Building construction handout

Flooring systems

Floor is the finished surface of a building room which gives level surface & esthetics value for
the room.

The purpose of a floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting: The occupants of a
building, Furniture, Equipment, and Sometimes the internal partition.

The Primary functions of a floor:

i. Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of
people and furniture.

ii. Exclude the passage of water and water vapor to the interior of the building.

iii. Provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.

iv. Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.

To perform its function a floor must satisfy the following requirements:Adequate strength
and stability, Adequate fire resistance, Sound insulation, Damp resistance, and Thermal
insulation.

In the traditional floor construction, a floor is needed to have a clean, smooth, impervious,
level and durable surface.

 Floors are classified as ground floor and upper floor.

 The floors resting directly on the ground surface are known as ground floors.
 While the other floors of each storey, situated above the ground level are known
as upper floors.

The choice for floor position can be affected by :Site topography ,Construction Cost, and
Planning and Design of the building.

Based on the location, Ground floors are further subdivided into solid floors, suspended floors
and basement floors.

Solid floors

 The floors supported directly on the ground are known as solid floors.

Suspended floors

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  These are floors supported above the ground level.

 Suspended floors do not rely on the ground for support.

Basement floors

 These are floors resting at the lowest/basement level

 Resistance to moisture ingress is one of the main criteria in the design of basement floors.

Functional requirement of ground floors

For good performance of a ground floor, it should be able to perform the following:

Support without failure the loads imposed on it,Prevent dampness inside the building by
providing a damp proof membrane (dpm) in or below the floor, Prevent the growth of matter
and other living organisms, Be reasonably durable so as to require minimum maintenance or
replacement work, Provide a surface finish with a standard of appearance, comfort, cleanliness,
and heat retention.

Floor finishes

 The choice of floor finishes depends on the use to which the floor is likely to be
employed.
 The following are the factors that affect the choice of flooring materials:

1. Initial cost: The cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of
building, and its likely use.

2. Appearance: covering should give pleasing appearance; it should produce a

desired color effect and architectural beauty.

3. Cleanliness: the flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should
be non absorbent.

4. Durability: the flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature

changes, disintegration with time and decay.

5. Damp resistance: flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness.

6. Thermal insulation: The flooring should offer reasonably good thermal

insulation.

7. Sound insulation: Flooring should insulate the noise. Noise should not be
produced when users walk on it.

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 8. Fire resistance: Flooring material should offer sufficient fire resistance so that
fire barriers are obtained between different levels of building.

9. Smoothness: The flooring material should be smooth, and should have even
surface. However it should not be slippery.

10. Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation

marks, in prints etc.

Maintenance: the flooring material should require least maintenance. However,

whenever repairs are required, it should be such that repairs can be done easily with least
expenditure

Stair& stair case

STAIR: is a series of steps which provides access from one floor to another.

In every building, some arrangement should be made to provide access to its different floors and
roof. This arrangement may be in the form of a stair or lift system.

A stair usually consists of a series of steps, whereas the lift is in the form of a horizontal
platform, moving vertically in a champers provided in the building

STAIRS AND STAIR CASES

• A series of steps which provides access from one floor to another is called a stair, and
the part of the building accommodating 'the stair is known as stair case.

• A stair may be constructed with steps either rising continuously or with a break in the
form of landing in between.

• All the steps should be so designed and constructed that up and down movements from
one floor to another can be made with ease, comfort, quickness and safety.

The stairs may be consisting of any suitable material such us timber, bricks, stone, steel,
reinforced cement concrete etc

• The provision of a stair in a building is essential for the move of inmates from one floor
to another floor or to the roof of that building.

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• Now a day in most modern residential and public buildings of multi-storeyed nature, a lift
system is provided for convenience and quick movements of the users from one floor to
the other.

• In such buildings too, a stair is essential for the movements of the users incase of the
failure or the lift system due to some mechanical defect or non-supply of electric power.

