motion in terms of p and r:
q̇ = ∂H
∂P
and −ṗ = ∂H ∂q
These are the so-called ’Hamilton’s equations’. They form a set of 2s
first-order differential equations for the 2s unknown functions pi (t)
and ri (t). Because of their simplicity and symmetry they are also
called ’canonical equations’. thus express the time evolution of
position and generalized momentum in a very efficient and pleasingly
symmetrical way. As soon as we know H; we can write down this first
order system of equations and use it as the equations of motion
rather than the second-order Euler-Lagrange equations.

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Cyclic coordinates
Coordinates that do not appear explicitly in the L (or H) of a
mechanical system are said to be cyclic or ignorable.
Corresponding quantities are integrals (constants) of motion.
In particular,
homogeneity of space means that the properties of the system
do not change with translation along the direction given by r.
As a result r does not appear in L or H of the system and a p in
r direction is conserved.
Isotropy of space means that a rotation about some axis by
angle φ does not change the properties of a mech. system.
As a result L and H do not depend on φ and corresponding L is
conserved.
Homogeneity in time means that L (and H) do not depend on
time explicitly.
As a result the energy of a mech. system is
conserved.Coordinates that do not appear explicitly in the L (or
H) of a mech. system are said to be cyclic or ignorable.
Corresponding quantities are integrals (constants) of motion.

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Example 1:Free Fall
Derive the Lagranges equation for an object that is freely falling.
a. Sketch:

The kinetic energy is given by: T = 21 mẋ 2 , and

The potential function V = mgh = mgx, where x=y
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by L(x, ẋ) = 21 mẋ 2 − mgx
d ∂L ∂L
Using the form for the Lagrangian equation: dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
∂L ∂ 1 2 1
∂ ẋ
= ∂ ẋ ( 2 mẋ − mgx) = 2 m2ẋ + 0 = mẋ, and
∂L ∂ 1
∂x
= ∂x ( 2 mẋ 2 − mgx) = 0 − mg = −mg
d ∂L ∂L
Now let’s insert them into dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
d
=⇒ dt (mẍ) − (−mg ) = 0 =⇒ ẍ + g = 0
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
=⇒ ẍ + g = 0,
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Example 2: The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Consider a spring − mass system moving in a one dimensional
Hookeian force field −kx, where k is a constant, along a frictionless
horizontal surface with one end of the spring fixed to a wall and the
other end attached to an object of mass m. Derive the Lagranges
equation

The kinetic energy is given by: T = 21 mẋ 2 , and

The potential function V = V (x) corresponding to
R the force field
−kx satisfies ∂V 1
R 2
∂x
= −kx. =⇒ U = − Fdx = k xdx = 2
kx
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by L(x, ẋ) = 12 mẋ 2 − 12 kx 2
From Hamilton’s principle the equations of motion are given by
Lagrange’s equations. Here, taking the generalized coordinate to be
d ∂L ∂L
q = x, the single Lagrange equation is dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 317 / 337
Cont...

Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that

∂L
∂ ẋ
= ∂∂ẋ ( 12 mẋ 2 − 12 kx 2 ) = 12 m2ẋ + 0 = mẋ, and
∂L ∂ 1
∂x
= ∂x ( 2 mẋ 2 − 12 kx 2 ) = 0 − 21 2kx = −kx
d ∂L ∂L
Now let’s insert them into dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
=⇒ mẍ + kx = 0 =⇒ ẍ + m x = 0, let mk = ω 2
k

and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes

=⇒ ẍ + ω 2 x = 0,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 318 / 337

Example 3: (Simple pendulum)
Consider the motion of a simple pendulum bob of mass m that
swings at the end of a light rod of length l. The other end is
attached so that the rod and bob can swing freely in a plane. g is the
acceleration due to gravity.Derive the Lagranges equation

Since the system has one particle, it needs 3 independent variables.

