1

Solutions to Preparatory problems

Problem 1. Graphite oxide

1) In GO the interplane spacing is larger. This facilitates exfoliation of GO. Graphite is

hydrophobic, whereas GO is hydrophilic due to the formation of the functional groups. This
makes GO soluble in water, which is very important for chemical exfoliation. The grave
disadvantage of GO as a precursor of graphene is the necessity of reduction of single sheets after
exfoliation. Graphene produced from GO is always defective.

2) 25% of carbon atoms retain the sp2 hybridization, which means that they are not bonded
to oxygen atoms. 75% of carbon atoms form chemical bonds with oxygen. Each oxygen atom is
bonded to the pair of carbon atoms. The net formula is СО0.375. Maximum Х in the Hoffman
model is 0.5. The net formula is СО0.5.

3) The four groups are the phenol (OH sp2), hydroxyl (OH sp3), and epoxide groups in the
basal plane, and the carboxylic acid groups at the edges.

4) Each hydrogen atom corresponds to one oxidized carbon atom. 22% of carbon atoms are
bonded to the hydroxyl or phenol group, or are in the carboxylic acid group. Let all the hydrogen
atoms be in the carboxylic acid groups. Then 44% of oxygen atoms are in the carboxylic acid
groups and 2% are in the epoxy groups. In this case 22% + 2⋅2% = 26% of all the carbon atoms
are oxidized. 74% of the total amount of carbon atoms do not form chemical bonds with oxygen.
This is the upper limit. Let all the hydrogen atoms be in the hydroxyl or phenol groups. This
means that there are no carboxylic acid groups in the particular GO sample! Then 24% of
oxygen atoms are in the epoxy groups. In this case 22% + 2⋅24% =70% of all the carbon atoms
are bonded to oxygen. 30% of carbon atoms are not oxidized. This is the lower limit.

5) Acid groups do not participate in the hydrogen bonding network (Fig. 3). It means that
maximum degree of water absorption will be reached in case of the absence of such groups in
GO. Then each pair of hydrogen atoms holds one molecule of Н2О (0.11), and each pair of
epoxy groups also holds one molecule of Н2О (0.46–0.22) / 2 = 0.12. Altogether there are 0.23
molecules of water per one carbon atom. The chemical formula of GO hydrate is
СН0.22О0.46⋅0.23Н2О.
 2
Problem 2. Efficiency of photosynthesis

1. H2O + CO2 → CH2O + O2.

The process is reverse to combustion of 1/6(glucose), hence:
 = − 1 ∆ H  (C H O ) = 467.5 kJ⋅mol–1.
∆ r H 298 с 298 6 12 6
6
Standard entropy change in the reaction:
 = 1 S  (C H O ) + S  (O ) − S  (H O) − S  (CO ) = − 43.7 J⋅K–1⋅mol–1.
∆ r S298 298 6 12 6 298 2 298 2 298 2
6
Standard Gibbs energy change:
 = ∆ H  − 298∆ S  = 467.5 − 298 ⋅ ( −43.7 ⋅ 10−3 ) = 480.5 kJ⋅mol–1.
∆ r G298 r 298 r 298

Energy of 1 mol of photons with wavelength of 680 nm:

hcN A 6.63 ⋅ 10−34 ⋅ 3.00 ⋅ 108 ⋅ 6.02 ⋅ 1023
Em = = ⋅ 10−3 = 176 kJ⋅mol–1.
λ 680 ⋅ 10−9
The minimum number of photons necessary to supply more energy than E = 480.5 kJ⋅mol–1 is 3.
 , one can use E = ∆ H  = ∆ U  – the result is the same: 3 photons.)
(Instead of E = ∆ r G298 r 298 r 298

2.  + RT ln pO2 = 480.5 + 8.314 ⋅ 298 ⋅ 10−3 ⋅ ln 0.21 = 496.7 kJ⋅mol–1.

∆ r G298 = ∆ r G298
pCO2 3 ⋅ 10−4

The correction from non-standard pressures is not large – about 1/30 of the standard Gibbs
energy.

3. Energy of 10 mol of photons absorbed by green plants is 176⋅10 = 1760 kJ. Of this
amount 480.5 kJ is converted to Gibbs energy. The efficiency of the solar energy conversion by
green plants can be estimated as 480.5 / 1760 ⋅ 100% = 27%.

4. Total solar energy absorbed:

a) Moscow area: E = 1070⋅106 m2 ⋅ 150 J⋅s–1⋅m–2 ⋅ (10⋅86400) s = 1.4⋅1017 J.
b) MSU campus: E = 1.7⋅106 m2 ⋅ 150 J⋅s–1⋅m–2 ⋅ (5⋅3600) s = 4.6⋅1012 J.
Number of photons N = (E / Em) ⋅NA:
a) Moscow area: N = 4.8⋅1035.
b) MSU campus: N = 1.6⋅1031.
Solar energy utilized by green plants and converted to chemical energy:
a) Moscow area: Eutil = 1.4⋅1017 ⋅ (18%/100%) ⋅ (10%/100%) ⋅ (27%/100%) = 6.8⋅1014 J
b) MSU campus: Eutil = 4.6⋅1012 ⋅ (54%/100%) ⋅ (10%/100%) ⋅ (27%/100%) = 6.7⋅1010 J
 3

Quantity of photosynthesis products n(CH2O) = Eutil / ∆ r G298

a) Moscow area: n(CH2O) = n(O2) = 1.4⋅109 mol

m(CH2O) = n⋅M = 1.4⋅109 mol ⋅ 0.03 kg/mol = 4.2⋅107 kg
V(O2) = n⋅Vm = 1.4⋅109 mol ⋅ 0.0244 m3/mol = 3.4⋅107 m3
b) MSU campus: n(CH2O) = n(O2) = 1.4⋅105 mol
m(CH2O) = n⋅M = 1.4⋅105 mol ⋅ 0.03 kg/mol = 4200 kg
V(O2) = n⋅Vm = 1.4⋅105 mol ⋅ 0.0244 m3/mol = 3400 m3

5. Percent of solar energy converted to chemical energy:

a) Moscow area: (18%/100%) ⋅ (10%/100%) ⋅ (27%/100%) = 0.005 = 0.5%
b) MSU campus: (54%/100%) ⋅ (10%/100%) ⋅ (27%/100%) = 0.015 = 1.5%

Problem 3. Ammine complexes of transition metals

1. Chrome is dissolved in a diluted sulfuric or hydrochloric acid:

Cr + 2HCl = CrCl2 + H2
The experiment is conducted under inert atmosphere.

2. 4[Cr(NH3)6]Cl2 + 4NH4Cl + O2 = 4[Cr(NH3)5Cl]Cl2↓ + 4NH3 + 2H2O

The formula of the precipitate is CrCl3N5H15.

3. H2O2. The compound [Cr(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 is formed because the oxidation takes place via
the η2-bridging peroxocomplex, followed by the hydrolysis when the leaving peroxo-group is
replaced by the chloride-ion from the solution.

4. 2[Cr(NH3)6]Cl2 + 2NH4Cl = 2[Cr(NH3)6]Cl3 + H2 + 2NH3

5. The chromium(3+) complexes are inert, thus the substitution process occurs slowly. This
is due to the d3 configuration.

6. Fe(NH3)62+ < Ru(NH3)62+ < Cr(NH3)62+

The coordinated ammonia has no vacant electron pair and therefore cannot interact with a
proton. The iron(2+) complex is labile, that is, ammonia ligands can be easily substituted by
water molecules, which have a free electron pair even when linked to a metal atom. The
ruthenium(2+) complex is inert, but due to high atomic radius of ruthenium has a possibility to
 4
form an intermediate complex with an enhanced coordination number. The chromium(3+)
complex is inert and has no possibility to bind a proton. Therefore it is the most stable complex
in the acidic media.

7. [Ru(NH3)6]2+ + H2O + H+→ [Ru(H2O)(NH3)5]2+ + NH4+

[Ru(NH3)6]2+ + H+→ [RuH(NH3)6]3+
[RuH(NH3)6]3+ + H2O + H+→ [RuH(NH3)5(H2O)]3+ + NH4+ (fast)
[RuH(NH3)5(H2O)]3+→ [Ru(NH3)5(H2O)]2+ + H+
r = k[H+][RuH(NH3)62+]

See J.D. Atwood, Inorganic and organometallic reaction mechanisms, 2nd edition, Wiley-VCH,
pp.85-86 and P.C. Ford et al, Inorg. Chem., 1968, 7, 1976.

Problem 4. Preparation of inorganic compound

1. The common mineral of tin is cassiterite, SnO2. Thus, 1.05 g of Х after decomposition
give 0.8664 g of SnO2 that contains 5.738 mmol of tin. Under decomposition 0.069 g (3.833
mmol) of water form. As the ratio n(Sn) : n(H2O) is equal to 1.5 (or 3 : 2), the brutto formula of
Х contains 3 equivalents of SnO2, 4 of H and 2 of O (from 2 water molecules). In addition, it
also contains nitrogen and probably more oxygen. Their mass is 1.05 – 0.8664 – 0.069 = 0.1146
g and the average molar mass is M = 0.1146 / (0.00383/2) = 60 g/mol, which corresponds to
N2O2. Thus, the formula of X is Sn3O10N2H4, or Sn3O2(NO3)2(H2O)2.

2. All the operations should be performed in an inert atmosphere, because tin(II) hydroxide
is oxidized in air.

3. If all the metal atoms in the cation are equivalent they have the same coordination sphere.
So, we may suppose the formula [Sn3(OH)4]2+, that is a combination of three pyramids linked by
joint edges in a cycle (See J.D. Donaldson et al, JCS Dalton Trans, 1995, 2273.):

Sn
OH

HO OH
Sn

OH
Sn
 5
The pyramidal nonplanar geometry is due to the electron pair on each tin atom.

4. In the acidic solution the hydrated tin(2+) ions are formed, in the basic media – the anions
[Sn(OH)3]–, [Sn(OH)6]4– and oligonuclear species such as [Sn2O(OH)4]2–, [Sn4O(OH)10]4–.

5. 2BiCl3 + 3SnCl2 + 6HCl = 2Bi + 3H2SnCl6

E° = 0.317 – 0.15 = 0.167 V,
 nFE   6 ⋅ 96500 ⋅ 0.167 
K = exp   = exp   = 8.90 ⋅ 10
16

 RT   8.314 ⋅ 298 
 

Problem 5. Inorganic chains and rings

1. 3SOCl2 + 3NaN3 = [NS(O)Cl]3 + 3NaCl + N2

X – [NS(O)Cl]3

2.

3. Y – [NS(O)F]3
2[NS(O)F]3 + 9Ba(CH3COO)2 + 18H2O = 3BaF2↓ + 6BaSO4↓ + 12CH3COOH + 6CH3COONH4

4. [NS(O)(NHCH3)]3

5. and (SO3)3

6. Z = (SO3)n
 6

Problem 6. Transition metal compounds

1. Anhydrous salt D is the main constituent of compound B. We may suppose that B is a

hydrate of D. The Na : X molar ratio in D is 3:1. D is not a binary compound Na3X as in this
case МХ = (29.3·69/70.7) = 28.6. There is no such element. So, D contains some other
element(s) too. Oxygen is the most probable element, i.e., D is Na3XOn (salt D cannot have
formulae of Na3НmXOn type as all volatiles should be removed under reaction conditions used
for synthesis of D (heating at 800ºС)). High content of Х in compound С allows one to suppose
that C is a binary compound, i.e., it is an oxide of Х. Now we can determine Х.

Oxide Х2О ХО Х2О3 ХО2 Х2О5 ХО3 Х2О7 ХО4

МХ 13.74 27.48 41.22 54.96 68.70 82.43 96.17 109.91

Therefore, Х is Mn and С is MnO2. From the content of Mn in D we derive its formula,

Na3MnO4. The manganese oxidation state in this compound is +5. Under heating or cooling, the
alkaline solution of D disproportionates, giving solid MnO2 and a green solution. Solutions of
manganese(VII) derivatives are usually purple but not green. Therefore, the solution contains a
salt of manganese (VI). The analogous green solution is formed in the last procedure. We may
conclude that this procedure leads to manganate, K2MnO4. Indeed, the content of Mn in K2MnO4
(compound E) is 27.9%.
Compound В (a Mn(V) derivative)is obtained by the reaction of А with sodium sulfite
which is a well-known reducing agent. Heating of the alkaline solution of A affords K2MnO4. It
is possible only if A is a Mn(VII) derivative. Indeed, the Mn content in A corresponds to the
formula of KMnO4. The remaining unknown compound is B. Above we supposed that B is a
hydrate of D. Calculations using the formula of Na3MnO4·nH2O lead to МВ = 413.5. It
corresponds to n = 12.5. However, МВ = 381.2 from the Na content. In other words, Na : Mn
ratio in В is not 3 : 1 but 3.25 : 1. This additional sodium appears due to the presence of some
other Na compound(s) in the solvate. To determine this compound, the analysis of the synthetic
procedure is required. During the synthesis of B solvate is washed with NaOH solution. So, the
possible formula of B is Na3MnO4·0.25NaOH·nH2O. From Na and Mn content we conclude that
n = 12. Finally, В is [4Na3MnO4·NaOH·48H2O].

2. Four reactions are discussed in the text. They are:

 7
1) 4 KMnO4 + 4 Na2SO3·7H2O + 13 NaOH + 16 H2O = [4Na3MnO4·NaOH·48H2O]↓ + 4
Na2SO4 + 4 KOH
(4KMnO4 + 4Na2SO3+ 13NaOH + 44H2O = [4Na3MnO4·NaOH·48H2O]↓ + 4Na2SO4 + 4KOH)
2) 2 Na3MnO4+ 2 H2O = Na2MnO4 + MnO2 + 4 NaOH
3) 12 NaOH + 4 MnO2 + O2= 4 Na3MnO4 + 6 H2O
4) 4 KMnO4 + 4 KOH = 4 K2MnO4 + O2 + 2 H2O

Problem 7. Simple equilibrium

1. The initial ratio A2 : B2 = 2 : 1

2 1
A2 + B2 = 2AB
x x 2x
2–x 1–x 2x

n(AB) = 2x = n(A2) + n(B2) = (2–x) + (1–x),

x = 0.75

n(AB) 2 1.52
K1 = = = 7.2
n(A 2 )n(B2 ) 1.25 ⋅ 0.25

2. The initial ratio A2 : B2 = 1 : 1

1 1
A2 + B2 = 2AB
y y 2y
1–y 1–y 2y

n(AB) 2 (2 y ) 2
K1 = =
n(A 2 )n(B2 ) (1 − y ) ⋅ (1 − y )

The ratio of heteronuclear to homonuclear molecules:

n(AB) 2y y K1
= = = = 1.34
n(A 2 ) + n(B2 ) (1 − y ) + (1 − y ) 1 − y 4

3. New equilibrium constant: K2 = K1 / 2 = 3.6.

Equilibrium amounts: n(AB) = 1.5 mol, n(A2) = 1.25 mol, n(B2) = 0.25+x mol,
1.52
K2 = = 3.6 ,
1.25 ⋅ (0.25 + x )
x = 0.25 mol = 25% of initial amount of B2 should be added.
 8
4. Consider two initial mixtures: A2 : B2 = x : 1 and A2 : B2 = 1/x : 1 = 1 : x. It is clear that in
both cases the equilibrium yield is the same, hence η(x) = η(1/x). The value x = 1 for such
functions is the extremum point. We can prove it in the following way. Consider the identity:
1
η(1) − η( x ) = η(1) − η  
x
near the point x = 1. If η(x) is an increasing or decreasing function at x = 1, then near this point
both sides of the identity will have opposite signs. Hence, either η(x) = const (which is chemical
nonsense), or x = 1 is the point of extremum.