TECHNICAL TERMS of stair

1. Step:-The combination of a tread and a riser supported by a string is called a step.

2. Tread:-The horizontal top surface of a step on which foot is placed while going up or
coming down a stair is known as tread.

3. Going or run:-The horizontal distance between any two adjacent risers in a stair is called
going or run.

Rise:- The vertical distance between any two adjacent treads in a stair is called rise.

5. Riser: is the vertical member of a stair.

6. Bull nose step:-The step with one or both ends rounded is known as bull nose step. This
type of step is generally provided at the bottom of a flight and remains always projecting
beyond the face of the newel post.

7. Nosing:- The projecting edge of a tread beyond its riser in a step is called 'nosing. The
line joining nosing of all steps in a flight is known as line of nosing

Pitch or slope :-The angle between the line of nosing and the floor or landing of a stair is
called pitch or slope.

9. String or stringer :- The inclined support to which the ends of treads and risers of a stair
are fastened is called a string or stringer.

10. Hand rail: -An inclined member at a convenient height projecting above steps of a stair
to provide assistance and safe guard to the users is called hand rail.

Balusters:- The vertical members provided in between the steps and the hand rail are called
balusters. These members act as intermediate support to the hand rail.

12. Newel or newel post :-The post provided at the bottom, top and at the turning points in a
stair to supports the hand rail are known as Newels or newel posts.

13. Soffit:-The under surface of a stair is called soffit.

Flier :-A step of uniform width is called flier

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15. Winder :- The step of non-uniform width is known as winder

16. Landing:- The horizontal platform provided in between any two flights of a stair is
called landing.

• A landing which provides 90° turn in the layout of a stair is known as quarter space
landing, and if the turn is through 180°, it is called half space landing.

• . Flight: A series of steps without any break in between the floor and landing, between
two landings or between landing and roof is known as flight.

• 18. Head room :-The height between the line of nosing to the soffit of a flight or ceiling
of roof immediately above, is called head room.

• 19. Width or stair :- The length of a step is called width of the stair.

Width of stair case :-The width of enclosure accommodating the stair in a building is called
width of stair case & It depends upon the layout and width of the stair.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIR

A good stair should fulfill the following requirements:-

1. It must be well designed so as to provide maximum comfort, ease and safety.

2. It should be centrally located which can be easily accessible from all corners of the
building.

3. All the steps should have uniform width and height.

The pitch or slope of a stair should neither be more than 40° nor less than 25°,

5. The width of a stair must not be less than 1 m in any case.

6. The maximum number of steps in a flight should not be more than 12 and not less than 3;

7. The head room must not be less than 2.14 m vertically or 1.5 m at right angles to the line
of nosing..

The height of the hand rail should neither be more than 0.85 m and nor less than 0.75 m,
measured vertically from the line of nosing to the top of hand rail.

9. It must be constructed of sound materials which possess fire resisting qualities.

10. It should have good workmanship.

11. It must be so located that sufficient natural light and ventilation is ensured in the stair
case.
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DESIGNING OF A STAIR

PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED WHILE PLANNING AND DESIGNING A STAIR

• Step proportions:-The rise and tread of each step should be of uniform dimensions
throughout the length of the stair.

The proportion between going and rise of a step should be carefully worked out so as to
provide comfort and ease to the users.

PRINCIPLES

• The following rules should be followed for finding a suitable relation between going
and rise of steps in stair :-

(i) (2 x Rise) + (Going), in cm=55 to 60

(ii) Going x Rise, both in cm=400 to 410

(iii) While designing steps, take 30 cm going and 14 cm rise as a standard value. For each
2.5 cm deduction from going, add 1.2 to 1.3 cm to the rise.

The following dimensions of going and rise are generally used for different buildings:-

(a) Residential buildings :- 25 cm X 16 cm

(b) Public buildings such as theatres, colleges, banks etc.;- 27 cm X 15 cm or 30 cm X 14

cm

(c) Industrial buildings:-The going should not be less than 25 cm and rise not more than 19
cm.

