Carbohydrates: Their Structure, Classification, and Role in Food

Carbohydrates are an essential macronutrient that provides energy and plays a crucial role in food
texture, taste, and stability. They are found in various foods, from fruits and vegetables to grains and
dairy products. Understanding carbohydrates involves looking at their structure, classification, natural
occurrence, functions, properties, modifications, and the changes they undergo in food processing and
cooking.

1. Structure and Classification of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), typically
following the general formula (CH₂O)n. Based on their complexity, they are classified into three main
types:

A. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)

These are the most basic units of carbohydrates, meaning they cannot be broken down further by
hydrolysis.

Glucose – Found in honey, fruits, and blood; it’s the primary energy source for the body.

Fructose – A naturally occurring sugar in fruits and honey; it's the sweetest of all monosaccharides.

Galactose – Found in milk as part of lactose; it’s less sweet and usually bonded with glucose.

🔹 Example in food: A ripe banana contains glucose and fructose, which contribute to its natural
sweetness.

B. Disaccharides (Two-Sugar Units)

These are formed when two monosaccharides combine through a glycosidic bond.

Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose) – Common table sugar, found in sugarcane and sugar beets.

Lactose (Glucose + Galactose) – The sugar in milk, which some people have difficulty digesting (lactose
intolerance).

Maltose (Glucose + Glucose) – Found in germinating grains and used in brewing.

🔹 Example in food: Drinking a glass of milk provides lactose, which is broken down into glucose and
galactose in the body.

C. Polysaccharides (Complex Carbohydrates)

Starch – The main storage form of carbohydrates in plants (found in potatoes, rice, and wheat).

Glycogen – The storage form of carbohydrates in animals, stored in the liver and muscles.

Cellulose – A structural component in plant cell walls; humans can’t digest it, but it acts as dietary fiber.

Pectin – A type of fiber found in fruits, used as a gelling agent in jams and jellies.

🔹 Example in food: When you eat rice, your body breaks down its starch into glucose for energy.

2. Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods

Carbohydrates appear in almost every food group, serving multiple functions:

A. Natural Occurrence of Carbohydrates in Foods

Fruits – Fructose, glucose, and sucrose contribute to sweetness.

Vegetables – Starch in potatoes, fiber in leafy greens.

Grains – Starch in rice, wheat, and corn is a major energy source.

Dairy – Lactose provides mild sweetness.

Legumes – Contain starch and fiber, making them filling.

B. Functions of Carbohydrates in Food Systems

1. Energy Source – Carbohydrates provide 4 kcal per gram, making them a primary energy supplier.

2. Sweetness – Sugars contribute sweetness, which affects consumer preference.

3. Texture and Structure – Starch thickens sauces; cellulose provides crunch in vegetables.

4. Water Binding – Sugars help retain moisture in baked goods, preventing staleness.

5. Caramelization and Browning – Sugar enhances color and flavor in baked and roasted foods.

🔹 Example in food: Bread gets its soft texture from starch, and its golden crust comes from caramelized
sugars.
3. Properties of Selected Carbohydrates

Each carbohydrate type has unique properties affecting food quality:

Solubility – Sugars dissolve easily in water; this is why soft drinks are sweet and smooth.

Crystallization – Sucrose forms crystals in candies like rock sugar.

Gelling – Pectin in fruits forms a gel, making jams thick.

Fermentation – Yeast ferments sugars, producing CO₂ for bread rising.

Hygroscopicity – Sugars absorb moisture, which is why brown sugar clumps in humid conditions.

🔹 Example in food: The chewiness of marshmallows comes from sugar’s ability to retain water and form
a stable structure.

4. Modifications of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be modified to enhance their functionality in food processing:

Gelatinized Starch – Cooking starch in water causes it to absorb liquid and swell, thickening sauces and
soups.

Modified Starches – Chemically or physically altered starches improve freeze-thaw stability in frozen
foods.

High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) – A modified sugar used in soft drinks for enhanced sweetness.

Resistant Starch – A form of starch that resists digestion, beneficial for gut health.

Example in food: Instant pudding uses modified starch to thicken without heat.

5. Changes in Carbohydrates During Cooking and Processing

Carbohydrates undergo transformations when subjected to heat, moisture, or enzymatic action:

A. Caramelization

Occurs when sugar is heated, leading to brown color and rich flavors (e.g., caramel sauce).
B. Maillard Reaction

Happens between sugar and protein, creating browned, flavorful crusts in baked goods and roasted
meats.

C. Gelatinization

Starch absorbs water and swells when heated, thickening gravies and sauces.

D. Retrogradation

Starch molecules realign after cooling, leading to firming (why old bread becomes hard).

E. Fermentation

Yeast and bacteria break down sugars into acids, alcohol, or gases (used in bread, yogurt, and beer).

🔹 Example in food: Toasting bread creates a Maillard reaction, giving it a golden, flavorful crust.

Final Thoughts

Carbohydrates are more than just a source of energy—they are crucial to food texture, flavor, and
quality. From the chewiness of pasta to the crispiness of cookies, carbohydrates shape our eating
experiences in many ways. Understanding their structure, functions, and transformations helps both
food scientists and home cooks create better food products and meals.