5. a) At x→∞ the very large amount of A2 will almost completely shift the equilibrium
A2 + B2 = 2AB to the right, and almost all B2 will be converted to AB, the yield will tend to 1,
η( x → ∞) → 1 .
b) At x→ 0 (1/x→∞) the situation is the same as in (a) if we interchange A2 and B2, that
is η( x → 0) → 1 .

6. From question 5 it follows that at x = 1 the function η(x) has a minimum, because at x = 0
or x = ∞ it approaches the maximum possible value of 1. Qualitatively, the graph is as follows:

η(x)

0
0 1
x

7. Suppose we have in total 1 mol of A2 and B2, and the molar ratio A2 : B2 = x : 1. Then,
the initial amounts of reagents are: n(A2) = x/(x+1), n(B2) = 1/(x+1). It follows from the
symmetry between A2 and B2 that the equilibrium amount of AB will be the same for the molar
ratios x and 1/x, hence x = 1 corresponds to the maximum or minimum neq(AB).
If x is very large (small), then the initial amount of B2 (A2) will be small and so will be
neq(AB). Therefore, the maximum amount of AB will be obtained at A2 : B2 = 1 : 1. The
equilibrium calculation for this case is as follows.
 9
0.5 0.5
A2 + B2 = 2AB
y y 2y
0.5–y 0.5–y 2y

n(AB) 2 (2 y ) 2
K= =
n(A 2 )n(B2 ) (0.5 − y ) 2
K
y=
4+2 K
K
neq (AB) =
2+ K

Problem 8. Copper sulfate and its hydrates

1. CuSO4·5H2O.

2. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation for the decomposition of a solid hydrate:

CuSO4·5H2O(s) = CuSO4·3H2O(s) + 2H2O(g)

has the form:
dph ∆H d p ∆H
= ≈ h 2d ,
dT T ∆V 2 RT
where ph is the vapor pressure of water over the hydrate, ∆Hd is the enthalpy of decomposition.
The solution of this equation is:

 ∆H d  1 1 
=ph ph 0 exp   − ,
 2R  T0 T  
where ph0 = 1047 Pa is the saturated vapor pressure over CuSO4·5H2O and T0 = 298К. Enthalpy
of decomposition of CuSO4·5H2O is: ∆Hd = 2·(–241.83) – 1688.7 + 2277.4 = 105.04 kJ·mol–1.
The similar equation describes the temperature dependence of the vapor pressure of water
pw:

 ∆H vap  1 1  
=pw pw 0 exp   −  .
 R  T0 T  
The enthalpy of vaporization of water is: ∆Hvap = –241.83 + 285.83 = 44.0 kJ·mol–1. The
humidity is the ratio of two vapor pressures:

ph ph 0  ∆H d / 2 − ∆H vap  1 1  
= exp  =  −   0.35 .
pw pw 0  R  T0 T  
 10
From this equation we find the required temperature:
1 1 R 0.35 pw 0 1 8.314 0.35 ⋅ 3200
= − ln = − ln =
0.00329
T T0 ∆H d / 2 − ∆H vap ph 0 298 (105.04 / 2 − 44 ) ⋅ 10 3
1047
1
=T0 = 304 K or 31 °С.
0.00329

3. b)

4. After several repetitions of the procedure, the equilibrium is established between the
anhydrous copper sulfate and its monohydrate: CuSO4·H2O = CuSO4 + H2O. In this case the
saturated vapor pressure of water over its solution in ethanol is equal to the saturated vapor
ph
pressure of water over CuSO4·H2O. Thus, p= p w γx =
, x = 0.0136 , the mass fraction of
pw γ
h

water is:

xM (H 2O)
=w(H 2O) = 0.0054 , or 0.54%.
xM (H 2O) + (1 − x ) M (C2 H 5OH)

5. Enthalpy of decomposition of CuSO4·H2O is: ∆Hd = –241.83 – 770.4 + 1084.4 = 72.17

kJ·mol–1. From the equations above it follows that:

ph ph 0  ∆H d − ∆H vap  1 1  
=x = exp   −  .
p w γ γp w 0  R  T0 T  

At T = 273 K, x = 0.0048, w = 0.19 %; at T = 313 K x = 0.0235, w = 0.93 %.

Problem 9. TOF and TON

1. The TOF unit is {time–1}. SI unit for TOF is {s–1}.

TOF relates to TON by the equation
TOF × t =TON ,
where t is the time till the moment of inactivation of a catalyst. The formula gives the upper limit
for TON. It assumes that the catalyst works with its best efficiency (TOF) all the time and
becomes inactivated suddenly, in a moment. It is more realistic to assume that TOF goes down
gradually. Then the following relation is valid:
TOF × t ≥ TON .
 11
2. a) TOF is a maximum value of
∆N B
(1)
∆t ⋅ 1015
Maximum of ∆NB/∆t corresponds to the initial linear part of the curve in Fig. 1a and is equal to

∆N B 7 mol molec

= tan α=   ⋅ 10−8 = 21 ⋅ 1015
∆t 2 cm ⋅ s
2
cm 2 ⋅ s
TOF is equal to
∆N B
=
TOF = 21
∆t ⋅ 1015
b) There are several curves in Fig. 1b. It is obvious that the value of ∆NB/∆t for the
initial linear parts of the curves goes up with the increase of the initial pressures of the reagent A.
However for curves (10) and (11) the initial slopes ∆NB/∆t are the same. It means that the

maximum efficiency of the catalyst is achieved. Now ∆NB/∆t is independent of the reagent
pressure and no more A can be converted into products per unit of time per catalytic site. The
initial slopes of the curves (10) and (11) should be used to calculate TOF and TON
∆N B
= 210 s −1 ; ТОN ≤ ТОF × t = 210 ⋅ 40 ⋅ 60 = 5 ⋅ 105
∆t ⋅ 1015

3. a) The slope of the linear dependence in Fig. 2a should be used to calculate TOF:

= 6s −1
TOF= tan α
It is assumed that every single atom of the metal forms a catalytic site and works independently.
TOF is independent of the amount of atoms deposited.
b) In this case a group of n atoms, rather than a single atom, forms a catalytic site. The
number of catalytic sites is

N B 18 ⋅ 6.02 ⋅ 1023 ⋅ 10−11

=
k = = 3.1 ⋅ 1012 molec / cm 2 ,
TOF 35
and the number of atoms n in one catalytic site is equal to:

N Cat N Cat 7 ⋅ 1012

=
n = =
TOF = 2.2 ≈ 2
k NB 3.1 ⋅ 1012

4) The authors of this study considered every single Au atom to be a catalytic site. One has
to calculate the number of Au atoms involved in the catalytic process in Fig. 3a and 3b. In the
case (b), all yellow spheres are taking part in the reaction. In the case (a), 1/3 of the yellow
spheres from the lower monolayer are involved together with all red spheres. 2/3 of the yellow
 12
spheres are blocked by the red spheres from the top and do not participate in the catalytic
reaction.
Let NAu be the number of the yellow spheres in Fig. 3b. The number of the red spheres in
Fig. 3a is equal to 1/3 NAu. The total number of Au atoms involved in catalytic reaction in Fig. 3a
is 1/3 NAu(red) + 1/3 NAu (yellow). The rate of the reaction in case (а) is:
1
=
r2 4=
r1 r2 (red) + r1 ,
3
where r2(red) and 1/3r1 are partial rates for the red and yellow spheres, respectively.
1
4r1 − r1
TOF (a) 3= r 3(11 / 3r1 )
Finally, = : 1 = 11
TOF (b) 1 N r1
N Au Au
3

Problem 10. Kinetic puzzles

Below are given the mechanisms of these reactions, established by various experimental
methods. However, the limited data given in the text of a problem allow multiple mechanisms.
Therefore the only two criteria for the correct solutions are: 1) the consistency of the mechanism
with the rate law; 2) the chemical sense.

1. The schematic mechanism is:

2H+ + Br– + MnO4– ↔ H2MnO4Br K fast
H2MnO4Br + H+ + Br– → H3MnO4 + Br2 k limiting
H3MnO4 → products fast
At low concentrations of proton and bromide the equilibrium of the first reaction is shifted to the
left, hence the concentration of the complex H2MnO4Br is
[H2MnO4Br] = K[MnO4–][Br–][H+]2 ≈ Kс(MnO4–)с(Br–)с2(H+)
At high concentrations of proton and bromide the equilibrium of the first reaction is shifted to
the right, hence the concentration of complex H2MnO4Br equals the total concentration of
permanganate:
[H2MnO4Br] ≈ с(MnO4–)
The rate of the reaction
2MnO4– + 10Br– + 16H+ = 2Mn2+ + 5Br2 + 8H2O
is half of that of the rate-determining step:
 13
r = ½ k[H2MnO4Br][H+][Br–]
in the case (a)
r = ½ k[H2MnO4Br][H+][Br–] ≈ keffс(MnO4–)с2(Br–)с3(H+)
where keff = ½ kK.
In the case (b)
r = ½ k[H2MnO4Br][H+][Br–] ≈ keffс(MnO4–)с(Br–)с(H+)
where keff = ½ k.

2. The catalytic effect of silver is due to formation of silver(II) ions and sulfate ion radicals upon
reaction of Ag+ with persulfate. The mechanism is:
Ag+ + S2O82 – → ⋅SO4– + SO42– + Ag2+ slow, rate-determining

⋅SO4– + PhCONH2 → products fast

Ag2+ + PhCONH2 → products fast
The first reaction is the rate-determining step; therefore the overall oxidation reaction has the
same order as the rate-determining step:
r = k[Ag+][S2O82–]

3. The minimal mechanism includes the following steps:

S2O82– → 2⋅SO4– k1 very slow

HCOO– + ⋅SO4– → H+ + ⋅CO2– + SO42– k2 fast

⋅CO2– + S2O82– → ⋅SO4– + CO2 + SO42– k3 fast

⋅CO2– + ⋅SO4– → SO42– + CO2 k4 fast

The second and the third reaction make a chain process involving consumption of
peroxydisulfate and formate. The first reaction is very slow, so most of peroxydisulfate is
consumed in the third reaction. Applying the steady-state approximation to ⋅SO4– and ⋅CO2– we
get:
2r1 – r2 + r3 – r4 = 0
r2 – r3 – r4 = 0
Hence
r1 = r4
r2 – r3 = r1
Since the rate of the first reaction is very low, then
r1 = r4
 14
r2 = r3
Applying the rate laws we get:
k1[S2O82–] = k4[⋅CO2–][⋅SO4–]

k2[HCOO–][⋅SO4–] = k3[⋅CO2–][S2O82–]
Hence
[⋅CO2–] = (k1k2)1/2(k3k4)–1/2[HCOO–]1/2

[⋅SO4–] = (k1k3)1/2(k2k4)–1/2[S2O82–][HCOO–]–1/2
The rate of the reaction is equal to the rate of formate consumption:
r = r2 = k2[HCOO–][⋅SO4–] = (k1k2k3)1/2k4–1/2[HCOO–]1/2[S2O82–] = keff[HCOO–]1/2[S2O82–]
A more complex mechanism includes the formation of OH radicals and several chain
termination reactions. That’s why the given rate law is valid only for a limited range of reactant
concentrations.

4. The rate-determining step is the addition of azide ion to the solvent, carbon disulfide:
N
N
CS2 N3 -
S-
N
S

The oxidation of this ion by iodine is a series of fast reactions. The overall rate of the reaction
I2 + 2N3– = 3N2 + 2I–
is half of that of the azide-CS2 reaction:
r = ½ k[N3–][CS2].
Introducing the effective constant keff = ½ k[CS2] we get:
r = keff[N3–].

5. The reaction mechanism includes several steps. The first step is the reversible addition of
DABCO to ester:
O

N COOR2 OR2
+
N
N
N

The next two steps are the reversible additions of two molecules of aldehyde to the zwitter ion
formed in the previous step:
 15
O O O

OR2 R1 OR2

N + R1CHO
N
N N

R1 O

O O O O
H
R1 OR2 R1 OR2
+ R1CHO
N N
N N

The rate-determining step is an intramolecular proton transfer followed by the elimination of

DABCO:

R1 O

O O R1 OH
H
O O N
R1 OR2
+

N R1 OR2 N
N

After that, the product rapidly eliminates one molecule of aldehyde. Applying quasi-equilibrium
conditions to the first three steps, we get:
r = kRDSK1K2K3[aldehyde]2[ester][DABCO] = keff[aldehyde]2[ester][DABCO]
It is worth mentioning that in protic solvents the rate-determining step is the solvent-assisted
proton transfer in DABCO-ester-aldehyde adduct, hence the reaction order is one with respect to
either aldehyde, or ester or base.

6. The first step of the reaction is the reversible addition of peroxyacid anion to the carboxylic
group of peroxyacid:
 16

O
O
R O
RCOOO + RCOOOH O H
O

O R

The next, rate-determining step is a decomposition of the addition product:

O
O
R O
O H RCOOH + RCOO + O2
O

O R

Applying a quasi-equilibrium approximation, we get:

r = keff[RCO3H] [RCO3–]
The concentrations of peroxyacid and its anion are related to the total concentration of peroxy
compound с(RCO3H) and proton concentration [H+] as follows:
 H +  Ka
[ RCO3H ] = c ( RCO3H )  RCO3− 
 c ( RCO3H ) ,
K a +  H +
K a +  H + 

where Ka is the acidity constant of peroxyacid. Substituting these concentrations to the rate law
we obtain:
keff K a  H +  k1  H + 
= ( RCO3H )
r c= 2
c ( RCO3 H )
2

( ) ( )
2 2

Ka + H  +
 k2 +  H + 

Note that at given c(RCO3H) the reaction rate is maximum if [RCO3H] = [RCO3–] (and [H+] =
Ka).