• Pitch of the stair:-The pitch or slope of the stair should not be more than 40 degree and
should not be less than 25 for comfortable ascend and descend.

• Width of stair :-The width of a stair must not be less than 1 meters that a person going
up can pass a person coming , down without any difficulty.

• The minimum width of stair in a residential building should be 1m, whereas in case of a
public building a minimum width of 1.5 m is desirable:

• Length of flight :-The number of steps in a flight should not be more than 12 otherwise it
becomes difficult to move up down the flight.

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS ACCORDING TO THEIR LAYOUT

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 • Straight flight stairs :-The stair which rises from one floor to another in one direction is
known as straight flight stair or simply straight stair.

• This type of stair may be constructed with or without landing.

• Suitability :- This type of stair is only suitable for a long and a narrow stair case.

• Quarter turn stairs:- The stair which turns through 90 degree either to the left or to the
right is known as quarter turn stairs.

This type of stair may be provided either with winders or with a quarter-space landing.

• Suitability; -This type of stair is suitable where the width of stair case is more but it has
got limited length.

• Half turn stair :- the stair which turns through 180 degree is known as half turn stair .

Half turn stairs are further classified into two types:-

(a) Dog-legged stairs

(b) Open well stairs

(a) Dog-legged stairs :-A half turn stair with no space between its flights is known as dog-
legged stair

• Suitability :-This type of stair is suitable where the width of the

stair case is limited and is commonly used for single or double Storied modern buildings.

(b) Open well stairs :-A half turn stair with a space (called well) between its flights is known as
open well stair

• This stair is also known as an open well stair when the well left between the flights is of
rectangular shape. If, the space for this type of stair is limited, a short flight is introduced
on the narrow side of well with two quarter-space landings.

• Suitability :-This type of stair is suitable for multi storeyed building as in its case, the
well allows natural lighting from the top opening.

(c) Geometrical stairs :-A half turn, stair in which the well is of curved shape between the
forward and backward flights is called geometrical stair

• In this type of stair, the change in direction is obtained by winders. It provides easy
turning but is tire some as it is generally without .landing.

• Suitability :- This type of stair is suitable for single or double storeyed buildings.

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(d) Circular stair :-The stair provided in a circular stair case is called circular stair

• In this type of stair, the strings and the hand rails are continuous and the change in
direction is obtained by winders. All the steps may be supported by a newel at centre or
there may be a circular well hole.

• A circular stair, having all its steps radiating from a central newel is known as spiral stair

• Suitability :-This type of stair is suitable when a limited space is available for the stair
case. Iron spiral stairs are very suitable for back door entrance as they occupy very little
space.

(e) Bifurcating stair. :-The stair having its bottom flight wide which is divided into two narrow
flights at the landing at right angles in the opposite directions is called a bifurcating stair.

• Suitability :-This type of stair is suitable for public buildings, assembly halls, railway foot
bridges etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS ACCORDING TO MATERIAL USED

• According to material used for construction, the stairs are classified into the following
five types :-

– Wooden Stairs

– Stone Stairs

– Metal Stairs

– R.C.C. Stairs

– Brick Stairs

Doors & Windows

Door - is an openable barrier secured in a wall opening and is provided to give access,
protection, safety and privacy to the inside of a room of a building.

Basically a door consists of two parts

Door frame
Door shutter
Window - is a vented barrier secured in a wall opening.
Location of doors and windows
The following points should be kept in view while locating doors and windows.
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 1. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum, since larger number of doors
cause obstruction, and consume more area in circulation.
2. The location of door should meet functional requirements of a room.
3. It should not be located in the center of the length of a wall.
4. A door should preferably be located near the corner of a room –nearly 20cm away from
the corner.
5. If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in opposite walls
facing each other, so as to provide good ventilation.
6. The size and number of windows should be decided on the basis of distribution of light,
control of ventilation, and privacy of the occupants.
A window should be located in opposite wall, facing a door or another window for cross
ventilation.
7. From the point of view of fresh air, a window should be located in the prevalent direction
of wind.
8. The sill of window should be located about 70-80 cm above the
Definition of technical terms
The following are the technical terms applied to doors and windows
Frame: It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members, forming an enclosure, to
which the shutters are fixed.
Shutters: these are openable parts of a door or window .
Head: this is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame.
Sill: this is the lowermost or bottom horizontal part of a window frame.
Mullion: vertical member of a frame, which is employed to sub-divide a window or a
door vertically.
Transom: Horizontal member of a frame, which is employed to subdivide a window
opening horizontally.
Post: The vertical member of a frame which is fixed to the wall.
Size of doors
The size of the door should be such that it would allow the movement of largest object or tallest
person likely to use the door.
As a rule, the height of a door should not be less than 1.8m (1.8-2.0 m).

