Co-Worker Rescue at Height

Copyright 2014
Rescue 3 International, Inc.
All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, or utilised in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Editors: Keith Dudhnath and Joost van Ierssel

Authors: Rodney Sebregts and Joost van Ierssel

Contributing authors: Jon Gorman, Matt McLay, Chris Onions, Paul O’Sullivan

Illustrations: George Manley

Photos: Rescue 3 Benelux

Front cover: Confined space entry Photo: Rescue 3 Benelux

Layout: Vicky Barlow

Adapted and compiled from the following Rescue 3 International copyrighted material.

< Technical Rope Rescue: Technician™ Level Manual > < Dutch Rope Rescue Operator >

Safety notice
This Rescue 3 Europe manual is a basic text to be used in conjunction with Rescue 3 classes
taught by instructors certified by Rescue 3. Utilisation of this material without certified
instruction may be hazardous to life and limb.
 Scope of manual
This manual is designed as an accompanying reference for those undertaking Rescue 3 training within
Europe. It is not a standalone document and does not replace training by a qualified instructor.

These notes are designed to provide initial pre-course reading, and to act as post-training revision.

Without post-training practice and experience, students will be unable to develop the necessary levels of
skill and judgement to allow them to operate effectively.

In addition to the specific techniques and knowledge provided whilst training at this level, those working in
and around confined spaces need to possess the underpinning knowledge and operational techniques for a
confined space environment.
 Contents
About Rescue 3 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Progressing within Rescue 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Rescue 3 contact details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

General information
Rescue 3 philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Rope safety and rescue training standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Risk management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Safe working at height

Personal equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Introduction to technical equipment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fall protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Work restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fall arrest .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Personal skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Knots .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
 About Rescue 3 Europe
Rescue 3 Europe produces and delivers state of the art technical rescue training courses.

More than 190,000 water, rope, boat and confined space Rescue 3 courses have been delivered in over 32
countries since 1979, to fire and rescue services, ambulance teams, mountain rescue teams, and commercial
training and leisure activity providers.

Rescue 3 Europe certifies and manages all European Rescue 3 training providers, instructors and students.
Rescue 3 International does the same in the rest of the world.

The flagship Rescue 3 courses are Swiftwater and Flood Rescue Technician (SRT), Rope Rescue Technician
(RRT), Swiftwater and Flood Rescue Boat Operator (SFRBO) and Confined Space Rescue Technician
(CSRT). Rescue 3 also offers supporting courses, offering awareness qualifications, through to advanced
technician and management-level qualifications.

There are over 700 Rescue 3 certified instructors throughout Europe, delivering courses for over 100
Rescue 3 Europe training providers. These are within the European fire and rescue services, mountain
rescue and water rescue teams, and other outdoor professional establishments. Additionally, there are a
number of training centres who offer Rescue 3 courses on a commercial basis in most European countries.

The reputation for quality hands-on instruction, using techniques that work, has fuelled the growth of
Rescue 3 and its courses.

History
Rescue 3 International was started in 1979 by a group of people involved with emergency services, who
identified a need for training in areas not commonly covered in the emergency training programs of the
time.

The name, Rescue 3, was chosen when the company first started, because the instruction was concerned
with all areas of rescue - ground, air, and water - thus Rescue 3.

In 1981, the program was redesigned into an early form of the current Swiftwater Rescue Technician
curriculum. Swiftwater classes were taught throughout California and slowly spread across the United
States.

In late 1990, Rescue 3 became Rescue 3 International Incorporated. Over the course of the next several
years, Rescue 3 International went on to develop instructor teams throughout the United States and over
30 countries worldwide.

In 1999, there was a major revision in the curriculum to meet the requirements of the new NFPA1 1670
Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents in the areas of water and
rope. This training is available at the awareness, operations and technician levels. Training and testing has
been developed to meet the NFPA 1006 Standard for Rescue Technician Professional Qualifications.

In 2009, Rescue 3 Europe was set up to certify and manage all European training providers, instructors
and students. The years since have been a period of great growth of internationally accredited technical
rescue training within Europe. Rescue 3 Europe are also responsible for the evolution and development of a
number of specialised Rescue 3 courses to meet the ever-increasing demand for internationally recognised
rescue training of the highest standards.

1 National Fire Protection Association

5
Progressing within Rescue 3
Student qualifications
Rescue 3 Europe offers courses in a variety of technical rescue specialities, including water, rope, boat and
confined space. These are delivered at all levels, including awareness, first responder, technician, advanced
technician, and management.