The Constraints are: Particle moves in a plane. and Length of the
string is constant. Therefore need 3-2=1 independent variable. i.e. it
has one degree of freedom. Define the generalized coordinate as the
angle between downward vertical and the string.
x = ` sin θ and y = ` − ` cos θ, from these, we can find the velocities
ẋ = vx = dx dt
= dt d
(` sin θ) = ` cos θ dθ dt
= ` cos θθ̇ = `θ̇ cos θ, and
dy
ẏ = vy = dt = dt (` − ` cos θ) = 0 − (−` sin θ) dθ
d
dt
= ` sin θθ̇ = `θ̇ sin θ
1 2 2
The kinetic energy is given by: T = 2 m(ẋ + ẏ ) =
1
m([`θ̇ cos θ]2 + [`
([email protected] c θ̇
M.A)
1
sin θ]2 ) =Classical θ̇ (cos2 θ + sin2 θ), March
2 2
m`Mechanics but7, 2023 319 / 337
Cont...
The potential function V = V (x) corresponding to the force field is
V = mgh = mgy = mg (` − ` cos θ)
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by
L(x, ẋ) = 12 m`2 θ̇2 − mg (` − ` cos θ)
Here, taking the generalized coordinate to be q = θ, the single
d ∂L
Lagrange equation is dt ( ∂ θ̇ ) − ∂L
∂θ
=0
Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that
∂L
∂ θ̇
= ∂∂θ̇ ( 12 m`2 θ̇2 − mg (` − ` cos θ)) = 12 m`2 2θ̇ + 0 = mθ̇`2 , and
∂L ∂ 1
∂θ
= ∂θ ( 2 m`2 θ̇2 − mg (` − ` cos θ))
= 0 − mg [0 − `(− sin θ)] = −mg ` sin θ, but for small angle
oscillations sin θ ≡ θ =⇒ ∂L ∂θ
= −mg ` sin θ
Now let’s insert them into dt ( ∂ θ̇ ) − ∂L
d ∂L
∂θ
=0
d 2 2
=⇒ dt (mθ̇` ) − (−mg `θ) = 0 =⇒ θ̈` + g `θ = 0, divide both sides
by `2 . =⇒ θ̈ + g` θ = 0, but g` = ω 2
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
=⇒ θ̈ + ω 2 θ = 0,
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 320 / 337
Example 4: The Atwood’s machine
Atwood’s machine consists of a smooth pulley with 2-masses m1 and
m2 suspended from a light string at each end. Derive the Lagranges
equation

d
(x )
dt 1
= dx
dt
= ẋ and
d
(x )
dt 2
= dt = − d(x)
d(`−x)
dt
= −ẋ
The kinetic energy is given by:
˙ 2 = 21 (m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 , and
T = 21 m1 ẋ 2 + 12 m2 −x
The potential function
V = −m1 gx − m2 g (` − x) = −m1 gx − m2 g ` + m2 gx)
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 321 / 337
Cont...
L(x, ẋ) = 12 (m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 − [−m1 gx − m2 g ` + m2 gx)] =
1
2
(m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx
From Hamilton’s principle the equations of motion are given by
Lagrange’s equations. Here, taking the generalized coordinate to be
d ∂L ∂L
q = x, the single Lagrange equation is dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that
∂L
∂ ẋ
= ∂∂ẋ ( 12 (m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx) =
1
2
(m1 + m2 )2ẋ + 0 = (m1 + m2 )ẋ, and
∂L ∂ 1
∂x
= ∂x ( 2 (m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx) =
0 + m1 g + 0 − m2 g = (m1 − m2 )g
d ∂L
Now let’s insert them into dt ( ∂ θ̇ ) − ∂L
∂θ
=0
d
=⇒ dt [(m1 + m2 )ẋ] − [(m1 − m2 )g ] = 0 =⇒
(m1 + m2 )ẍ = (m1 − m2 )g , divide both sides by (m1 + m2 ).
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
(m1 −m2 )
=⇒ ẍ = (m 1 +m2 )
g,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 322 / 337

Example 5: The Atwood’s machine
An Atwood machine consists of a massive pulley (a uniform circular
disk of mass M and radius R) connecting two blocks of masses m1
and m2 . Assume that the string connecting the two blocks has
negligible mass and does not slip as it rolls with the pulley wheel.
Constant gravitational acceleration g acts downward. Derive the
Lagranges equation.
Thus, it has also rotational kinetic energy T = 21 I ω 2 , but I = 21 MR 2
and ω = Rv = Rẋ
2
T = 12 ( 21 MR 2 ) Rẋ 2 = 14 M ẋ 2