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The width of the door should be such that two persons can pass through it walking shoulder to
shoulder.
The common width height relations are:
Width = 0.4 to 0.6 height
Height = (width + 1.2) meters.
The following are the generally adopted size of doors for various type of buildings
Doors of residential building
External door: 0.9-1.2m width and 2-2.1m height
Internal door: 0.8-0.9m width and 2-2.1m height
Bath room & WC 0.7-0.8m width and 2-2.1m height
Garages for cars 2.25-2.4m width and 2-2.25m height
Classification based on working operation
Revolving doors
Revolving doors are provided in public buildings such as museums, libraries, hotels, banks, etc.
where there are constant visitors.
Such a door provides entrance to one and exit to the other person simultaneously and closes
automatically when not in use.
The door consists of a centrally placed mullion to which four radiating shutters are attached.

Sliding doors
The shutter can slide upward, downward or sideways.
The shutter slides to the sides with the help of runners and guide rails.
The door may have one, two or even three shutters, depending upon the size of the opening and
space available on sides for sliding.
Swing doors
The most common type of door movement is the swinging door either right or left, depending on
which side is hinged.
Swinging doors may be hinged at the side to open and shut in one direction (single swings) or
they may be double acting doors, which swing in both ways (double swinging).
Collapsible steel doors
They are made of light steel sections, mostly channels.

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Such doors are used in workshops, banks, public buildings, etc. For providing increased safety
and protection to property.
The door neither requires hinges, for opening and closing, nor any frame for hanging them.
It acts like a steel curtain which can be opened or closed by horizontal push.
Rolling steel shutter doors
These doors are commonly used for garages, shop fronts, etc., since they are quite strong and
offer proper safety to the property.
The door consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter of thin steel plates (known as laths or slates)
interlocked together.
Rolling shutters are of two types:
 Pull-push type shutters.
 Mechanical gear type shutters.

Classification based on method or manner of construction

Framed and paneled doors
These types of doors are widely used in almost all types of building since they are strong and
give better appearance.
This door consists of a frame work of vertical members (called styles) and horizontal members,
called rails which are grooved along the inner edges of the frame, to receive the panels.
Glazed doors or sash doors
They are provided where
additional light is required to be admitted to the room through the door, or
Where the visibility of the interior of the room is required from adjacent room.
They are used in residential as well as public buildings like hospitals, schools, colleges, etc.
The doors may be either fully glazed, or they be partly glazed and partly panelled.

Flash doors
These doors consist of solid or semi-solid skeleton or core covered on both sides with plywood,
face veneers, etc. Presenting flush and joint-less surface.
Flush doors are becoming increasingly popular these days because of their:

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 Pleasing appearance
Simplicity of construction
Less cost
Better strength and durability
They are used both for residential as well as public and commercial buildings.
Flush doors are of two types:
Solid core flush door or laminated core flush door.
Hollow and cellular core flush door.
Surface Finishes
Introduction : The unfinished surfaces of walls constructed in brick Or stone masonry, ceilings,
timber or steel work in a building are irregular, water absorbent and are liable to be affected by
the weathering agencies such as rain, wind, foul gases etc.
Therefore, such surfaces are to be finished with a suitable covering material in the form of
plasters, paints, washes etc to make them smooth, water repellent, weather resisting and to
provide them a pleasing appearance.
SURFACE FINISHES
. The art of treating the surface with a suitable covering material to make them weather resisting
and decorative is called surface fishing, and the covering materials used for surface finishing are
called surface finishings.
Example :-Plasters, paints, varnishes, white wash, color wash, distemper etc,
SURFACE FINISHES
Purpose of Surface Finishes:-
1. To protect the surfaces from the effect of weathering agencies.
2. To provide decorative finish which adds pleasing appearance to the surfaces.
3. To provide a smooth surface.
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS
1. Back ground:-The surface to which the first coat of plaster is applied is called back ground.
2. Dubbing out: - The process of filling the hollow spaces of the back ground for applying the
plaster is termed as dubbing out.
3. Hacking: - The process of making the back ground rough to act as key for plastering is called
hacking.

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4. Gauging:-The mixing of various constituents of plaster is called gauging.
5. Rendering coat:- The first coat of plaster is called rendering coat or rough course.
6. Under coats:-The coats of plaster or paints applied under the finishing coat are known as
under coats. These coats are applied to provide a smooth, uniform and sound surface for the
finishing or final coat.
7. Finishing coat: - The final layer of the surface finish known as finishing coat.
8. Floating:-The process of providing a finishing coat with. a float is called floating.
9. Peeling:- The removal of the plaster from the back ground is called peeling.
10. Blistering:-The local swelling of a finished plastered or painted surface is known as
blistering. This is due to lack of adhesion of the plaster or paint with the surface.
11. Cracking;- The development of angular fractures, cracks in a plastered surface is called
cracking. In case of painting, it indicates the presence of a soft under coa
12. Checking :-The longitudinal split in a painted or plastered surface is known as checking. It
is caused due to uneven shrinkage on account of rapid drying.
13. Chalking ,-The dull and powdry appearance of .. Painted or plastered surface is known as
chalking. It indicates insufficient or inferior binding material used in the paint or plaster.
14. Erazing ;-The irregular development of hair cracks on a plastered surface is termed as
erasing.
15. Dado :-The special treatment provided to plastered walls at their lower level, usually in bath
rooms and W.Cs. is called Dado. It is provided up to 1.5 m height from the floor level. It may be
consisting of rich cement mortar, glazed tiles etc.
16. Skirting:- The special treatment provided to plastered walk at their lower level, usually in
drawing and living rooms of a building is called skirting. It is provided up to 15 cm height from
the floor level. It is usually consisting of the material which is used for providing margin or
boarder of flooring.
PLASTERING
The art of covering the surface of the masonry work with a suitable plaster is called plastering.
The plaster used may be cement plaster, lime plaster or any other specified plaster.
 The finished surfaces of walls, constructed in bricks or stones, are generally so coarse
textured that they provide unsuitable finish for the internal walls of most of the buildings.

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  These surfaces are rendered smooth by the application of coats of plaster. The ceilings
can also be rendered smooth with plaster.
 Plaster is the art of covering the surface of the masonry work with a suitable plaster is
called plastering.
 The plaster used may be cement plaster, lime plaster or any other specified plaster.
 The finished surfaces of walls, constructed in bricks or stones, are generally so coarse
textured that they provide unsuitable finish for the internal walls of most of the buildings.
 These surfaces are rendered smooth by the application of coats of plaster. The ceilings
can also be rendered smooth with plaster.
Requirements of an ideal plaster:-
(i) It should adhere firmly to the surface.
(ii) It should not contract in volume while drying and setting.
(iii) It should be durable enough to resist the effects of weathering agencies.
(iv) It should offer good insulation against sound.
(v) It should offer good resistance against fire.
(vi) It should provide a smooth, non-absorbent and washable surface.
(vii) It should provide the surface with required decorative effect.
Plaster:-
 A fine paste or mortar made by mixing cement and sand or fat lime and sand with
sufficient quantity of water is called Plaster.
 When cement is used as a binding material, the plaster is called cement plaster, and if
lime is used as the binding material, it is called lime plaster.
 An ideal plaster should be smooth, non-absorbent and washable. It should not be affected
by weathering agencies.
Cement plastering:-
 The mix of the mortar in case of cement plastering with one coat depends upon the
nature of the work to be plastered.
 For every fine plastering, e.g. inside bath rooms, W.Cs. etc. , 1:3 cement plaster mix is
used.
 For general plastering of walls, 1:5 to 1 : 8 cement plaster mixes are used.
Cement plastering:-