Problem 11. Black box

Since this is a reactor with ideal stirring, the concentrations of substances in the output
flow are equal to the concentrations inside the reactor. In a stationary state, the concentrations
and quantities of substances in the reactor are constant. Consider the material balance with
respect to X, Y and P.
Stationary conditions are:
 17
∆ν X , R ∆ν Y , R ∆ν P , R
= 0= 0= 0, (1)
∆t ∆t ∆t
where ΔνX,R, ΔνY,R, ΔνP,R are the changes of the quantities for the substances X, Y and P in the
reactor during time Δt. The quantity of the substance in the reactor may change due to input
flow, chemical reaction, and output flow:
∆ν X , R  ∆ν X , R   ∆ν X , R   ∆ν X , R 
=  +  +  (2)
∆t  ∆t input  ∆t reaction  ∆t output
The same is true for Y and P.
Input flow rates of the substances are
 ∆ν X , R   ∆ν   ∆ν P , R 
=
  f X=
cX , I  Y , R  f=
Y cY , I   0, (3)
 ∆t input  ∆t input  ∆t input
where fX and fY are the input volumetric flows of the solutions of X and Y, cX,I and cY,I –
concentrations of X and Y in the respective solutions.
Let the balanced reaction equation be
nX X + nY Y = nP P
where nX, nY and nP are the stoichiometric coefficients for the corresponding substances. Due to
a chemical reaction the quantities of the substances in the reactor change with the rates
 ∆ν X , R   ∆ν Y , R   ∆ν P , R 
  =
−nX rVR   =
−nY rVR   =
nP rVR , (4)
 ∆t  reaction  dt  reaction  ∆t  reaction
where r – the reaction rate, VR – the reactor volume.
The output flows of the substances are:
 ∆ν X , R   ∆ν Y , R   ∆ν P , R 
=
  f=
O cX , R   f=
O cY , R   f O cP , R , (5)
 ∆t output  ∆t output  ∆t output
where fO is the volumetric output flow, cX,R, cY,R and cP,R – the concentrations of substances X, Y
and P in the reactor. Since the process is stationary and the reaction proceeds in the liquid phase,
the output volumetric flow equals the sum of input volumetric flows:
f=
O f X + fY (6)
Thus the material balance equations (2) considering expressions (1) and (3)-(6) are
∆ν X , R
= f X c X , I − nX rVR − c X , R ( f X + fY =
) 0
∆t
∆ν Y , R
= fY cY , I − nY rVR − cY , R ( f X + fY )= 0
∆t
∆ν P , R
= nP rVR − cP , R ( f X + fY )= 0
∆t
Hence
 18
nX rVR =f X c X , I − c X , R ( f X + fY )

nY rVR =fY cY , I − cY , R ( f X + fY )

nP rVR cP , R ( f X + fY )
=

Exp. no. nXrVR, mol/s nYrVR, mol/s nPrVR, mol/s nX:nY:nP

1 10.02 20.04 10.02 1:2:1
2 10.04 20.07 10.05 1:2:1
3 15.73 31.47 15.72 1:2:1
4 19.68 39.34 19.68 1:2:1

Hence the balanced reaction equation is

X + 2Y = P
Now consider the rate dependence on concentrations
Exp. no. cX,R, mol/m3 cY,R, mol/m3 cP,R, mol/m3 rVR, mol/s
1 299 48.2 501 10.02
2 732 30.9 335 10.04
3 8.87 351 524 15.73
4 308 66.6 492 19.68

The rate law is

r = kc Xx , R cYy, R cPp, R

or, after multiplying by reactor volume,

rVR = kVR c Xx , R cYy, R cPp, R

Take the logarithm of both parts of the equation

ln ( rVR ) = ln ( kVR ) + x ln c X , R + y ln cY , R + p ln cP , R (7)

The coefficients in this equation are given in the table below:

Exp. no. lncX,R lncY,R lncP,R ln(rVR)
1 5.70 3.88 6.22 2.30
2 6.60 3.43 5.81 2.31
3 2.18 5.86 6.26 2.76
4 5.73 4.20 6.20 2.98

Solving the system of equations (7) we get:

 19
x = 1.00 y = 2.00 p = 0.01 ln(kVR) = –11.20
Hence the orders of the reaction are one in X, two in Y, and zero in P. The product kVR is:
kVR = exp(–11.20) = 1.37·10–5 m9mol–2s–1.

One of the possible mechanisms that match the obtained rate law is:
X+Y↔I fast
I+Y→P slow, rate-determining

Summarizing, the obtained results are:

♦ the reaction equation: X + 2Y = P;
♦ the reaction orders: 1, 2, and 0 with respect to X, Y, and P respectively;
♦ the product of the rate constant and reactor volume: kVR = 1.37·10–5 m9⋅mol–2⋅s–1.

Problem 12. Chlorination of styrenes

1. Since all reaction pathways obey the same rate law, the quantity of the product is
proportional to the respective rate constant. The overall constant equals the sum of constants for
different pathways. Hence
for 1,2-dichloro:
61%
k=
1.45 ⋅ 104 8.8 ⋅ 103 M −1s −1
=
100%
for 1-acetoxy-2-dichloro:
30%
k=
1.45 ⋅ 104 4.4 ⋅ 103 M −1s −1
=
100%
for 2-chlorostyrene:
9%
k=
1.45 ⋅ 104 1.3 ⋅ 103 M −1s −1
=
100%

2. This reaction is not stereospecific and leads to the formation of diastereomeric addition
products in comparable amounts. The following products are obtained (approximate ratios of
product quantities at 25oC are given as an illustration):
1,2-dichloro:
 20
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl

enantiomers ~1:3 enantiomers

1-acetoxy-2-chloro:
OAc OAc OAc OAc
Cl Cl Cl Cl

enantiomers ~1:1 enantiomers

2-chlorostyrene:
Cl

Cl

~1:3
The achiral sorbent is unable to separate enantiomers, so only 6 different fractions can be
obtained. The chiral sorbent allows full separation, so in this case the determined number of
products is 10.

Problem 13. The dense and hot ice

1. The boiling point of water and the melting point of ice V increase, and the melting point
of ordinary ice decreases with the increasing pressure. This can be easily explained using the Le
Chatelier principle. In the phase transitions
H2O(l) H2O(g)
and
H2O(ice,V) H2O(l)
the volume increases and heat is absorbed (∆V > 0, ∆H > 0). Hence, with the increasing pressure
both equilibria are shifted to the left; consequently, temperature should be increased to keep the
equilibria.
In the phase transition
 21
H2O(ice,I) H2O(l)
the volume decreases and heat is absorbed (∆V < 0, ∆H > 0). Hence, with the increasing pressure
the phase equilibrium is shifted to the right, and temperature should be decreased to keep the
equilibrium.

2. a) 250 К: vapor → ice I → ice III → ice V → ice VI

b) 400 К: vapor → liquid → ice VII
c) 700 К: only vapor (at high pressure it may be called “supercritical fluid”), no phase
transitions occur.

3. Phase transitions between condensed phases are described by the Clapeyron equation:
dp ∆H
= ,
dT T ∆V
or, in approximate form:
∆p ∆H
= .
∆T T ∆V
We calculate the right side of this equation for the ice I water transition. The volume
change is determined from the densities:

M (H 2O) M (H 2O) 18 18
∆V = V (water) − V (ice) = − = − = − 1.63 cm3/mol
ρ(water) ρ(ice) 1.000 0.917

∆p ∆H 6010 J/mol
= = −6
= − 1.35 ⋅ 107 Pa/K = − 13.5 MPa/K .
∆T T ∆V 273 K ⋅ ( −1.63 ⋅ 10 m / mol)
3

If this slope does not depend on pressure and temperature then at the pressure of 210 MPa the
temperature of liquid water in equilibrium with ice I and Ice III is approximately:

210 − 0.1
T = 273 + ∆T = 273 + = − 257.5 K = − 15.5 C .
−13.5

This is an estimate; the real value is –22 oC. The difference between the estimated and real
values is due to the fact that the enthalpy of fusion and densities vary with pressure. For
example, at 210 MPa the enthalpy of fusion of ice I is 4230 J/mol (instead of 6010 at normal
pressure), and the volume change is ∆V = –2.43 cm3/mol (instead of –1.63 cm3/mol at normal
pressure).

4. From the Clapeyron equation it follows that the slope of the p(T) dependencies for the
melting points of ice III to ice VII is determined by ∆H, T, and ∆V. The first quantity is assumed
to be the same for all transitions, the temperature is comparable in all cases, hence the main
 22
contribution to the slope comes from ∆V. For ice VII, the slope is the smallest, hence, the ∆V =
V(water) – V(ice) is the largest, whereas V(ice) is the smallest. It means that ice VII is the densest
form of ice (among those forms that are shown on the phase diagram).
From the phase diagram we see that the melting point of ice VII at a pressure of 10 GPa
is about 630 K. This is, indeed, a very “hot” ice.

5. Determine the molar volume of ice VII. One mole contains NA/2 cubic unit cells:

NA 3
Vm = d = 3.01 ⋅ 1023 ⋅ (0.335 ⋅ 10−7 )3 = 11.3 cm3/mol.
2

The density of ice VII is:

ρ = M / Vm = 18 / 11.3 = 1.59 g/cm3.

6. Knowing the density of ice VII, we use the Clapeyron equation to estimate its enthalpy of
fusion. Comparing the triple point “water – ice VI – ice VII” and the melting point of ice VII at
pressure 10 GPa we estimate the slope: ∆p / ∆T = (104 – 2200) / (630 – 355) = 28 MPa / K. The
volume change during melting is: ∆V = (18/1.00) – 11.3 = 6.7 cm3/mol. Substituting these data
into the Clapeyron equation, we get:

∆p
∆H = T ∆V = 355 K ⋅ (6.7 ⋅ 10−6 m3 /mol) ⋅ (28 ⋅ 106 Pa/K) = 66000 J/mol.
∆T

This value is by an order of magnitude larger than the exact value 6400 J/mol. The reason is
probably due to a low resolution of the phase diagram at high pressures, which leads to a rough
estimate of the slope. This result also shows that the approximations used are not valid at high
pressures and temperatures.

Problem 14. Redox reactions in photosynthesis

1. Applying the Nernst equation for a half-reaction

Ox + mH+ + ne → R
and putting [H+] = 10–7, we get a standard biochemical redox potential:

lg (10−7 ) = E  − 0.414
0.0591 m
E ′ = E  +
m

n n
 23

Half-reaction E° (V) E°’ (V)

O2 + 4H+ + 4e → 2H2O 1.23 0.82

S + 2H+ + 2e → H2S 0.14 –0.27

Plastoquinone + 2H+ + 2e →Plastoquinone⋅H2 0.52 0.11

Cytochrome f(Fe3+) + e → Cytochrome f(Fe2+) 0.365 0.365

NADP+ + H+ + 2e → NADP⋅H –0.11 –0.32

P680+ + e → P680 1.10 1.10

Chlorophyll+ + e → Chlorophyll 0.78 0.78

2. The standard electromotive force for the reaction

H2O + CO2 → CH2O + O2
is the difference between standard redox potentials for oxidant and reductant.

CO2 + 4H+ + 4e → CH2O + H2O E1

O2 + 4H+ + 4e → 2H2O E2 = 1.23 V

For this reaction, the standard Gibbs energy is 480.5 kJ/mol, and 4 electrons are transferred from
H2O to CO2. Hence, the standard emf is:

∆G 480500
E = − = − = − 1.24 V = E1 − 1.23 V
nF 4 ⋅ 96500

For CO2 reduction to carbohydrates the standard redox potential is E1 = − 0.01 V . The standard

4
biochemical potential is: E1′ = − 0.01 − 0.414 = − 0.42 V .
4
3. The overall reaction: CO2 + 2H2S → CH2O + 2S + H2O
Oxidation: H2S – 2e → S + 2H+
Reduction: CO2 + 4H+ + 4e → CH2O + H2O
Standard emf: E° = –0.01 – 0.14 = –0.15 V

Standard Gibbs energy: ∆G = − nFE  = − 4 ⋅ 96500 ⋅ (−0.15) ⋅10−3 = 57.9 kJ/mol.
Energy of light with wavelength 840 nm:
hcN A 6.63 ⋅10−34 ⋅ 3.00 ⋅108 ⋅ 6.02 ⋅1023
Em = = −9
⋅10−3 = 143 kJ/mol.
λ 840 ⋅10
One quantum gives enough energy to oxidize two molecules of H2S.
 24
4. Both NADP+ reduction and ATP formation require one proton, and during H2O oxidation
two protons are released. Hence, the overall reaction equation of light stages is:
NADP+ + ADP + Pi + hν → ½ O2 + NADP⋅H + ATP
(water is not present in this reaction, because the number of H2O molecules oxidized to O2 is
equal to the number of H2O molecules formed during ADP phosporylation).

5. The overall reaction is the sum of two reactions:

H2O + NADP+ + hν → ½ O2 + NADP⋅H + H+
and
ADP + Pi + H+ → ATP + H2O.
For the latter, the standard biochemical Gibbs energy is known (30.5 kJ/mol) and for the former
it can be determined from the standard biochemical redox potentials.

∆G′ = − nFE ′ = − 2 ⋅ 96500 ⋅ (0.82 − (−0.32)) ⋅10−3 = 220 kJ/mol.

The overall light stages reaction contains no protons, hence the standard Gibbs energy is the
same as the standard biochemical Gibbs energy:

∆G = ∆G′ = 220 + 30.5 =

250.5 kJ/mol

6. This effect is easily understood using a simple orbital diagram (see Appendix in
“Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis” by R.E.Blankenship). In the ground state, a lost
electron comes from the low-energy HOMO, while an acquired electron enters the high-energy
LUMO. As a result, the molecule is neither a strong oxidant nor a good reductant. In the excited
state, the situation is different: a lost electron leaves the high-energy LUMO, and the acquired
electron comes to low-energy HOMO: both processes are energetically favorable, and the
molecule can act both as a strong oxidant and a powerful reductant.

7. Consider two half-reactions:

 25

Ox + e → R  )
(standard redox potential EOx/R

and Ox + e → R*  ).
(standard redox potential EOx/R*

The difference in their Gibbs energies is equal to the excitation energy:

(
 − E
F EOx/R Ox/R* = Eex = )
hcN A
λ
,

whence it follows:

 = E  − hcN A .
EOx/R*
λF
Ox/R

 6.63 ⋅ 10−34 ⋅ 3.00 ⋅ 108 ⋅ 6.02 ⋅ 1023

For P680+: EP680 + = 1.10 − = − 0.72 V
/P680*
680 ⋅ 10−9 ⋅ 96500

 6.63 ⋅ 10−34 ⋅ 3.00 ⋅ 108 ⋅ 6.02 ⋅ 1023

For Chlorophyll+: EChl + = 0.78 − = − 1.04 V
/Chl*
680 ⋅ 10−9 ⋅ 96500
 26
Problem 15. Complexation reactions in the determination of inorganic ions

1. After the endpoint, the excessive Al3+ ions undergo hydrolysis, which makes the medium
acidic, and the indicator turns red:
Al(H2O)63+ = Al(OH)(H2O)52+ + H+

2. On heating, the hydrolysis equilibrium shifts rightwards.

3. Cryolite Na3AlF6 being formed upon the titration is only slightly soluble in water. Hence,
NaCl was added to further decrease its solubility and shift the equilibrium of complex formation
rightwards.

4. Neutralization of the sample solution before titration is missing. This operation is

mandatory if an acid–base indicator is used to observe the endpoint and the sample is suspected
to contain acids. Heating makes the endpoint sharper but is not as critical.

5. In this case a reverse titration was applied. Fluoride precipitates calcium:

Ca2+ + 2F– = CaF2,
and the excess of fluoride is titrated with AlCl3:
6F– + Al3+ = AlF63–

6. 10.25 mL of 0.1000 M AlCl3 gives 1.025 mmol of Al3+, corresponding to 6.15 mmol of
F–. The initial amount of NaF was 0.500 g, or 11.91 mmol, i.e. 5.76 mmol of F– was spent for the
precipitation of calcium. The amount of calcium is 2.88·10–3 mol.

7. Si(OH)4 + 6KF + 4HCl = K2SiF6 + 4KCl + 2H2O

As can be seen from the equation, HCl is spent in this process, and its excess is titrated with
NaOH in the presence of an acid-base indicator. (To be more precise, the excess of HCl reacts
with KF yielding a weak acid HF, which is then titrated with NaOH.)