d
(x )
dt 1
= dx dt
= ẋ and dt d
(x2 ) = d(`−x)
dt
= − d(x)
dt
= −ẋ
The kinetic energy is given by:
T = 12 m1 ẋ 2 + 12 m2 −x ˙ 2 + 14 M ẋ 2 = 12 (m1 + m2 + 21 M)ẋ 2 , and
The potential function
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 323 / 337
Cont...
L(x, ẋ) = 12 (m1 + m2 + 21 M)ẋ 2 − [−m1 gx − m2 g ` + m2 gx)] =
1
2
(m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx
From Hamilton’s principle the equations of motion are given by
Lagrange’s equations. Here, taking the generalized coordinate to be
d ∂L ∂L
q = x, the single Lagrange equation is dt ( ∂ ẋ ) − ∂x =0
Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that
∂L
∂ ẋ
= ∂∂ẋ ( 12 (m1 + m2 + 12 M)ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx) =
1
2
(m1 + m2 )2ẋ + 0 = (m1 + m2 )ẋ, and
∂L ∂ 1
∂x
= ∂x ( 2 (m1 + m2 + 12 M)ẋ 2 + m1 gx + m2 g ` − m2 gx) =
0 + m1 g + 0 − m2 g = (m1 − m2 )g
d ∂L
Now let’s insert them into dt ( ∂ θ̇ ) − ∂L
∂θ
=0
d 1
=⇒ dt [(m1 + m2 + 2 M)ẋ] − [(m1 − m2 )g ] = 0 =⇒
(m1 + m2 + 21 M)ẍ = (m1 − m2 )g , divide both sides by (m1 + m2 ).
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
1 −m2 )
=⇒ ẍ = (m(m +m + 1 M)
g,
1 2 2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 324 / 337

Example 6: The compound Atwood’s machine
A mass m1 hangs at one end of a rope that is led over a large roller
A. The other end carries a second roller B, which in turn carries a
rope with the masses m2 and m3 fixed to its ends. The gravitational
force is acting on all masses. Derive the Lagrange’s equation

The kinetic energy is given by:

T = 12 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22 + 21 m3 v32 = 12 m1 ẋ 2 + 21 m2 (−y
˙ + ẋ)2 + 12 m3 (ẏ + ẋ)2 ,
and
The potential function
V = −m1 gx − m2 g (À − x + y ) − m3 g (À − x + `B − y )
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 325 / 337
Cont...
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by
L(x, ẋ) = 12 m1 ẋ 2 + 12 m2 (−y
˙ + ẋ)2 + 21 m3 (ẏ + ẋ)2 − [−m1 gx −
m2 g (À − x + y ) − m3 g (À − x + `B − y )]
L(x, ẋ) = 21 m1 ẋ 2 + 12 m2 (−y
˙ + ẋ)2 + 21 m3 (ẏ + ẋ)2 + m1 gx +
m2 g (À − x + y ) + m3 g (À − x + `B − y )
We have two independent coordinate systems. Taking the generalized
coordinate to be q = x and q = y, the Lagrange equations are
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂x
dt ∂ ẋ
= 0, and
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂y = 0
dt ∂ ẏ
Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that
∂L
∂ ẋ
= ∂∂Lẋ = m1 ẋ + m2 (−y˙ + ẋ) + m3 (ẏ + ẋ),
∂L
∂ ẏ
= ∂∂Lẏ = m2 (−y˙ + ẋ)(−1)+m3 (ẏ + ẋ) = (−m2 +m3 )ẋ +(m2 +m3 )ẏ ,
∂L ∂L
∂x
= ∂x = m1 g + m2 g (−1) + m3 g (−1) = m1 g − m2 g − m3 g
∂L ∂L
∂y
= ∂y = m2 g + m3 g (−1) = m2 g − m3 g

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 326 / 337

Cont...

Now let’s insert them into

d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂x
dt ∂ ẋ
= 0, and
d ∂L ∂L
(
dt ∂ ẏ
) − ∂y
=0
d ˙ + ẋ) + m3 (ẏ + ẋ)] − [m1 g − m2 g − m3 g ] = 0
=⇒ dt [m1 ẋ + m2 (−y
=⇒ m1 ẍ + m2 (−y ¨ + ẍ) + m3 (ÿ + ẍ) − [m1 g − m2 g − m3 g ] = 0,
=⇒ (m1 + m2 + m3 )ẍ + (−m2 + m3 )ÿ − [m1 g − m2 g − m3 g ] = 0,
d
=⇒ dt [(−m2 + m3 )ẋ + (m2 + m3 )ẏ ] − [m2 g − m3 g ] = 0 =⇒
[(−m2 + m3 )ẍ + (m2 + m3 )ÿ ] − [m2 g − m3 g ] = 0,
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
=⇒ (m1 + m2 + m3 )ẍ + (−m2 + m3 )ÿ = (m1 − m2 − m3 )g , and
=⇒ (−m2 + m3 )ẍ + (m2 + m3 )ÿ = (m2 − m3 )g

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 327 / 337

Example 7: (Double pendulum)