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Cement plastering is done in steps as discussed below: -
(a) Preparation of the surface:-
. Before applying the plaster, the surface should be prepared. The joints of the masonry are
properly raked to a
Depth of 10 to 15 mm to provide key to the plaster.
. The surface is then thoroughly wetted with water, washed well and kept wet for 6 hours. When
the surface is ready, the plaster is applied.
Cement plastering :-
(b) Screed work for plaster: -
In order to obtain uniform thickness and true surface of plaster, wooden screeds, 7-5 cm wide
and of required thickness of the plaster are generally fixed vertically 2-4 to 3m apart. Careful
clumping should be done in fixing of these screeds.
Cement plastering :-
(c) Application of plaster coats: -
The cement plaster is applied in one, two or three coats.
In case of single coat, the mortar is dashed against the surface between the screeds.
 Surplus plaster is removed with the help of mason’s straight edge and then the plaster is
pressed well with a wooden float so that the plaster may fill in the joints of the masonry.
Cement plastering:-
 The surface is then finally polished with a trowel or iron float. The thickness of this coat
should not be more than 12 mm.
 In case plastering is to be done in two coats, the first coat is applied as described above
with the only difference that it is not polished.
 Before applying second coat, the first coat is allowed to set but it should not become dry,
and roughened with a scratching tool to provide a key to the second coat.
Cement plastering:-
The second coat is then applied in a thin layer not exceeding 3 mm in thickness within 48 hours
after applying the first coat.
It is then well trowel led and rubbed perfectly smooth with the help of a steel float. It is then
allowed to set for 2 days.

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Curing:-The plastered surface is then cured by sprinkling water over the surface and keeping it
wet for one to two weeks.
POINTING
 Final treatment with cement or lime mortar made to the joint of the masonry to provide
neat appearance is termed as pointing.
 The joints on the face of stone or brick masonry are roughly filled in while the walls are
being raised. They are afterwards neatly finished off to make them water tight. The joints
thus finished, give a better appearance to the surface and prevent rain water from entering
the interior of the masonry.
Purposes of pointing:-
1. To prevent the moisture- and rain water from entering the interior of masonry through joints
and to make them durable.
2. To improve the appearance of the structure.
Suitability:-Pointing is preferred to plastering under the following circumstances:-
Paints and Painting
Paints are coatings of fluid materials, which are applied as a final finish to all surfaces, Such as
walls, ceilings, wood work, metalwork, etc.
The process of application of paint as a coating is termed as painting
Objects of painting
The objects of painting can be summarized as:
To protect the surfaces from weathering effects
To protect the decay of wood and corrosion of metals.
To Provide decorative finish to obtain a clean, colorful & pleasing surface.

Characteristics of good paints

A good paint should have such a consistency that it can be applied easily and freely on the
Surface with brush or spray.
Besides, a good paint should be cheap in initial cost and prove economical in the long run.
The paint color should neither fade nor change by atmospheric influences and should not show
any signs, such as brush marks, shrinkage marks, cracks, patches, etc. on drying.