8. The solution of free silicic acid (a weak acid with pKa of about 10) will be slightly acidic;
hence, the indicator used in the neutralization of the sample should change its color in a weakly
acidic medium (methyl red, pKa  5). In weakly alkaline media (color change range of two other
indicators), a considerable part of the silicic acid will be present in the form of a silicate ion, the
buffer solution of which will consume a certain amount of the reacting HCl.
 27
9. The amount of NaOH and the excess of HCl are the same and equal to 0.550 mmol.
Hence, the amount of HCl spent for the reaction with silicic acid is 0.994 – 0.550 = 0.444 mmol,
and the amount of silicic acid is 0.111 mmol.

Prоblem 16. Malaprade reaction

1. With glycerol: НСООН + 2 НСНО, with butane-1,2-diоl: С2Н5СНО + НСНО

2. HCHО  2e  HCООH; HCООH  2e  CО2;
С2Н5CHО  2e  С2Н5CООH; Mn+7 + 5e  Mn2+;
The cоmplete reactiоns are:
5HCHО + 4MnО4 + 12H+ = 5CО2 + 4Mn2+ + 11H2О
5HCООH + 2MnО4 + 6H+ = 5CО2 + 2Mn2+ + 8H2О
5С2Н5CHО + 2MnО4 + 6H+ = 5С2Н5CООH + 2Mn2+ + 3H2О
The total mass оf the mixture: mА = nglyMgly + nbutMbut.
The number оf mоls оf 1/5 KMnО4 spent fоr the оxidatiоn оf aldehyde grоups:
nald = 4 ∙ 2ngly (2 mоles оf СН2О from glycerol, 4e each) + 2ngly (НСООН frоm glycerol, 2e) +
2nbut (С2Н5СНО frоm butylene glycоl, 2e) + 4nbut (1 mоl оf СН2О frоm butylene glycоl, 4e) =
10ngly + 6nbut.
Solving these two simultaneous equations (with Mgly = 92 and Mbut = 90) one gets:
nbut = 0.0101 mоl, ngly = 0.0079 mоl.

3. The carbоxylic grоup cоuld either exist in the оriginal cоmpоund B (a) оr be fоrmed
during the оxidatiоn (b).

(a). Let us suppоse a minimum amount оf оxygen-cоntaining grоups in B: 0.001 mоl оf –CООH
(45 mg) and twо hydrоxyl grоups (C–ОH 29 g/mоl ∙ 0.002 mоl = 58 mg); then, 0.001 mоl оf
nitrоgen shоuld be alsо present (14 mg); this gives the total mass of 117 mg, which is even
higher than the mass оf B (105 mg). Therefоre, part оf оxygen originates frоm the оxidant оr
water as a result оf the substitutiоn оf amine nitrоgen atоm (which has transfоrmed intо the
ammоnium iоn) with оxygen (sо, aminо grоups in Malaprade reaction behave as hydrоxyl ones).
In case B cоntains one оxygen atоm less, we will get: 1 mmоl оf C–ОH grоups (29 mg) + 1
mmоl оf CHNH2 (29 mg) + 1 mmоl оf СООН (45 mg) = 103 mg. To attain the required 105 mg,
the following groups can be suggested: СНОН (30 mg), CH2NH2 (30 mg) and СООН (45 mg),
which brings us to the empirical formula of B: C3H7NО3. Remembering that nitrogen must be in
the form of an amino group, no ether oxygens are permitted and an acid is formed as the result of
 28
oxidation (this can only be HCOOH, and to obtain that, a –CH(OH)– or –CH(NH2)– group must
be present), we can make up a list of possible structures of B. In case the carboxylic group was
present in the original compound (a), that will be 2-aminо-3-hydrоxyprоpiоnic acid оr 3-aminо-
2-hydrоxyprоpiоnic acid:

NH2 OH

OH OH

OH O NH2 O

Scheme оf their оxidatiоn with periоdate:

HОСН2–СН(NH2)–CООH  СН2О + HООC–CHО + NH4+.
Glyoxylic acid HООC–CHО is oxidized by KMnO4 to oxalic acid and then to CO2 (4 mmol
equivalents оf KMnО4); together with formaldehyde (4 mmol eq.) it makes up the required
8 mmol eq. to be spent fоr the titratiоn.

(b). In case compound B is originally lacking carbоxylic grоup, the molecular weight of 105
corresponds to compounds containing 1 оxygen atоm less and 1 extra carbоn atоm (C4H11NО2),
i.e. butane derivatives containing 1 amino and 2 hydroxyl groups. (Propanes with 3 hydroxyl
groups and 1 amino group will give molecular weights of 107.) If the butane moiety is
unbranched and all three grоups (twо ОН and the NH2) are vicinal:

OH OH NH2

HO CH3 H2N CH3 HO CH3

NH2 OH OH

then periоdate оxidatiоn yields HCHО, HCООH and CH3CHО; the two isоbutane derivatives

HO H2N
OH OH

NH2 OH
H3C H3C
 29
both result in 1 mol of CH3COOH and 2 mоles оf HCHО, while all these butanes meet the task
requirements, as they require 8 mmol equivalents оf KMnО4 for their oxidation. Compound
HC(CH2ОH)2CH2NH2 is nоt оxidized with periоdate. If ОН and NH2 groups are nоt vicinal,
fоrmaldehyde and an aldehyde are fоrmed, but no necessary carbоxylic acid is produced. If B
cоntains a C=О group (for instance, O=CH–CH(OH)–CH(NH2)–CH3), its fоrmula is C4H9NО2
(mоlecular weight 103), which is not consistent with the problem conditions.
Scheme of periodate oxidation for the linear butane derivatives:
CH2NH2–CH(OH)–CH(OH)–CH3  CH2O + HCOOH + CH3CHO
For the branched butanes:
HОCH2–C(CH3)NH2–CH2ОH  CH2O + CH3COOH + CH2O

Problem 17. Analysis of Chrome Green

1. PbCrO4 + 4Na2CO3 + 4H2O  Na2Pb(OH)4 + Na2CrO4 + 4NaHCO3

2Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 + 12Na2CO3 + 12H2O → 6Fe(OH)2 + 4Na3[Fe(CN)6] + 12NaHCO3
and then
6Fe(OH)2 + 4Na3[Fe(CN)6] + ½O2 + 4Na2CO3 + 5H2O  6Fe(OH)3 + 4Na4[Fe(CN)6]
+ 4NaHCO3
Totally:
2Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 + ½O2 + 16Na2CO3 + 17H2O  6Fe(OH)3 + 4Na4[Fe(CN)6] + 16NaHCO3
Ferric hydroxide is left on the filter.

2. Direct oxidation of thiosulfate with dichromate is not stoichiometric. The reactions

normally used are:
Cr2O72– + 6 I– + 14H+  2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O
I2 + 2S2O32–  2I– + S4O62–

3. If reaction B is induced by reaction A, it implies that reaction A produces some

intermediates active with the components of reaction B. In our case, the reduction of Cr(VI)
occurs via the formation of intermediate oxidation states of chromium, predominantly Cr(V)
species. (At the same time, the oxidation of I– to I0 may not require any iodine-containing
intermediates.) A reasonable reaction scheme is as follows:
H2Cr2O7 + I–  Cr(V) + I; Cr(V) + O2  Cr2O72–, etc.
 30
As a result of oxygen involvement, a higher amount of free iodine is obtained, which results in a
greater amount of Na2S2O3 titrant spent and lower apparent concentration determined.

4. The amount of chromium is found as follows: 3nCr = nthios = 0.0485 M·5.01 mL = 0.2430
mmol (nCr = 0.081 mmol). This corresponds to 26.2 mg of PbCrO4 (M = 323.2 g/mol) in the
aliquot, or 131 mg totally.

5. Owing to the fast redox equilibrium:

[Fe(CN)6]4– + Fe3+  [Fe(CN)6]3– + Fe2+,
a certain amount of [Fe(CN)6]4– will be present in the system. The side reaction
CrO42– + 3[Fe(CN)6]4– + 8H+  Cr3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6]3– + 4H2O
produces an amount of [Fe(CN)6]3– equivalent to CrO42– reacted. At the titration stage that
hexacyanoferrate(III) would also liberate free iodine; hence, the side process can be neglected.

6. Acidification of the sample: CrO42– + 3[Fe(CN)6]4– + 8H+  Cr3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6]3– + 4H2O

Titration: MnO4– + 5[Fe(CN)6]4– + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5[Fe(CN)6]3– + 4H2O
Hexacyanoferrates may be partially precipitated in the form of Pb2+ salts but this does not
preclude them from the redox reactions.

7. On acidification of the 2nd aliquot, chromium is reduced by [Fe(CN)6]4– (see i. 5). Then
permanganate is spent for the oxidation of [Fe(CN)6]4–, namely, the amount of [Fe(CN)6]4– added
plus the amount contained initially in the sample less the amount spent for the reduction of
Cr(VI): 5nMnO4 = nFe added + nFe from sample – 3nCr. From this equation we can find nFe from sample =
5nMnO4 – nFe added + 3nCr = 5·0.00500·2.85 – 10·0.0300 + 0.2430 = 0.07125 – 0.3000 + 0.2430 =
0.0142 mmol [Fe(CN)6]4–. One mol of [Fe(CN)6]4– results from 0.5 mol of Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 (see
solution to question 1), therefore, the answer is 4.21 mg of Fe3/2[Fe(CN)6] (M = 295.6 g/mol) in
the aliquot, or the total amount of 21.1 mg.

Problem 18. Chemistry of phenol

1-2. Structures of benzene A and propene B are commonly known.

The interaction between A and B under acidic condition proceeds as Friedel-Crafts alkylation of
the aromatic ring with the thermodynamically more stable secondary propyl carbocation as an
electrophile. Being a product of the interaction of equal amounts of A and B, C turns out to be
 31
isopropylbenzene, i.e. cumene. Oxidation of C with subsequent acidification leads to phenol and
acetone D. This classical industrial procedure is known as cumene process.

The structure of D can also be easily determined from that of bisphenol A, which is formed as a
result of two consecutive Friedel-Crafts alkylations of phenol. Treatment of bisphenol A with
NaOH leads to disodium bis-phenolate E, which gives polycarbonate with the monomeric unit F
as a result of the reaction with phosgene.

The reaction of phenol with diluted nitric acid proceeds as a mononitration resulting in isomeric
nitrophenols G and H. Due to the activation effect of OH-group in phenol, electrophilic
substitution can occur in ortho- and para-positions of phenol. G is para-nitrophenol (two planes
of symmetry), whereas H is ortho-nitrophenol (only one plane of symmetry). Further reduction
of NO2-group in para-nitrophenol G results in para-aminophenol I. Due to its higher
nucleophilicity, NH2-group (rather than OH-group) in I is acetylated with acetic anhydride
giving paracetamol J.
 32

The reaction of phenol with CO2 in the presence of NaOH proceeds through intermediate
formation of sodium phenolate, which interacts with CO2 under heating and high pressure
(Kolbe-Schmitt reaction) to give disodium salicylate K. Acidification of K with two equivalents
of an acid results in salicylic acid L, which provides aspirin M when acetylated with acetic
anhydride.

Aluminon synthesis is based on the same approach as previously considered for bisphenol A. The
reaction of salicylic acid L with formaldehyde under acidic conditions affords N, which is an
analogue of bisphenol A. Addition of another equivalent of salicylic acid L under oxidative
conditions (NaNO2/H2SO4) gives the tri-acid O, which is a direct precursor of Aluminon. Thus,
the structure of O can be derived from that of Aluminon.
 33
Problem 19. Chrysanthemic acid

1. Chrysanthemic acid is formed as a result of hydrolysis of its ethyl ester, F, which, in turn,
is obtained by cyclopropanation of E with diazoacetic ester. Therefore, E is 2,5-dimethylhex-
2,4-diene with molecular formula C8H14. This conclusion is supported by the molecular formula
of D. Evidently, transformation of D to E is elimination of two water molecules.

Eight carbon atoms of D originate from A and B. The other reaction between these compounds
affords L containing 5 carbon atoms (N is formed from H and C7H7O2SNa; the number of
carbon atoms in H and L is the same). The provided information strongly suggests that A is
acetylene (C2H2). Hence, A is composed of 2, and B should be composed of 3 carbon atoms.
Reaction between A and B was disclosed by Favorskii in 1905 as that between acetylenes and
carbonyl compounds. It means that B is either propionic aldehyde (C2H5CHO) or acetone
(CH3COCH3). Accounting for the structure of E, B is acetone. E is also formed through the
Grignard reaction of acetone with the corresponding RMgBr followed by elimination of water.
The structure of H can be unambiguously deduced from that of E – it is prenyl bromide. So, the
natural alcohol is prenol (3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol). L is formed from A and B under the same
reaction conditions but when A to B ratio is of 1:1. Therefore, L is 2-methylbut-3-yn-2-ol. Its
hydrogenation in the presence of Lindlar catalyst leads to the corresponding alkene M.
Subsequent reaction with HBr affords prenyl bromide H via nucleophilic substitution with
double bond migration. The reaction of H with sodium 4-toluenesulfinate results in the
corresponding sulfone N.
O

B H2 HO
C2H2 HO OH
KOH, C6H6 Pd/C OH
A 0,4-0,9 MPa C D

H+
t
1) Mg
PBr3 2) (CH3)2CO N2CHCO2C2H5 OC2H5
OH Br 3) H+, t
O
G H E F'

O
O
SO2Na
B H2 HBr S
C2H2 HO HO O
Br
KOH, C6H6 Pd/BaSO4
0,4-0,9 MPa quinoline H
A L M
N
 34
Finally, acid-catalyzed self-condensation of acetone yields 4-methylpent-3-en-2-one (mesityl
oxide, I). Iodoformic reaction of I produces the salt of the corresponding acid J which is further
transformed into ethyl ester K. The reaction of K with deprotonated sulfone N results in
chrysanthemic acid ester F”.

O O O O
H3O+ I2 EtOH N
OC2H5
NaOH ONa H+ OC2H5 NaOCH3
O
B I J K F''

2.

3. The first step is the Diels-Alder reaction. Compound P with tetrasubstituted double bond
is the most stable isomer of O with the same carbocyclic skeleton. Heating of P with ammonia
leads to imide R, which further reacts with CH2O giving the target alcohol X.
O O O O O
t Pd/C NH3 CH2O
+ O O O NH N
t OH
O O O O O
O P R X
4. Amides and hydrazides do not easily form esters in reaction with alcohols. Oppositely,
anhydrides are appropriate reagents for the ester synthesis. Moreover, re-esterification of methyl
or ethyl esters with high-boiling alcohols is well-known. These reactions are efficient due to
methanol (ethanol) removal from the reaction mixture via distillation (Le Chatelier’s principle).

5. Reduction of 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde yields the corresponding benzyl alcohol S, while

its reaction with NaCN produces cyanohydrin T. Reaction of S or T with 2,2-(dihalovinyl)-3,3-
dimethylcyclopropane-1-carbonyl chloride affords the target pyrethroids.
 35

Molecular formulae of the esters formed from alcohol S and T are C21H20Hal2O3 and
C22H19Hal2NO3, respectively. Halide content in the esters is 2MHal/(2MHal + 320) and
2MHal/(2MHal + 345), respectively. Calculation of halide content in these compounds allows
unambiguously deciding on the structures of the pyrethroids.