Consider a double pendulum made of two masses, m1 and m2 , and

two rods of lengths `1 and `2 . Find the equations of motion.

x1 = `1 sin θ1 ⇒ ẋ1 = `1 θ̇1 cos θ1

y1 = `1 cos θ1 , ⇒ ẏ1 = −`1 θ̇1 sin θ1
x2 = `1 sin θ1 + `2 sin θ2 ⇒ ẋ1 = `1 θ̇1 cos θ1 + `2 θ̇2 cos θ2 ,
y2 = `1 cos θ1 + `2 cos θ2 , ⇒ ẏ2 = −`1 θ̇1 sin θ1 − `2 θ̇2 sin θ2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 328 / 337

Cont...
The Cartesian coordinates of the two massive bodies, r1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ
and r2 = x2 î + y2 ĵ. There are 4 such coordinates, x1 , y1 , x2 and y1 .
However they are not all independent due to the two constraints,
f1 (r ) = |r | − `1 = 0 and f2 (r1 , r2 ) = |r1 − r2 | − `1 = 0. So Degrees of
freedom of a system means the number of independent variables
required to describe the system and is therefore d = 4 − 2 = 2, and a
natural choice for the two generalized coordinates is the angles θ1
and θ2 .
The kinetic energy is given by: T = 21 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22
= 21 m1 (ẋ12 + ẏ12 ) + 12 m2 (ẋ22 + ẏ22 )
= 12 m1 [(`1 θ̇1 cos θ1 )2 + (−`1 θ̇1 sin θ1 )2 ] + 21 m2 [(`1 θ̇1 cos θ1 +
`2 θ̇2 cos θ2 )2 + (−`1 θ̇1 sin θ1 − `2 θ̇2 sin θ2 )2 ]
but, (`1 θ̇1 cos θ1 + `2 θ̇2 cos θ2 )2
= `21 θ̇12 cos2 θ1 + `22 θ̇22 cos2 θ2 + 2`1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos θ1 cos θ2 , and
([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 329 / 337
Cont...

(−`1 θ̇1 sin θ1 − `2 θ̇2 sin θ2 )2

= `21 θ̇12 sin2 θ1 + `22 θ̇22 sin2 θ2 + 2`1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 sin θ1 sin θ2
Then, (`1 θ̇1 cos θ1 + `2 θ̇2 cos θ2 )2 + (−`1 θ̇1 sin θ1 − `2 θ̇2 sin θ2 )2
= `21 θ̇12 (cos2 θ1 + sin2 θ1 ) + `22 θ̇22 (cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2 ) +
2`1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 (sin θ1 sin θ2 + cos θ1 cos θ2 )
= `21 θ̇12 (1) + `22 θ̇22 (1) + 2`1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 [cos(θ1 − θ2 )]
T =
1
m `2 θ̇2 (cos2 θ1 + sin2 θ1 ) + 12 m2 [`21 θ̇12 + `22 θ̇22 + 2`1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )]
2 1 1 1

=⇒ T = 21 (m1 + m2 )`21 θ̇12 + 12 m2 `22 θ̇22 + m2 `1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )

The potential function
V = −m1 gy1 − m2 gy2 = −m1 g (`1 cos θ1 ) − m2 g (`1 cos θ1 + `2 cos θ2 )
V = −(m1 + m2 )g `1 cos θ1 − m2 g `2 cos θ2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 330 / 337

Cont...

The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by

L = 12 (m1 + m2 )`21 θ̇12 + 21 m2 `22 θ̇22 + m2 `1 `2 θ̇1 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + (m1 +
m2 )g `1 cos θ1 + m2 g `2 cos θ2
Here, taking the generalized coordinate to be q = θ1 and q = θ2 , the
Lagrange equations are:
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂θ
dt ∂ θ̇1 1
=0
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂θ2 = 0
dt ∂ θ̇2
Using the form for the Lagrangian above we find that
∂L
∂ θ̇
= (m1 + m2 )`21 θ̇1 + m2 `1 `2 θ̇2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ), and
1
∂L
∂θ2
= m2 `22 θ̇2 + m2 `1 `2 θ̇1 cos(θ1 − θ2 )
∂L
∂θ1
= −(m1 + m2 )g `1 sin θ1
∂L
∂θ2
= −m2 g `2 sin θ2

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 331 / 337

Cont...