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Types of paint
There are several varieties of paints, which are widely used in construction industry.
a)Aluminum Paint: This paint consists of finely ground aluminum suspended in either quick-
drying varnish or slow-drying oil varnish.
Aluminum paint has the following qualities:
1) it protects the iron and steel from corrosion
2) It possesses good weather-resisting and water proofing qualities.
3) due to its brilliant silvery shiny texture, it is visible even in darkness and also Provides a good
appearance to the surface being painted.
4) it offers good resistance to heat and electric current.
5) it possesses a high spreading or covering powder
b) Anti-corrosive paint:
This paint mainly consists of oil, a strong drier and a coloring pigment mixed with very fine
sand. Anti-corrosive paint lasts for a long period and gives black appearance to the surface being
painted. It is used to protect and preserve the structural steelwork against the adverse effects of
weather, fumes, acids, corrosive chemicals, etc.
c) Asbestos paint: It possesses the qualities of retarding the action of fire and of resisting the
effect of water, steam and acidic gases. Asbestos paint is used in repairing of metal roofs, and
painting gutters.
d) Bituminous and tar paints:
These paints consist of asphalt bitumen or tar dissolved in naphtha, petroleum or white spirit.
These paints are alkali resistant and are mainly used for painting structural steel under water, and
iron water mains.
The paint gives black appearance, and deteriorates when exposed to the direct sun rays. The
color of paint is modified by adding certain coloring pigment.
e) Cellulose paint:
The cellulose paint is made from celluloid sheets, nitro-cotton, photographic films, etc.
Nitro-cotton is used for making superior paint.
Cellulose paints are far superior to ordinary oil paints though less expensive.
These paints can be more easily washed and cleaned. They stand extreme degrees of heat and
cold, and are not affected by contact with hot water. Moreover, these paints dry very quickly and

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possess greater hardness, smoothness and flexibility. Due to its high cost cellulose paints are
used for painting motor cars, airplanes and other superior works.
f) Cement paint:
It consists of boiled linseed oil into which dry good cement(65-70% Portland, white or colored
cement) has been mixed or stirred to an amount that a paint of workable consistency is obtained.
Cement paint possesses better water proofing qualities, good strength, hardness, density,
durability and exhibits excellent decorations appearance.
g) Oil paint
Oil paints are cheap, fairly workable and possess the qualities of good opacity, good appearance,
sufficient durability and enough resistance against weather elements.
Oil paints are used in general for all types of surfaces such aswoodwork, walls, ceilings, metal
work, etc. However, they are preferably used for internal works.
Oil paints are normally applied in three coats of varying composition, and are named as priming
coats, under coats and finishing coats.
h) Plastic paint
This paint essentially consists of a variety of plastics as the base, which forms the main
constituent for the paint.
When these paints are thinned with water, they are known asplastic emulsion-paints.
Plastic paints have the qualities of quick-drying, high covering power and decorative appearance.
These paints afford good adhesion to the surfaces being painted and are widely used for painting
showrooms, auditoriums, offices, cinema halls, etc. where attractive appearance is desired.
i) Synthetic Rubber Paint(or Rubber
Base Paints):
This paint consists of synthetic resins dissolved in suitable solvents and then mixed with other
pigments.
Synthetic rubber paints have excellent acid, alkali and moisture resistance properties; dries and
has a high covering power; it is moderate in cost and can be applied' easily on surfaces.
They are therefore, used for application over fresh and lime-plastered surfaces and as a
protective coating on concrete floors and for masonry surfaces.
Defects in painting work

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1) Blistering: occurs by formation of bubbles under the paint film. It is generally caused due to
excess of oil in final coat and imperfect seasoning of timber. This defect can be rectified by
applying water paint finished with oil paint mixed with a little copal varnish.
2) Crawling: occurs due to application of too thick a coat. It can be rectified by Sand papering
the surface.
3) Grinning: this is the clear reflection of the back ground due to lack of opacity of final Coat of
paint.
4)Fading: it is the loss of paint color due to the effect of sun light on pigments of paint.
5) Flashing: this is the appearance or reflection of glossy patches on the painted surface
6) Saponification: this is the chemical formation of soap patches on the painted surface' due to
chemical action of alkalis.
Selection of Finishing Types
In making the decision for the selection of a suitable finish, its specifications and color, the
following factors have to be considered:
1) The appearance required.
2) The maintenance necessary for giving the satisfactory appearance.
3) The degree of protection against rain penetration to be provided by the finish.
4) The severity of exposure to atmospheric and climatic agencies affecting durability.
5) The time of year during which the finish is applied.
6) The environment and use of the building
7) The background materials on which the finish is to be applied and 8)the cost.
Roof and Roof Covering
It is the upper most part of the building, provided as structural covering, to protect the building
from external weather exposure such as rain, sun, wind, etc.
Roof consists of a structural element, which support roof cover.
The structural element may be truss, beam, slabs, shells or domes.
The roof covering may be corrugated metal sheets, reinforced concrete slab, tiles etc.
Adequate thermal insulation, sound insulation, and fire resistance are among the basic
requirements of a good roofing system.
Types of Roofs
The general types of roofs are:

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Slopping roof
Flat roof
Domes and shelled roof
The selection of the type of roof depends upon: the shape or pan of the building, climatic
condition of the area and type of construction material available.Slopping(pitched roofs) Pitched
roof have sloping top surface.
These are suitable in those areas where rainfall/snowfall is very heavy.
Broadly, buildings with limited width and simple shape can generally be covered satisfactorily
by pitched roofs.
In pitched roofs a slope of less than1 in 3is generally not considered satisfactory from drainage
point of view.
In an areas of heavy snow fall steeper slope(1:1.5 or 1:1)are provided to reduce the incidence of
snow load on the roof
Double or Purlins roof
In this type of roof, additional members, called purlins, are introduced to support the common
rafters at the intermediate point. Besides, the purlins functionis to tie the rafters together and act
as intermediate supports.
Trussed roofs
It is used when the span exceeds5m.
The spacing of trusses depends upon the various factors, such as: loads on the roof, position of
cross walls, Span, material of truss, etc.
There are three elements in a truss roof system:

i. Rafter which support the roofing material

ii. Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafter
iii. Trusses to provide support to the end of the purlin

The various types of trusses include:

King post truss
Queen post truss
Combination of king-post and queen-post truss
Mansard truss & Steel truss

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Roof covering materials
Requirements of covering materials
The basic requirements for covering materials to steel roof trusses are:

1. Sufficient strength to support imposed wind and snow load

2. Low self-weight
3. Reasonable standard of thermal insulation
4. Durable to reduce the maintenance required during the anticipated life of the roof
Galvanized corrugated Irion/steel sheet Galvanized– means, sheet covered by thin layer of
Zinc to protect it from rest
Corrugated- means the sheet is made more resistance to bending stress length wise.
The gage indicates the thickness. E.g. SWG 24 has 0.549mm and SWG26 has 0.457mm
The lateral overlap (side lap) is usually 1&1/2 corrugation.

Corrugated asbestos cement sheet

It is made from cement and about 15% asbestos fibers together with a controlled amount of
water.
Fiber cement Profiled sheets
Are made by combining natural and synthetic non-toxic fibers and filler with Portland cement.
Aluminum sheet
Made from aluminum- manganese alloy resting in non-corrosive light weight sheet
Common type of flat roof covering
Reinforced concrete flat roof
Like a concrete floor slab, the following steps are considered to be important in the construction
of reinforced concrete roof:
1. A well design form work and false work
2. The reinforcement is then placed in apposition on the interior surface.
3. The concrete is then poured around the reinforcement and for the required thickness of the
slab
4. The fresh concrete is properly compacted.
5. After the concrete has sufficiently hardened the form work is removed

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Asphalt Flat Roof
It is a mastic asphalt- which consists of an aggregate with a bitumen binder
Dome and shell roofs
Domes are required where architectural treatment is required, like in churches, etc.
Shell roofs are used fluently for covering big structure.
The principle of such construction is that the whole structure must remain in compression, as the
joints between the stone or the brick are incapable of taking tensile stress.
Choices of roof covering
The following factors need to be considered in the selection of a suitable roof covering:
a. Initial cost
b. Maintenance cost
c. Slope of the roof
d. Durability
e. Resistance to fire
f. Weight of the roof covering
g. Types of construction
h. Aesthetic values
i. Heat insulation

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