Content of Hal, % Using exact atomic mass Using approximate atomic mass

F Cl Br I F Cl Br I

Ester of S 10.60 18.12 33.28 44.20 10.61 18.16 33.33 44.25

Ester of T 9.91 17.03 31.63 42.36 9.92 17.07 31.68 42.40

 36
Problem 20. Heterocycles

1. Interaction of ketone with arylhydrazine affords hydrazone, which isomerizes into

enhydrazine under acidic conditions.

X R2 R2
R2 X
X R1 R1
R1 H+ H+
NH2 +
N N NH
H O N N
H H
A

2. Mechanism a includes the electrophilic attack of aminoalkyl cation at the aromatic

moiety. This attack is very susceptible to electron properties of the aryl group (attack on the
electron-enriched aryl ring is much more efficient than that on the electron-depleted arene). The
same is expected for mechanism c. Only the sigmatropic shift has no significant dependence on
substituents in both arenes. Therefore, I. Grandberg proved that the Fischer indole synthesis
proceeds via mechanism b.

3. Reactions are started by interaction of amine with the carbonyl group furnishing imine.
To complete pyrrole moiety formation, monoimine of hexane-2,5-dione should isomerize into
the enamine followed by an attack of the amine group on the second C=O group. Formally,
imine of pentane-2,4-dione can form the pyrrole ring in two ways. First, it is the interaction of
the nitrogen atom with the methyl group. However, the methyl group itself is unreactive towards
nucleophiles. Keto-enol equilibrium with involvement of the methyl group in this compound is
less probable than that with CH2-fragment. Even if the equilibrium was true, enol is a
nucleophile and cannot react with nucleophilic nitrogen atom. Therefore, the second possibility
should be considered, namely, the reaction of the second carbonyl with CH2 bound to N atom.
This reaction is quite probable as CH2-group is also connected with the electron-withdrawing
ester group and can be deprotonated by a base as shown below.
O
H3 C OC2H5 H+
+ H N H3C CH3
CH3 2 N
O O
CO2C2H5
B
CH3
H 3C CH3 OC2H5 H3C CH3 base
+ H N
2 H3C N CO2C2H5
O O O N O H
CO2C2H5 C
 37
4-5. Two products are formed in the reaction of propyne, and only one product in the case of
the alkyne bearing an electron-withdrawing ester group. This allows supposing a nucleophilic
attack of a certain intermediate on the alkyne moiety. A base generates a nucleophilic agent from
acetone oxime. Again, two ways of deprotonation are possible: O-deprotonation and C-
deprotonation. However, oxime enolate, if formed, should add to alkyne with the formation of
hex-4-en-2-one oxime. There is no possibility for the transformation of this oxime into pyrrole
ring. The alternative possibility is O-deprotonation and nucleophilic addition of the oximate ion
to alkyne furnishing O-alkenyl acetone oxime. Formation of the C-C bond between the methyl
group of acetone and the -carbon atom of the alkenyl group is needed to complete the pyrrole
ring synthesis. At the first glance, such transformation is impossible. However, this system is
very similar to the N-aryl-N’-alkenyl moiety which undergoes the 3,3-sigmatropic rearrangement
in the Fischer indole synthesis. Indeed, isomerization of O-alkenyl acetone oxime into O-
alkenyl-N-alkenyl derivative creates the fragment required for the 3,3-sigmatropic shift. So,
formation of the pyrrole ring giving 2,4-dimethylpyrrole and 2,5-dimethylpyrrole is analogous to
that of indole in the Fischer synthesis. The former compound is transformed into C via N-
deprotonation followed by the Kolbe-Schmitt carboxylation and ester formation. To provide B,
E should be N-alkylated with ethyl haloacetate. Halogen can be determined from the carbon
content in the alkylation reagent.
 38
CO2C2H5
CO2C2H5
DMAP
+
PhMe N
N microwaves H
OH
G

6. Methyl group in the starting compound is very acidic due to activation by both ortho-
nitro group and para-nitrogen atom of pyridine. So, it can be easily deprotonated to further react
with diethyl oxalate providing the corresponding ketoester H. Reduction of the nitro group gives
aniline. Condensation of the amino group with the appropriately located ketone moiety affords
the 6-azaindole derivative I (C11H12N2O3). Aminomethylation of this indole furnishes the
gramine derivative J which undergoes nucleophilic substitution with sodium dimethylmalonate
producing K. Its hydrolysis results in a compound with the molecular formula of C 11H10N2O5. It
means that: a) hydrolysis of the malonate fragment is accompanied by decarboxylation; b) the
ester moiety at the C2 position of the indole is hydrolyzed too. However, even if so, the
molecular formula should be C12H14N2O5. The difference equals to CH2. Hydrolysis of OCH3-
group in ortho-position to pyridine nitrogen is the only possibility. Indeed, hydrogenation of this
pyrrolopyridone yields M. Its decarboxylation and hydrolysis of the amide function finally leads
to porphobilinogen.
 39
Problem 21. Cyclobutanes

1. Hydrocarbon K consists of 90% C and 10% H. Its simplest formula is (C3H4)n, and it has
a single type of H atoms. So, it is allene, H2C=C=CH2. A has 5 carbon atoms. Therefore, allene
reacted with CH2=CHCN in a ratio of 1:1 and lost one carbon atom during the following steps.
Various products can be supposed for this reaction, however, it is known that allene is prone to
undergo cycloaddition as 2-component. Acrylonitrile undergoes cycloaddition as 2-
component too. So, the product should be a cyclobutane derivative, which is consistent with the
next scheme. The C and H content in N and O provides for their molecular formula
(C5H10Br2O2). In this respect, two sub-processes should proceed: a) acetone is doubly
brominated; b) ketone is transformed into ketal in the reaction with methanol catalyzed by HBr
evolved in the bromination step. Two dibromoacetones (1,1- and 1,3-) can be formed. Reaction
of the latter with dimethyl malonate affords the corresponding cyclobutane derivative. Its
treatment with hydrochloric acid leads to the hydrolysis of ketal into ketone and esters into an
acid. So, the product should be 3-oxocyclobutane-1,1-dicarboxylic acid. However, its formula is
C6H6O5. Therefore, hydrolysis is also accompanied by decarboxylation of the malonic acid
moiety. So, A is 3-oxocyclobutanecarboxylic acid. Accounting for it, L is the product of [2+2]
cycloaddition, i.e., 1-cyano-3-methylenecyclobutane. Its hydrolysis followed by oxidation of
C=C double bond produces A. Finally, the schemes for preparation of A are as follows:
MeO OMe O
O Br2 MeO OMe
MeO OMe CH2(CO2Me)2 20% HCl
Br + Br Br
CH3OH t
Br
rt MeO2C CO2Me CO2H
N O P A

H2C C CH2 1) KOH, t OsO4

+ H2C CN H2C CO2H O CO2H
t 2) H3O+ NaIO4
CN L M A

Reaction of A with SOCl2 furnishes acyl chloride, which reacts with NaN3 affording acyl azide.
Heating of RCON3 produces isocyanate R-N=C=O, which immediately reacts with t-BuOH
giving rise to N-Boc-protected 3-aminocyclobutanone B. Reduction of keto group with NaBH4
leads to cis- and trans-isomers of the corresponding aminocyclobutanol. Further reaction with
CH3SO2Cl produces mesylates, which undergo SN2 displacement with NaN3 affording
aminoazides. Reduction of azido group and deprotection of amine furnishes cis-and trans-
isomers of 1,3-diaminocyclobutane. Therefore, J is cis-1,3-diaminocyclobutane (two planes of
symmetry), and I is trans-isomer (one plane of symmetry). Similarly, G is trans-, and H is cis-
 40
isomer. As the SN2 reaction proceeds with inversion of the configuration, compound E (leading
to G) is cis-, and F is trans-isomer.
O OH OH
O O
O
1) SOCl2;  t-BuOH NaBH4 +

2) NaN3 HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3

CO2H
O N3 NCO
O O O
A B C D

OH OSO2CH3 N3 NH2
NaN3 1) H2, Pd/C
CH3SO2Cl
2) CF3CO2H
Et3N 3) NaHCO3
HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3 NH2

O O O
C E G I

OH OSO2CH3 N3 NH2
NaN3 1) H2, Pd/C
CH3SO2Cl
2) CF3CO2H
Et3N 3) NaHCO3
HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3 NH2

O O O
D F H J

2-3. Reduction of P with LiAlH4 gives the corresponding diol Q, which is transformed into
ditosylate R. Reaction of R with dimethyl malonate leads to formation of the second cyclobutane
ring (S). Hydrolysis of S proceeds similarly to that of P, i.e., it produces ketoacid T. Further
transformations are also similar to those in the first scheme and produce spiro[3.3]heptane-2,6-
diamine W. This compound has no plane or center of symmetry. It is chiral due to axial chirality
(similarly to 1,3-disubstituted allenes), thus, it can be resolved into two enantiomers.
MeO OMe
MeO OMe MeO OMe MeO OMe
1) LiAlH4 TsCl CH2(CO2Me)2 20% HCl
2) H2O Py t
HO OH TsO OTs
MeO2C CO2Me MeO2C CO2Me
P Q R S
O NOH
O H NH2
1) H2, Pd/C
1) SOCl2; 2) NaN3 NH2OH 2) CF3CO2H
3) NaHCO3
3) , t-BuOH
HN OCMe3 HN OCMe3
CO2H NH2
T U O V O W
 41
Problem 22. Introduction to translation

1. There are 43=64 different three-nucleotide combinations of 4 nucleotides. Only 61 codons

encode amino acids added to the growing polypeptide chain. 3 remaining combinations are
STOP codons determining termination of the translation process.

2. No, because of redundancy of the genetic code: most amino acids are encoded by several
codons.

3. Leucine is encoded by 6 different codons, thus it is delivered to a ribosome by 6 different

tRNAs. Being encoded by only 1 codon, methionine is transported by a sole tRNA. In some
organisms the latter codon is also responsible for the translation start, encoding the N-terminal
amino acid N-formylmethionine. Still, methionine and N-formylmethionine are transported by
different tRNAs.

4. The equations of consecutive reactions are:

amino acid + ATP = aminoacyl adenylate + PPi (inorganic pyrophosphate) (1)
aminoacyl adenylate + tRNA = aminoacyl tRNA + AMP (2)

O O O
O A
O P O P O P O
H3N CH C O
+ O CH2
O O O
R H H (1)
H H
OH OH

O O
A
H3N CH C O P O
O O
OH CH2
R O
H H + O P O P O
aminoacyl adenylate H H O O
OH OH
 42
C

O C
H H
H H A O
O OH
H H
O P O H H
O O OH A
- H H O
O
O P O + -
A
H H O O P O (2)
OH OH -
O H H CH2
OH O
O O H H H H
H2N CH C O P O
+ A O OH
H H
CH2 O C OH OH
R OH O
H H CH R
H H NH2
OH OH
aminoacyl-tRNA

Thus, the carboxylic group of the amino acid reacts with 3’-OH group of its tRNA.

5. а) Met-Asp-His-Ala-Ile-Asn-Val-Val-Gly-Trp-Ser-Val-Asp-Thr-Leu-Asp-Asp-Gly-Thr-
Glu-Ala or fMet-Asp-His-Ala-Ile-Asn-Val-Val-Gly-Trp-Ser-Val-Asp-Thr-Leu-Asp-Asp-Gly-
Thr-Glu-Ala, depending on the biosynthesizing species (Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes, or Archaea).
b) The third amino acid is tyrosine, and the last one is valine. All the rest positions are the same.
c) The N-terminal amino acid is leucine. All the rest positions are the same. It should be noted
that the translation in bacteria would not start without the START codon.
d) The last but one codon is changed into STOP codon, which will result in the oligopeptide
shorter by 2 amino acid residues than that in i. 5a.

6. AUG-GAU/C-GUN-AAU/C-CAU/C-CCN-GAA/G-UAU/C-GGN-AAA/G

7. The protein consists of 51000/110≈464 amino acid residues.

Hence, it is encoded by the mRNA containing 464*3+3=1395 nucleotide residues including the
STOP codon.
The length of mRNA is 1395*0.34=474.3≈474 nm.
The time needed for biosynthesis of the protein is:
1395/20=69.770 s, that is a bit more than one minute.

8. Taking into account that the A:C ratio is 1:5, the probability of finding A and C at any
position is 1/6 and 5/6, respectively. Thus, the probability of finding certain codons is:
AAA =(1/6)3=1/216 CCC=(5/6)3=125/216
AAC=(1/6)2*5/6=5/216 CCA=(5/6)2*1/6=25/216
ACA=1/6*5/6*1/6=5/216 CAC=5/6*1/6*5/6=25/216
ACC=1/6*(5/6)2=25/216 CAA=5/6*(1/6)2=5/216
Using the table of genetic code one gets: Lys:Asn:Thr:Pro:His:Gln=1:5:30:150:25:5
 43
9. Anticodon has no influence on the CCA3’ terminus. Thus, the mutant tRNA will add
tyrosine to the positions where serine was initially expected with respect to mRNA sequence.
This may lead to improper folding of the protein and total or partial loss of its functional activity.

10. Glu is encoded by GAA and GAG, and His by CAU and CAC. Two substitutions (of the
1st and 3rd residues) are needed to make this mutation true, which is quite improbable. Single
residue mutations occur much more frequently, and Glu to Gln mutation can serve as an example
(together with many other mutations of this type).

Problem 23. Intriguing translation

1. If X is an acyclic dipeptide, A and B should be composed of 28 atoms in total (25+3 for

H2O). In the case of an acyclic tripeptide similar calculations lead to 31 atoms in total (25+6 for
2H2O), this being true for any of two combinations of residues in the tripeptide (A+2B or
2A+B). Analysis of the structures of all proteinogenic amino acids given in Wikipedia suggests
glycine as one with the minimal number of atoms (10) followed by alanine formed by 13 atoms.
Thus, the tripeptide with the minimal number of atoms is composed of 2 glycines and 1 alanine.
The total number of atoms (33) in the amino acids forming this tripeptide exceeds 31, which
makes any tripeptide as well as large peptides impossible. Therefore, X is a dipeptide.

2. Both α-carboxylic and α-amino groups exist mostly in the ionic forms at pH 4.7.
Ionization state of the side groups at the given pH value should be determined individually based
on their pKa values as reported in Wikipedia. One should leave into consideration only amino
acids with the number of atoms less than 19 (28-10=18; this is maximal possible value in case
one of two amino acids is glycine). Surprisingly, the data found on different Wikipedia pages
lead to contradictory results. According to the former weblink
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinogenic_amino_acid), only ten amino acids can be further
considered. These are:
 44

Prevailing form at pH Amino Prevailing form at pH Number

Number
Amino 4.7 acid 4.7 of atoms
of
acid (according to (according to
atoms
Wikipedia) Wikipedia)

H COO- - COO-
Gly 10 Asp OOC 15
NH3+ NH3+

COO- COO-
Ala 13 Pro +
N H 17
NH3+
H

COO- COO-
Cys HS 14 Thr HO 17
NH3+ NH3+

+
COO- H3N COO-
Sec HSe 14 Asn 18
NH3+ O NH3+

COO- -
OOC COO-
Ser HO 14 Glu 18
NH3+ NH3+

The listed amino acids provide for the following dipeptides (without regard to N- and C-termini):
Ser-Cys, Ser-Sec, Cys-Sec, Gly-Asn, Gly-Glu и Asp-Ala. Taking into account the residue
positioning (N- or C-terminal), one gets two different dipeptides for each of 4 former pairs, and 3
dipeptides for each 2 latter pairs (note that β-carboxyl group of Asp and γ-carboxyl group of Glu
can be also involved in peptide bond formation; see an example below).