Now let’s insert them into

d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂θ
dt ∂ θ̇1 1
=0
d ∂L ∂L
( ) − ∂θ2 = 0
dt ∂ θ̇ 2
d
dt
((m1 +m2 )`21 θ̇1 +m2 `1 `2 θ̇2 cos(θ1 −θ2 ))−(−(m1 +m2 )g `1 sin θ1 ) =0
d
dt
(m2 `22 θ̇2 + m2 `1 `2 θ̇1 cos(θ1 − θ2 )) − (−m2 g `2 sin θ2 ) = 0
and so Lagranges equation of motion becomes
=⇒ (m1 + m2 )`21 θ̈1 + m2 `1 `2 θ̈2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + m2 `1 `2 θ̇22 sin(θ1 − θ2 ) +
(m1 + m2 )g `1 sin θ1 ) = 0
=⇒
m2 `22 θ̈2 +m2 `1 `2 θ̈1 cos(θ1 −θ2 )−m2 `1 `2 θ̇12 sin(θ1 −θ2 )+m2 g `2 sin θ2 = 0

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 332 / 337

Cont...
Example 1 (Simple harmonic oscillator). The Lagrangian L = T − V
is thus given by L(x, ẋ) = 21 mẋ 2 − 21 kx 2
The corresponding generalized momentum is p = ∂∂Lẋ = mẋ which is
the usual momentum. This implies ẋ = mp and so the Hamiltonian is
given by

p p2 1 p 1 1 p2 1 2
⇒ H(x, p) = ẋp−L = p−L = −[ m( )2 − kx 2 ] = + kx
m m 2 m 2 2m 2
Note this last expression is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies and so H is the total energy. Hamiltons equations of motion
are thus given by
∂ 1 p2
ẋ = ∂H
∂P
= ∂P ( 2 m + 12 kx 2 ) = mp
∂ 1 p2
and ṗ = − ∂H
∂x
= − ∂x ( 2 m + 21 kx 2 ) = − 12 k2x = −kx

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 333 / 337

Cont...

d ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
( )− = 0, but, = p = mẋand = ṗ = −kx
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x ∂ q̇ ∂x
d
(mẋ) − (−kx) = 0
dt
Note that combining these two equations, we get the usual equation
for a harmonic oscillator: mẍ + kx = 0,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 334 / 337

Cont...
Example 1 (Simple pendulum). The kinetic energy is given by:
T = 12 m(ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 ) = 12 m([`θ̇ cos θ]2 + [`θ̇ sin θ]2 ) =
1
2
m`2 θ̇2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ), but cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 1
=⇒ T = 12 m`2 θ̇2 , and
The potential function V = V (x) corresponding to the force field is
V = mgh = mgy = mg (` − ` cos θ)
The Lagrangian L = T − V is thus given by
L(x, ẋ) = 12 m`2 θ̇2 − mg (` − ` cos θ)
The corresponding generalized momentum is p = ∂L ∂ θ̇
= m`2 θ̇ = p
which is the usual momentum. This implies θ̇ = m`p 2 and so the
Hamiltonian is given by

p p 1 p
⇒ H(x, p) = θ̇p−L = 2
p−L = 2
−[ m`2 θ̇2 −mg (`−` cos θ)] =
m` m` 2 m

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 335 / 337

Cont...
Note this last expression is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies and so H is the total energy. Hamiltons equations of motion
are thus given by
∂ p2
θ̇ = ∂H
∂P
= ∂P ( 2 m`2 + mg (` − ` cos θ)) = m`p 2
∂ p2
and ṗ = − ∂H
∂θ
= − ∂θ ( 2 m`2 + mg (` − ` cos θ)) = −mg ` sin θ

d ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
( )− = 0, but, = p = m`2 θ̇and = ṗ = −mg ` sin θ
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
d
(m`2 θ̇) − (−mg ` sin θ) = 0
dt
Note that combining these two equations, we get the usual equation
for a harmonic oscillator: m`2 θ̈ + mg ` sin θ = 0,
θ̈ + g` θ = 0,

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 336 / 337

REFERENCES

[1] Walter Hauser, Introduction to principles of mechanics,

Addison Wesley, 1966.
[2] Jery Marion, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems,
1994.
[3] Marion Thoronton, Classical Dynamics of Particles and
Systems, 4th ed., 1995
[4] Murrey R. Speigle, Schaum’s Outline series: Theory and
problems of theatrical mechanics
[5] Devid Morin, Introduction to Classical Mechanics: with
problems and solutions, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
[6] R. Taylor, Calassical Mechanics, Universal Science, 2005.
[7] H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Addison Welsey 3rd ed.

([email protected] c M.A) Classical Mechanics March 7, 2023 337 / 337

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