O COO-
O NH3+ O
-
OOC N COO- N COO- -
OOC N COO-
+H +H H
NH3 NH3
(1) (2) (3)

Thus, the total number of dipeptides equals to 14. However, serious caution is needed when
using Wikipedia, since it is a collection of the user-generated content. Note that pKa values of
some groups are absolutely incorrect (section “Side Chain Properties”). In particular, the side
group of Asn is absolutely non-protonated at pH 4.7. Finally, the correct number of individual
peptides is 12 (excluding Gly-Asn and Asn-Gly).
 45
Screenshot of the webpage http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinogenic_amino_acid dated
20.10.2012 is given below. Being irresponsible of these mistakes, authors of the problem
promise to correct the data after publishing the Solutions to Preparatory problems.

At the same time, the pKa values found at the other webpage
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid) are correct.

3. One should analyze all five variants of dipeptides (with no regard to N- and C-termini)
from i. 2 by calculating masses of corresponding precipitates. Typical procedure is given below
for the correct answer (Cys-Sec):
C6H12N2O3SSe + 9.5O2 → 6CO2 + SO2 + SeO2 + N2 + 6H2O (1);
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O (2);
Ca(OH)2 + SO2 → CaSO3↓ + H2O (3);
Ca(OH)2 + SeO2 → CaSeO3↓ + H2O (4).
Number of moles of dipeptide: 1.000 g 271.19 g/mol = 3.687 ∙ 10−3 mol. Thus, the mass of
precipitate is:
m precipitate = 3.687 ∙ 10−3 mol ∗ 6 ∗ 100.09 + 120.14 + 167.04 g/mol = 3.273 g
However, further calculations according to the equations of chemical reactions of precipitate
dissolution in hydrochloric acid
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2↑+ H2O (5);
CaSO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + SO2↑+ H2O (6),
provide for contradictory results. Gas volume given in the task is by approx. 15% less than that
obtained from the calculations. The only reason behind the difference is the deficiency of
 46
hydrochloric acid with respect to the precipitate amount (Note that by contrast to the rest of the
task, there is no indication of an excess or deficiency in the case of hydrochloric acid!).
Since the available data is insufficient to decide on the sequence of amino acid residues, both
Cys-Sec and Sec-Cys are accepted as correct answers for X.
SeH SH
O O
(R) (R) (R) (R)
HS N COOH HSe N COOH
H H
NH2 NH2
(1) (2)

4. The –SeH group is a much stronger reducing agent than the –SH group. Thus, Sec is very
readily oxidized, which makes its presence as free selenocysteine inside a cell impossible.

5. Searching for a correlation between the given images and sequences is much easier than
can be expected. There could be many ways to reach the correct answer. A sample strategy is
given below. First, one should decide which of the fragments refers to human RNA. Genomes of
the viruses belonging to the same family should be phylogenetically close, with a slight
divergence form the common ancestor. Indeed, sequences 1 and 3 reveal high similarity, both
dramatically differing from sequence 2, the latter thus being attributed to human cell. Next step
is the search for nucleotides corresponding to the black boxes in the image of human RNA. Note
that there are colorless and grey boxes to the ends from black ones. These include 9 nucleotides
at the 5’- and 11 nucleotides at the 3’-end. These forbidden areas are highlighted red in the
hereunder sequence. Nucleotides corresponding to the black boxes are located between the red
fragments, and should be twice two consecutive purine nucleotides AG, AA or GG (all options
highlighted yellow). Furthermore, there should be exactly 30 nucleotides between the yellow
fragments, which allows the final assignment (highlighted yellow and underlined).

AGGCACUCAUGACGGCCUGCCUGCAAACCUGCUGGUGGGGCAGACCCGAAAAUCCCAC

Thus, the encircled codon is UGA, which can be also found in fragments 1 and 3. Using the
above strategy, one can fill in the rest two images and find the correlation between the images
and fragments (fragments 1, 2, and 3 refer to the images of the fowlpox virus, homo sapiens, and
canarypox virus, respectively).
 47

6. Guanine-uracil is the so-called Wobble Base Pair.

O

N H O N
N
R O H N N
R
N
H2N

7. UGA, according to the table of genetic code, is known as the STOP codon terminating
translation. However, it is stated in the problem that the chain elongation proceeds after UGA
(variants 2 and 3 invalid). UGA is similarly located in sequences of very dissimilar organisms (a
mammal and viruses), which underlines its importance for translation and makes variant 5 hardly
possible. Variant 4 can be also discriminated, since translation is an uninterruptible process.

Thus, variant 1 is the correct answer. Indeed, UGA in a certain motive (referred to as SECIS
element, Selenocysteine Insertion Sequence) is read as the codon determining selenocysteine
inclusion into polypeptides. In viruses, SECIS element is located in the translated region of
RNA. In eukaryotes, this hairpin-like structure is found in the unreadable part of mRNA (in 3’-
untranslated region, 3’-UTR), and Sec is not found in human proteins.

8. Knowledge of the UGA position allows setting the reading frame. In principle, there
could be various mutations meeting the requirements. Examples are given below.
 48
Choosing a mutation, one should keep in mind that the wild type and mutant codons must encode
the same amino acid. Also, nucleotides of this codon should not be involved in maintaining the
secondary structure of SECIS element (no hydrogen bonding to opposite nucleotides). Thus, one
can suggest U-23→С-23 mutation for the fowlpox virus (both are tyrosine codons), and A-
28→G-28 mutation for the canarypox virus (both are lysine codons).

Problem 24. Unusual amino acids: search for new properties

1. Calculation of molar ratios of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in A-C allows determining their
minimal molecular weights corresponding to the net formulae (note that isotopic ratios of C, H,
N and O are native):
Calculation of minimal
Compound Calculation of ratios
molecular weights, g/mole
31.09 5.74 16.57 60.05 ∙ 100
A 𝑛 C ∶ 𝑛 H ∶ 𝑛(O) = : : = 5 ∶ 11 ∶ 2 𝑀= = 193.1
12.01 1.008 16.00 31.09

26.67 5.04 17.77 48.04 ∙ 100

B 𝑛 C ∶ 𝑛 H ∶ 𝑛(O) = : : =4∶9∶2 𝑀= = 180.1
12.01 1.008 16.00 26.67

9.24 3.10 12.01 ∙ 100

C 𝑛 C ∶𝑛 H = : = 1 ∶ 2.25 = 1 ∶ 4 𝑀= = 130.0
12.01 1.008 9.24

With provision of the upper bound (M<250 g/mole), true and minimal molecular weights
coincide. The residual molecular weights available for the other two elements (besides C, H, and
O) in A and B are of 90.0 and 91.0 g/mole, respectively. There are two possible reasons behind
the difference in the residual molecular weights for A and B (91.0-90.0=1 g/mole). These are
dissimilarity of atomic weights of the fifth elements in A and B and/or different number of
nitrogen atoms in these compounds. All possible variants of the number of nitrogen atoms
(cannot exceed 6) in A are considered in the hereunder table:
Number of N Residual molecular weight left Variants of the 5th
Biochemical sense
atoms in A for the 5th element in A element
1 76 - -
2 62 2P To be considered
1 Ti? Impossible
2 Mg? Impossible
3 48
3 O? Impossible
4 C? Impossible
4 34 - -
5 20 1 Ne? Impossible
6 6 6 H? Impossible
 49
With provision of the inequality given in the problem text, the variant of 2 nitrogen atoms in A
corresponds to 1 or 2 nitrogen atoms in B, and 75 or 63 g/mole left for the 5th element in the
latter compound, respectively. No reasonable variants are in agreement with the above values.
Therefore, we seem to have come up against a brick wall.

2. Difference by 1 g/mole in the molecular weights of the 5th element in A and B is left as the
only reason. This can be true in case of isotopes (note that native isotope ratios are mentioned
only for four elements!). If so, isotopes should be stable (stability of all initial compounds) and
most likely of one and the same element (A, B, and C are precursors of the same compound X).
With account of the equal number of nitrogen atoms in A and B, the following set of isotope
combinations is available: 20-21, 34-35, 48-49, 62-63, 76-77. Furthermore, the difference of 1
g/mole unambiguously suggests only one atom of the 5th element in each of A and B.

Two sets of stable isotopes (48Ti-49Ti and 76Se-77Se) formally fit well. Since there are no native
titanium-containing amino acids, the elemental composition of A and B is finally found as: C, H,
N, O, and Se.

3. As determined above, the molecular formula of B is C4H9SeNO2. Four structures can be

proposed for this α-amino acid. The rightmost structure contains two chiral atoms, thus being
invalid, whereas the leftmost one is unstable. So, two central structures are left as the correct
answer.

Se COOH COOH HSe COOH 

Se COOH
HSe
NH2 NH2 NH2
NH2

4. Both R- and S-amino acids are found in nature. Since it is not mentioned in the problem
text which exactly of A and B is found in proteins, it is impossible to unambiguously assign
configurations of α-carbon atoms without additional information.

5. Gases A1, B1, and С1 have molecular weights of 106, 107 and 112 g/mole, respectively. It
is seen that the difference in the molecular weights of A and B (1 g/mole) is retained for their
metabolites. Thus, A1 and B1 are likely to be isotopologues. Besides selenium, A1 and B1
contain elements with a total residual molecular weight of 106 – 76 = 30 g/mole. Since gaseous
metabolites contain hydrogen, there are two possible variants of their molecular formula: C2H6Se
or CH2SeO. With provision of identity of hydrogen atoms in A1, the following structures are
possible:
H3C CH или
or H2C Se
Se 3
O
 50
Of these two, only dimethylselenide does not contain π-bonds. Finally, A1 is (CH3)276Se, and B1
is (CH3)277Se.

6. The atomic weight of selenium isotope in С1 is 76 + (112-106) = 82 a.u. (Note that the
final metabolite is the same for all three initial original compounds!). Residual molecular weight
left for the 4th element in C (it consists of only four elements) is 130 – 16 – 82 = 32 g/mole,
which corresponds to two atoms of oxygen. Thus, the molecular formula of C is CH4O282Se.

Presence of methyl groups in C1 as well as lack of C–O bonds in the structure allow the final
ascertainment of the structural formula of C (the leftmost of the hereunder ones with 82Se):

H3C OH O H
Se или
or H3C Se
O O

Then, X is methyleselenide CH3SeH, and C1 is (CH3)2Se produced as result of X methylation

(transferase reaction).

7. As determined in i. 6, methylation is the second step of the processes under consideration.

With respect to extremely high specificity of enzymes, all substrates subjected to methylation
should be very similar. Thus, the isotopologues of X (CH376SeH and CH377SeH) are the only
reasonable intermediates on the way from A and B to A1 and B1, respectively. These
intermediates can directly originate only from compounds containing CH3-Se- residue. Thus,
selenomethionine and methylselenocysteine can be attributed to A and B:
Se COOH COOH
Se
NH2 NH2
A B

8. Since the experiment under discussion is aimed at revealing pathways of selenium

metabolism, it is reasonable to check masses of selenium in each of the administered
compounds. Calculations involving the molecular weights of A, B, and C and masses of these
compounds in the mixture provide for a wonderful result: the mixture contains 25 μg of each of
selenium isotopes.

9. Variant 2 is the correct choice. Selenomethionine is structurally similar to methionine

(compare the structures hereunder), which sometimes leads to mistakes in translation and false
insertion of selenium-containing amino acid instead of sulfur-containing one.
 51
Se COOH S COOH

NH2 NH2
селенометионин
Selenomethionine метионин
Methionine

76
Isotope Se is found in nature (~1% of the total selenium pool), so the residue of
selenomethionine with 76Se can be found (though rarely) in proteins.

Variant 1 is impossible, since posttranslational modification leading to A should involve

methylation of selenohomocysteine residue, the latter amino acid also lacking its own tRNA:

HSe COOH Se COOH

NH2 NH2

Variants 3 and 5 are impossible, since protein biosynthesis admits the only way of polypeptide
chain elongation, which involves an amino acid residue transfer from aminoacyl-tRNA.

Variant 4 is impossible for the same reasons as Variant 2. Methylselenocysteine is structurally

similar to S-methylcysteine (compare the hereunder structures), which is not a canonical amino
acid, thus lacking its own tRNA:

COOH COOH
Se S
NH2 NH2
метилселеноцистеин метилцистеин
Methylselenocystein Methylcysteine
e

Problem 25. Specific features of Clostridium metabolism

1. Glucose consists of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. As a result of its fermentation in H2O
the following gaseous (at STP) products could be theoretically formed:
1) Molecular hydrogen,
2) Various hydrocarbons,
3) Formaldehyde,
4) CO and CO2.
Absence of C-H bonds in C and D allows excluding variants 2 and 3 from further consideration.

Molecular mass of the gas mixture is 10.55*2 g/mol = 21.1 g/mol. It is obvious that hydrogen is
one of the two gases, whereas either CO or CO2 is the other one. CO seems to be an improbable
variant; still all the options should be checked by applying the hereunder formula for n:
 52
𝑛 10
𝑀 𝑪 ∙ +𝑀 𝑫 ∙ = 21.1
𝑛 + 10 𝑛 + 10
211 − 10 ∙ 𝑚(𝑫)
𝑛=
𝑀 𝑪 − 21.1

C D Coefficient n
H2 CO2 12.0
CO2 H2 8.3
H2 CO 9.6
CO H2 27.7

Since n is integer in only one case, C and D are attributed to H2 and CO2, respectively.

Note that bacterial cultures exist in specific, sometimes solid, nutritious media. Thus,
conventional data of gases (in particular, of CO2) solubility in water may be inapplicable.

2. With respect to the results in i. 1, the updated reaction (1) is rewritten as:
5С6H12O6 + kH2O → lA + mB + 12H2 + 10CO2
a) In the case when each of A and B is a saturated monocarboxylic acids, the equation
transforms into:
5С6H12O6 + kH2O → lСxH2xO2 + mСyH2yO2 + 12H2 + 10CO2,
where x and y are the numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms in C and D, respectively.

With account of the balance of the elements numbers, one gets the hereunder system of
equations:

Element Balance equation

C l·x + m·y = 20
H 18 + k = l·x + m·y
O k = 2l + 2m – 10

It is seen from the first two equations that k = 2. Thus, the equation for oxygen can be rewritten
as l + m = 6

b) In the case when A is a saturated monocarboxylic and B a saturated dicarboxylic acids

(reverse variant is equivalent), the equation transforms into:
5С6H12O6 + kH2O → lСxH2xO2 + mСyH2y-2O4 + 12H2 + 10CO2,
where x and y are the numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms in C and D, respectively.

Further analysis provides an analogous system of equations:

Element Balance equation

C l·x + m·y = 20
H 18 + k = l·x + m·y – m
O k = 2l + 4m – 10
 53
There is only one set of integer values corresponding to m = k = 1. Still, then l=3.5, which is in
contradiction with the conditions of the problem.

A and B with higher number of carboxylic groups (for example, two dicarboxylic acids) are
impossible, as this results in negative k, l, or m.

3. l and m are integers, and l + m = 6. This suggests the following possible ratios: 1:1 (3:3),
1:2 (2:4) and 1:5. Still, l·x +m·y = 20, which makes the ratio of 1:1 impossible (both x and y non-
integer, 20/3 = 6.67). Ratios of 2:1 and 5:1 are theoretically possible. Thus, the correct variants
are b, e and f.

4. The next step is a search for integer solutions of the equation l·x + m·y = 20 for the ratios
established in i. 3.
l = 2; m = 4 l = 1; m = 5
х y х y
8 1 15 1
6 2 10 2
4 3 5 3
2 4

Since the number of carbon atoms decreases as a result of fermentation (x<6 and y<6), only the
variants underlined in the above table are left for consideration. These correspond to four
unbranched monocarboxylic acids:
H3C COOH COOH COOH COOH
acetic acid propanoic acid butyric acid valeric acid

Further discrimination of the variants based on the available data is impossible.

For your information: A and B are acetic and butyric acids, respectively.
5. Since Zstart and Zfinish contain the same number of nitrogen atoms, a system of equations
(2) and (3) can be set up:
𝑎 𝑎
= 0.12727 2 ; = 0.12069 (3)
𝑏 𝑏+𝑛
𝑏 = 18.34 ∙ 𝑛
where a is the number of N atoms, whereas b and b+n are the total numbers of atoms in Zfinish
and Zstart, respectively.

The given limitation of less than 100 atoms in each of Zstart and Zfinish can be written as n<6.
Variable b is necessarily integer, thus leading to the solely possible combination of b=55 and
n=3. So, Zstart and Zfinish are composed of 58 and 55 atoms, respectively. This means that Zstart
loses 3 atoms in acetyl-CoA formation.
 54
6. The difference in the number of hydrogen atoms in Zstart and Zfinish is:
Δ𝑁𝐻 = 𝑁𝐻 𝒁𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐫𝐭 − 𝑁𝐻 𝒁𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐬𝐡 = 58 ∙ 0.43103 − 55 ∙ 0.41818 = 2

Thereby, two of three atoms appearing in acetyl-CoA from Zstart are hydrogen atoms. Oxygen or
carbon can be the third atom lost by Zstart. In the former case, Zstart loses H2O, and in the latter
case CH2-group, which is formally equivalent to substituting a CH3-group with 1 hydrogen atom.

Both variants can be rewritten in a form of equations (4) and (5):

Z-CH3 + CoA-SH + E → Z-H + CH3-CO-SCoA (4);
H-Z-OH + CoA-SH + E → Z + CH3-CO-SCoA (5).

Equation (5) is invalid with any E, whereas equation (4) is correct, if E is carbon monoxide CO
formed via enzymatic reduction of CO2.

Since bacteria cultivation proceeds in the presence of isotope-labeled CO2, the number and
isotope distribution of nitrogen atoms in acetyl CoA are not influenced. Thus, the molecular
mass of acetyl-CoA isotopologues is:

100 ∙ 14.01 ∙ 7
𝑀 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑐𝐶𝑜𝐴 = = 811.8 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
12.08

Molecular mass of unlabeled acetyl-CoA is 809.5. With account of rounding of nitrogen mass
fractions, the difference is of 2 g/mol. Two hereunder variants are possible:
1) CO2 labeled with 13C enters the reaction, thus giving acetyl residue with two 13C atoms;
2) CO2 labeled with two 18O enters the reaction, thus giving acetyl residue with 18O atom.

It is impossible to distinguish between D1 and D2 basing on the available data:

D1 – 13CO2 or C18O2; D2 – 13CO2 or C18O2.

The above considered acetyl-CoA biosynthesis is referred to as the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway.

For your information. Exact attributing of D1 and D2 is possible using physico-chemical

methods of analysis. Both isotopes are stable, which makes the radioactivity based methods
useless. The suitable methods include mass-spectrometry (different patterns are formed for
13
molecular fragments) and C-NMR spectroscopy (18O isotope is not used in NMR
spectroscopy).

7. The initial nucleotide ratio is 1:1, thus the probability of finding G or C at any position
equals ½. Hence, the probability of any of eight possible codons is of 1/2*1/2*1/2=1/8. Four
amino acids are each encoded by two codons composed of only G and/or C. Thus, the ratio
 55
between Pro, Arg, Gly, and Ala is 1:1:1:1. However, with account of the limited length of the
oligopeptide (about 33 amino acid residues), there could be significant deviations from the above
ratio. So, variant 6 is the most correct choice.

8. Using the table of genetic code, one can write down the nucleotide sequences of the
initial and mutant mRNA fragments (see designations of N and N1/N2 in Problem 22, i. 6):
UGG-CAU/C-AUG-GAA/G-UAU/C (initial);
UGG-ACN-UAU/C-GGN-GUN (mutant).

Comparison of two sequences suggests that the mutation (insertion of A) occurred right after the
first codon. Mutations influencing polypeptide biosynthesis are classified into two groups: the
substitution of base pairs and the frameshift. The latter happens upon deletion or insertion of
nucleotides in a number not multiple of three. Then, the initial sequence can be rewritten as:
UGGCAUAUGGAGUAU/С

If the mutant protein ends up with the 234rd amino acid residue, the biosynthesis is terminated by
a STOP codon present next. Since STOP codons always start with U, the completely deciphered
sequence of nucleotides is:
UGGCAUAUGGAGUAU

Problem 26. Analysis of complex formation

[𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠]
1. K𝑏 = 𝐀𝐛 ∙[𝐀𝐠]

[𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠] K 𝑏 𝐀𝐛 ∙[𝐀𝐠] K 𝑏 [𝐀𝐠]

2. 𝑛= = =
𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠 +[𝐀𝐛] K 𝑏 𝐀𝐛 ∙[𝐀𝐠]+[𝐀𝐛] K 𝑏 [𝐀𝐠]+1

Kb = 1010
1.0

Kb = 109
0.8
Kb = 108
0.6
n

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 2.0x10-8 4.0x10-8 6.0x10-8
[Ag]
 56
As seen, the titration curves are strongly non-linear, which makes their analysis complicated.

[𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠] [𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠]
3. K𝑏 = 𝐀𝐛 ∙[𝐀𝐠]
⇒ [𝐀𝐠]
= K 𝑏 (C𝐀𝐛 − [𝐀𝐛 ∗ 𝐀𝐠])

Thus, a plot in such coordinates (referred to as the Scatchard ones) should be a straight line with
the slope of –Kb and the intercept of CAbKb (CAb is the total Ab concentration).

This is proved by plotting Set A data, point #6 is seemingly an outlier:

1.5
[Ab*Ag]/[Ag]

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 20 40 60 80

[Ab*Ag], mol/L

From the experimental data, Kb = 2·104 L/mol.

According to the above equation, with a 10 times higher Kb, values for both the intercept (1.64
from the original data) and the slope should be 10 times higher:

20

15
[Ab*Ag]/[Ag]

10

0
0 20 40 60 80

[Ab*Ag], mol/L

4. If all the binding sites are independent, and Kb does not depend on the fraction of
occupied binding sites, mathematically there is no difference between x molecules of antibody
with valence N and N·x molecules of antibody with valence 1. Thus, the above mentioned
Scatchard equation is only slightly modified to account for several binding sites per antibody:
[𝐀𝐛∗𝐀𝐠]
[𝐀𝐠]
= K 𝑏 (N · C𝐀𝐛 − [𝐀𝐛 ∗ 𝐀𝐠]).
 57

1.4

1.2

1.0

[Ab*Ag]/[Ag]
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

[Ab*Ag], mol/L

The experimental data fit a straight line with a slope of -0.0660 (corresponding to Kb = 6.6·104
L/mol) and an intercept of 1.46. Thus, 1.46 = K 𝑏 ∙ N · C𝐀𝐛 = 6.6 ∙ 104 ∙ 𝑁 ∙ 1.1 ∙ 10−5 ⇒ 𝑁 = 2.

5. A clear way to determine CAb follows from the fact that the Kb value influences both the
slope and the intercept of the plot in Scatchard coordinates. As soon as Kb is determined from the
slope of the curve, CAb can be immediately calculated, provided the antibody valence N is
known. For instance, for the set A, N=1, Kb = 2·104 L/mol; CAb = 1.64 / 2·104 ≈ 82 mol/L,
which reasonably corresponds to the given value of 80 M. It can be concluded, thus, that the
ADP protein does not contain any functionally inactive antibodies or other impurities.

The same analysis for the set B is impossible, because the real enzyme valence is not known a
priori. (Value N = 2 determined above has been obtained under assumption of 100% enzyme
purity.)

Problem 27. Inorganic polymers: polyphosphates and polysilicones

1. Well known examples are: C (acethylenic carbon), S (various forms of polymeric sulfur),
Se (grey selenium), P (red phosphorus), As (black arsenic), Sb (black antimony). Not all of these
substances consist of perfectly linear chain molecules, but for sure these elements are capable of
forming quite long polymers.

2. 2HPO2− 4−
4 ⇄ P2 O7 + H2 O (ionization state of the phosphate precursor depends on pH).

3. With Pi standing for a polyphosphate with the degree of polymerization of i, for the
reaction
Pm OH + Pn OH ⇄ Pm OPn + H2 O
 58
[P m +n ][H 2 O]
𝐾= .
P m OH [P n OH ]

As polyphosphates of various degrees of polymerization are not distinguishable, each of

concentrations [Pm], [Pn], [Pm+n] can be substituted with the total concentration of all phosphate
species, thus,
[Pm+n ][H2 O] [H2 O]
𝐾= =
Pm OH [Pn OH] Pi

4. The following reasons should be taken into account. First, the free energy of hydrolysis is
strongly negative, which means that the free energy of condensation (the reverse reaction) is
positive. Thus, the equilibrium constant of an elementary condensation stage is low (less than 1),
which is not consistent with the high-polymeric phosphate species. In general, lower equilibrium
concentration of (poly)phosphate molecules means that more individual condensations have
taken place, which is equivalent to the higher average degree of polymerization of the product.
This is true for process ii): lower water concentration (at a certain equilibrium constant value)
corresponds to lower equilibrium concentration of phosphate molecules (from the expression
derived in i. 3). Thus, process ii) is more favorable than i). However, process iii) is the most
favorable. According to the equation

a highly volatile HCl is formed, which is efficiently removed from the reaction mixture by
heating. As a result, the equilibrium is shifted rightwards.

Indeed, only route iii) can be applied in practice for the preparation of polyphosphoric acids.
Condensation in concentrated solutions (process ii)) is quite slow, and yields significant amounts
of polyphosphoric acids only upon heating (molten H3PO4, 230-250°C). Direct condensation in
dilute solution (process i)) is so unfavorable that may come true only when coupled with a
certain exoergic reaction (for instance, substrate phosphorylation in various biochemical
processes) with the actual mechanism much more complicated than direct condensation.
 59
5.

The main chain of the polymer molecule is composed of Si and O atoms:

6, 7. The Si–Cl bond is much more reactive than the C–Cl one in hydrolysis and condensation
reactions. Thus, A2 can be considered bifunctional in polycondensation reaction, giving a non-
branched polymer with the cyclic giant macromolecule of poly(chlorodimethylsiloxane) as the
final product when absolutely all Si-Cl bonds are reacted:

A1 is trifunctional, thus giving rise to a branched polymer:

If hydrolysis of Si-Cl bonds is incomplete, some Cl residues are present in the polymeric
product. Incomplete condensation retains a number of OH–groups in the product.
 60
Problem 28. Determination of copper and zinc by complexometric titration

1. Cu + 4HNO3 (conc.) = Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O

Zn + 4HNO3 (conc.) = Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O

Cu2+ + Na2H2EDTA = CuH2EDTA + 2Na+

Zn2+ + Na2H2EDTA = ZnH2EDTA + 2Na+

2. Cu2+ ions present in the aqueous solution are reduced to Cu+ by thiosulfate. Moreover, the
latter forms with Cu+ a soluble complex [Cu(S2O3)3]5–, which is more stable than Cu2H2EDTA:
2Cu2+ + 8S2O32– = 2[Cu(S2O3)3]5– + S4O62–

3. Metal ions can be titrated with EDTA if the conditional stability constants β’ of the metal
– EDTA complexes are not less than 108–109. The β’ values are connected with the real
constants β as
β’ = αEDTA αM β,
where αEDTA and αM are molar fractions of H2EDTA2– and free metal ion, respectively. As the
values of αEDTA and αM significantly depend on pH of the solution, there is an optimal pH range
for the titration of metals. In the case of Cu2+ and Zn2+, the pH value within 5 to 6 is optimal. In
such slightly acidic medium both metals do not form hydroxy complexes (αM is high), whilst
H2EDTA2– is not further protonated (αEDTA is high).

4. α(H2EDTA2-) = K1K2[H+]2 / (K1K2K3K4 + K1K2K3[H+] + K1K2[H+]2 + K1[H+]3 + [H+]4)

[H+] = 10-6 M, K1 = 1.0·10–2, K2 = 2.1·10–3, K3 = 6.9·10–7, K4 = 5.5·10–11
α(H2EDTA2-) = 0,59

5. The first titration (B) gives the volume of titrant VCu+Zn, whilst the second one (C) gives
VZn. Zn2+ concentration is calculated as follows:
c(Zn2+) = (VZn mL/1000 mL L-1) . cEDTA mol L-1 . 100 mL/10.00 mL . 65.39 g mol-1 / 0.1000 L
c(Zn2+) g L-1 = VZn mL . cEDTA mol L-1 . 65.39 g mol-1 . 0.1 mL-1
c(Cu2+) = ((VCu+Zn - VZn ) mL/1000 mL L-1) . cEDTA mol L-1 . 100 mL/10.00 mL . 63.55 g mol-1 /
0.1000 L
c(Cu2+) g L-1 = (VCu+Zn - VZn) mL . cEDTA mol L-1 . 63.55 g mol-1 . 0.1 mL-1
The mass ratio of the metals in alloy is calculated from c(Cu2+) and c(Zn2+) values in g L-1:
m(Cu)/m(Zn) = c(Cu2+)/c(Zn2+)
 61
Problem 29. Conductometric determination of ammonium nitrate and nitric
acid

1. Equilibria in the system can be described by the following equations:

H+ + OH– ⇆ H2O (1)

NH4 + OH ⇆ NH3 + H2O
+ –
(2)

2, 3. Conductivity of a solution is primarily dependent on the concentration of H+ and OH–

ions (species with the highest mobility) as well as on that of salts. Solutions A and B contain the
same amount of NH4NO3 (solution A with an excess of ammonia reveals a bit higher
conductivity). On the titration curves, there are monotonously descending portions reflecting the
displacement of the weak base (NH3) from its salt (reaction 2). Minimum conductivity is reached
when the concentration of protons appearing from NH4+ hydrolysis is minimal (reaction 2
completed). This is further changed by a sharp rise corresponding to the increasing excess of
alkali.
In the case of solution C, the first descending portion is steeper (than those for A and B) and is
associated with diminishing concentration of free protons coming from HNO3. The first
equivalence point causes a sharp break of the curve (reaction 1 completed). The second
descending portion characterized by a lower slope reflects the displacement of the weak base
from its salt (reaction 2). Minimum conductivity is also reached when reaction 2 is completed,
which is followed by a sharp rise of conductivity due to the alkali excess.
 62

Conductivity, mS/cm

A B C

Titration of NH4NO3 (A), of NH4NO3 in

the presence of an excess of NH3 (B),
and of HNO3 followed by that of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NH4NO3 (C).
Volume of NaOH added, mL

E
Conductivity, mS/cm

C
Titration of solutions of HNO3 and
NH4NO3 diluted with deionized water
(C), distilled water (D), and deionized
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 water containing NaCl (E).
Volume of NaOH added, mL

The difference between cases C, D, and E is due to various levels of conductivity caused by the
salts that are not titrated with NaOH.

4. Calculations can be done in the same way as for a regular acid-base titration, using titrant
volumes in inflection points VNaOH(1), VNaOH(2):
cH+Vsample = cNaOHVNaOH(1), cNH4+Vsample = cNaOH·(VNaOH(2)– VNaOH(1))
Examples.
 63
A and B: if 2.45 mL of 0.9987 M NaOH spent until the inflection point, then cNH4+ is: 0.9987 
2,45 = cNH4+  25; cNH4+ = 0.0979 M.
C - E: if 2.40 mL of 0.9987 M NaOH spent until the first inflection point (neutralization of
HNO3) in a 25.0 mL sample aliquot, then cHNO3 = 0.0895 M. If the second inflection point
reached at 4.85 mL, then cNH4+ is: 0.9987  (4.85 – 2.40) = cNH4+  25; cNH4+ = 0.0979 M.

5. HCl first neutralizes the strong base, which

is followed by neutralization of the weak one. So, the
titration curve of a mixture of two bases reveals two
breaks. NaOH neutralization is accompanied by a

Conductivity, mS/cm
linear decrease of conductivity due to lowering
concentration of highly mobile hydroxyl ions. After
the first equivalence point, conductivity starts
increasing due to the formation of a well
dissociating salt (a strong electrolyte) as a result of
0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume of HCl added,mL
ammonia (a weak electrolyte) neutralization. After
the second equivalence point, conductivity of the solution sharply increases due to the excess of
hydrogen ions.

Problem 30. Analysis of fire retardants by potentiometric titration

1. Titration curves for a polyprotic acid (such as phosphoric acid) or a mixture of acids are
characterized by more than one endpoint if Ka1:Ka2 ≥ 104 and the equilibrium constant of acidity
of the weak acid is more than n×10–9. The equilibrium constants of acidity of phosphoric acid
are: Ka1 = 7.1×10–3, Ka2 = 6.2×10–8, Ka3 = 5.0×10–13. Thus, there are two breaks on the titration
curve of phosphoric acid (Fig. 1). The third break is not observed due to very low value of Ka3.

Fig. 1. Titration of a mixture of hydrochloric

and phosphoric acids with sodium hydroxide.
 64
During titration of a mixture of hydrochloric and phosphoric acids, the proton of hydrochloric
acid and the first proton of phosphoric acid react with sodium hydroxide simultaneously. By the
second endpoint H2PO4– is converted into HPO42–.

2. The first and second equivalence points of H3PO4 are observed at pH of about 4.7 and
9.6, respectively. For determination of hydrochloric and phosphoric acids in their mixture, one
can use indicators with color change around these pH values (for example, bromocresol green
and thymol phthalein for the first and second titrations, respectively).

3. The following reaction takes place on addition of HCl to the sample:

(NH4)2HPO4 + 2HCl = 2NH4Cl + H3PO4
Formaldehyde reacts with ammonium salts to form hexamethylene tetrammonium cation:
4NH4+ + 6H2CO = (CH2)6(NH+)4+ 6H2O
The equations describing the titration of hexamethylene tetrammonium salt, hydrochloric and
phosphoric acids with sodium hydroxide:
(CH2)6(NH+)4 + 4OH– = (CH2)6N4 + 4H2O
HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O
H3PO4 + NaOH = NaH2PO4 + H2O
NaH2PO4 + NaOH = Na2HPO4 + H2O

4. A typical analysis of potentiometric titration data is shown in Fig. 2. The most steeply
rising portion on the curve (a) corresponds to the endpoint, which can be found more precisely
by studying dependences of the first (maximum on curve (b)) or second (zero value on curve (c))
derivatives. In the presence of ammonium salts, the reaction corresponding to the second end
point in H3PO4 titration
H2PO4– + OH– = HPO42– + H2O
is overlaid by the process
NH4+ + OH– = NH3 + H2O,
which makes the potential rise gradually rather than sharply (ammonium buffer).
 65

Fig. 2. Typical plots

of potentiometric
titration:
(a) titration curve of
an acid with a base;
(b) curve of the first
derivative;
(c) curve of the
second derivative.

5. (a) Calculation of phosphate amount

With VNaOH,1 designating the volume of sodium hydroxide used in titration A, the amount needed
to neutralize hydrochloric acid and the first proton of phosphoric acid is:
nPO4 + nHCl (titrated) = cNaOH × VNaOH,1
At the same time,
cHCl × VHCl (added) = nHCl (titrated) + 2nPO4 (HCl spent for the reaction with (NH4)2HPO4)
Then,
nPO4 = cHCl × VHCl (added) – cNaOH × VNaOH,1
Since n(NH4)2HPO4 = nPO4, one finally gets:
ω(NH4)2HPO4 = 10 × nPO4 × M(NH4)2HPO4 / mmixture

(b) Calculation of the total amount of diammonium hydrophosphate and ammonium chloride
With VNaOH,2 designating the volume of sodium hydroxide used in titration B (that is, spent for
the neutralization of hexamethylene tetrammonium cation (CH2)6(NH+)4 obtained from the
ammonium salts), one gets:
nNH4Cl + 2nPO4 = cNaOH × VNaOH,2
The amount of phosphate n(NH4)2H3PO4 was determined in experiment A, which allows calculating
the amount of NH4Cl
nNH4Cl = cNaOH × VNaOH,2 – 2·(cHCl × VHCl – cNaOH × VNaOH,1)
and its content in the mixture:
ωNH4Cl = 10 × nNH4Cl × MNH4Cl / mmixture
 66

Problems 31-33. Melting points and yields of the products

Problem # Product Melting point, °С Yield, %

31 N-[(E)-Phenylmethylene]aniline 51-53 85
32 Osazone of D-glucose 205-207 62
33 Acetone derivative of mannose 118-120 79
33 Acetone derivative of cysteine 148-150 68

Problem 31. Formation of double carbon-nitrogen bond

1. Hemiaminal.

O
OH

R R R R

H N H

NH3 R'
NH2

R' H+ R'

H H
OH O

R R H+ R R

N N
H+ H2O
H R' H R'

hemiaminal

R R R R

H+ N
N
H R' R'

The rate-determining steps are:

 67
The amine attack at the carbonyl carbon atom at low pH, since most of the amine molecules are
protonated;
Dehydration of the tetrahedral hemiaminal intermediate at high pH, since this requires protons.

2. Both reactions proceed through the positively charged intermediates, iminium and
oxonium ions, respectively. While the former just loses the proton to form the final product, the
later acts as an electrophile adding another molecule of alcohol to become the full acetal.

3.

pyruvic acid
H3C CO2H H3C CO2H

H3C CO2H
N N

O
R OH R OH

H2N - H2O
N CH3 N CH3

R OH
H H

N CH3

pyridoxamine phosphate,
O
R = CH2OPO3H alanine

R OH
H3C CO2H

NH2 N CH3

pyridoxal phosphate,

R = CH2OPO3H
 68

4.
O

H+
H
N
Me Me

Me Me
N

H B CN

Me Me
N

5.

H+ H2C O
H2C O
H

H
N

H H+

N N
H+ O
O
H H
H H H
H

N H
N CH2
O H 2O
H
H H
 69
H
H2C O
H+
H2C O

NHMe

CH3
H3C

NHMe

H H H
O O
H

MeN NHMe MeN NHMe

H3C CH3 H3C CH3

MeN NMe MeN NMe

H+
H 2O H3C CH3
H3C CH3

Problem 32. Osazone of glucose

1.
H
O N Ph

N H
N Ph
H OH
N

HO H
HO H
3 PhNhNH2 + NH3 + PhNH2
H OH
H OH

H OH
H OH

CH2OH
CH2OH

2. D-Glucose, since phenylhydrazine is taken in an excess.

3. The appropriate phenyhydrazone of aldehyde.

 70
4.
H
N Ph

N H
N Ph

HO H

H OH

H OH

CH2OH

It is one and the same product for all the starting substances. These means the stereochemistry of
C3, C4 and C5 of the starting sugars is the same. The initial difference in nature and/or
stereochemistry at 1st and 2nd carbon atoms of the monosaccharides is equalizes by hydrazone
formation.

5. a), b), d) are different; c) are the same.

Problem 33. Acetone as a protecting agent

Ninhydrine test. The spot with the product will show no color change, whilst that with the
starting amino acid will become colored (blue-violet to brown-violet).

1.
H

OH H3C O O CH3
CH3
O
O OH
OH H3C OH CH3 OH CH3

O CH3 O
O
CH3 CH3

OH2
CH3 CH3
OH CH3 O
O

Transformation of hemiketal into full ketal needs the acid catalysis to protonate hydroxyl group,
which is further removed in the form of water molecule. The resulting positively charged
carbocation-type intermediate is stabilized by electron donation from oxygen lone pair.
 71
2.

trans cis

O O
CH3 CH3

CH3 CH3
O O

cis-Fused six- and five-membered rings in the resulting product of cis-cyclohexane-1,2-diol are
more stable than trans-fused rings. The reason is the higher bond and angles distortion in trans-
fused bicycles.

3. In the furanose form of D-mannose, there is a possibility to form two rather than one (in
the pyranose from) 1,3-dioxolane rings, which is more thermodynamically favorable. Pyranose –
furanose transformation proceeds via the open aldehyde form of the carbohydrate.

4. Aqueous hydrochloric acid.

5.
O
H 2N
O CH C OH
CH3 H2N CH3
CH C OH CH2
O O S
CH2
CH3 CH3 H
HS

O
O
H2N
H2N
CH C OH
CH C OH
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH2
HO S
H2O S

CH3
CH3

O
H
H3C N
CH C OH

CH2
H3C S

Acid catalysis enhances the electrophilicity of carbonyl carbon atom (enhancing carbonyl
activity). Thiol group reacts first due to higher nucleophilicity compared to that of amino group.
 72
6.
O O

OH
HR R
H 2N C COOH N
OH
O
O O H O

O O

- CO2 R N

OH R
O

O O

H2O
HO

NH2

HO
-RCHO
O O

O O

N
colored product

O O

Problem 34. Determination of molecular mass parameters (characteristics) by

viscometry

1. The viscosity values calculated from the flow times of polystyrene solutions (2 to 10 g/L)
determined with the Ubbelohde viscometer at 25 °C are given in the hereunder tables. Each flow
time value is an average of three measurements. Note that your experimental values may
significantly differ from those in the tables, since the flow times depend on the molecular
properties (mainly molecular weight distribution) of a particular polystyrene sample.

Polystyrene/toluene, the solvent flow time t0 = 24.4 s

Concentration Flow time t t  t0  sp
of the polymer c, g/L t, s
 rel   sp  , L/g
t0 t0 c
10 72.8 2.98 1.98 0.198
5 41.0 1.68 0.68 0.136
3.3 34.0 1.39 0.39 0.119
2 29.8 1.22 0.22 0.111
 73
Polystyrene/methyl ethyl ketone, the solvent flow time t0 = 26.0 s
Concentration Flow time
 rel 
t
 sp 
t  t0  sp
of the polymer c, g/L t, s , L/g
t0 t0 c
10 36.0 1.38 0.38 0.0385
5 30.8 1.18 0.18 0.0369
3.3 28.8 1.11 0.11 0.0326
2 27.7 1.07 0.07 0.0327

2,3,4. The intrinsic viscosity [η] can be found by either graphical extrapolation to 0
concentration (as the Y-intercept), or by linear fitting (as an absolute term) of the reduced
viscosity data.

Polystyrene solutions

0,25

0,2
Toluene
y = 0,0113x + 0,084
0,15
L/gl/g
sp/c,Vsp/c,

0,1

Methylethylketone
y = 0,0008x + 0,0313
0,05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
c,c, g/l
g/L

Analysis of the data given in i. 1) leads to [η] equal to 0.0840 and 0.0313 L/g for the toluene and
methyl ethyl ketone solutions, respectively. (Three significant digits are left in both cases based
on the typical amplitude of the measured flow times).

5. The viscosity-average molecular weights as calculated from the Mark-Kuhn-Houwink

equation are of 226000 and 125000 g/mol for the toluene and methyl ethyl ketone solutions,
respectively.

6. The polydispersity index equals 226000/125000 = 1.81.

Problem 35. Cooperative interactions in polymer solutions

1. Experimental flow times and the calculated specific viscosities are given in the hereunder
table.
 74
Note 1. The molecular weights of the repeating units of PMMA and PEG are of 86.06 and 44.05
g/mol, respectively. Mixing of equal volumes of a 2 g/L PMMA and a 1 g/L PEG (of any
molecular weight) solutions results in a reaction mixture with the molar ratio of the PMMA and
PEG units of approximately 1:1.

Note 2. The final concentration of PMMA in the resulting mixtures and its aqueous solutions is
of 1 g/L.

Composition Temperature, °С Flow time t, s Specific viscosity of the

solution ηsp
Water 25 44.0 -
PMAA, 1 g/L 25 60.2 0.368
PMAA+PEG-1000 25 60.0 0.364
PMAA+PEG-2000 25 58.3 0.325
PMAA+PEG-3000 25 49.6 0.127
PMAA+PEG-6000 25 46.3 0.052
Water 40 31.2 -
PMAA, 1 g/L 40 41.8 0.340
PMAA+PEG-1000 40 40.2 0.288
PMAA+PEG-2000 40 35.6 0.141
PMAA+PEG-3000 40 31.8 0.019
PMAA+PEG-6000 40 31.6 0.013

2.

0.4
25 0C
40 0C
0.3

0.2
sp

0.1

0.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
PEG molecular weight

3. The reaction scheme of the complex formation is given below. A decrease of the specific
viscosity of the PMАA solution upon addition of the equimolar amount of PEG is observed,
which reflects that that polymer coils in the interpolymer complex are more compact than those
in the initial solution. The compaction is due to hydrophobization of the PMAA chain with PEG.
 75
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

COOH COOH COOH COOH

OH2 H2O OH2 H2O

+PEO
- water release

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

COOH COOH COOH COOH

O O
O O

Dramatic changes in the density of the complexes are observed within a rather narrow range of
PEG molecular weights (of about 1500 g/mol at 40°C and 2500 g/mol at 25 °C). Such processes
are often referred to as cooperative.

The enthalpy change in PMAA-PEG complex formation being negligible, the entropy gain due
to the release of water molecules is the driving force of the reaction.

As positions of the repeating units in a polymer chains are constrained, the total entropy of the
polymer coil is less than that of the same number of unbound monomer units. For longer
polymer chains such entropy loss is more significant. Consequently, the entropy gain as a result
of PMAA-PEG complex formation (S = S(complex) + S(water) – S(PMAA) – S(PEG)) is
increasing with an increase of the PEG chain length (total entropies of released water molecules,
the complex, and the initial PMAA molecules are nearly the same). This is why the PMAA-PEG
interaction proceeds efficiently only starting with a certain molecular weight of PEG (<1000
g/mol at 40°C and of about 1000-2000 g/mol at 25 °C).

Higher efficiency of the complex formation at elevated temperatures (PEG with a lower
molecular weight is needed to provide for a noticeable viscosity drop) contributes to the
consideration that the entropy gain is behind the process.