Instructor qualifications
There are Rescue 3 Europe instructor qualifications for every level of student course. These can be for
both commercial course delivery, or for delivery within an agency (eg a fire and rescue service).

Training providers
Instructors delivering Rescue 3 courses must do so for a Rescue 3 training provider. Training providers can
either be commercial, or agency (ie delivering in-house).

There is a simple yet robust application process for becoming a Rescue 3 training provider. For training
provider criteria and application forms, or to discuss the options available, please contact the Rescue 3
Europe office.

Accreditation checks
To check the status or validity of a Rescue 3 training provider, instructor or student, please contact the
Rescue 3 Europe office.

Upon request, Rescue 3 Europe can also provide an organisation with due dates for recertification for their
Rescue 3 qualified staff.

All Rescue 3 student qualifications are valid for a period of 3 years from the end date of the course. To
maintain continuous accreditation, recertification must take place before the end of these 3 years.

Recertification can be at the same level as the initial course. Alternatively, you can add an additional skill-set
by taking a higher level course. For example, you could recertify a Rope Rescue Operator (RRO) course, by
taking a Rope Rescue Technician (RRT) course.

6 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

 Rescue 3 contact details
For a list of course providers in your area, please contact Rescue 3.

Rescue 3 Europe Ltd

The Malthouse
Regent Street
Llangollen
Denbighshire
LL20 8HS
UK

Tel +44 (0) 1978 869 069

Web site www.rescue3europe.com

Email [email protected]

Rescue 3 International
11084A Jeff Brian Lane
PO Box 1050
Wilton
California 95693
USA

Tel +1 916 687 6556

Fax +1 888 457 3727

Web site www.rescue3.com

Email [email protected]

7
1 GENERAL
INFORMATION

Climbing with fall arrest lanyards

Photo: Rescue 3 Benelux

8
 1

SECTION CONTENTS
Rescue 3 philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Rope safety and rescue training standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Risk management.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

OVERVIEW
This chapter focuses on the Rescue 3 philosophy. It discusses what is necessary for a successful
rescue, and priorities during rescues.

Also, there is a strong focus on applicable legislation, as well as CE markings and applicable
standards.

Section 1: General information 9

 Rescue 3 philosophy
1 Rescue 3 considers there to be four elements which combine to create a successful rescue:

• Training
• Practice
• Experience
• Judgement

For a team to be successful in their actions, they must first undertake a course of instruction to gain
foundation training. In order to become more proficient, they should practise these skills and techniques
further, therefore gaining experience. This may include practice at particular sites that have historically
proved problematical.

As the team become more experienced and practised, they will develop good, sound judgement when
dealing with the variety of situations. This judgement is vital when the team are faced with rescue situations
in challenging conditions. It is their judgement that will be relied upon to make the right decisions on how
(or how not) to proceed with a rescue.

Having gained experience of what works, what has problems, what are the advantages and disadvantages
for various systems, and what the solutions are, the team will have the judgement to be able to choose the
best solution for any situation without wasting time. This judgement cannot be purchased, or fast-tracked;
but is the result of time spent practising and gaining experience in a variety of conditions and applications.

10 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Rescue priorities
At all incidents, the priorities of all rescuers should be:

• Self
1
• Team
• Victim

It is vitally important to take responsibility for your own actions. This includes your safety in a hazardous
environment such as a rescue site. Unless correctly trained and equipped, the task could be unachievable
and produce more casualties. Acting on uneducated and misjudged impulses, such as climbing a rescue
site unequipped or untrained to save a person, is highly likely to result in tragedy rather than success. It is
paramount that rescuers do not operate beyond their capability.

The statement above also extends to the team. Individuals have a responsibility to look after their team
members and not place them in danger to a level beyond control. There needs to be backup systems in
place so that team members’ safety is protected, ensuring operations follow safe systems of work. It is
essential that all the team look after their own safety by avoiding undue risks.

Only when rescuers have provided for their own safety, and their team’s safety, can they start to perform
rescues or operate in a vertical environment. Any work or rescue cannot exceed the team’s capability.

Finally, after ensuring the safety of themselves, the team and the casualty, the risks taken for the retrieval of
equipment should be very low – the kit is replaceable, but people are not!

The best rescue is one that does not need to be performed.

Section 1: General information 11

 Rope safety and rescue training
1 standards

European Union (EU)

Within the EU, the relevant legislation for safe working at height is Council Directive 89/391/EEC of
12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and
health of workers at work.

EU directives are binding for all EU member states, but it is down the each member state as to how that is
implemented with legislation at a national level.

• Netherlands, - Arbowet in Nederland (2005)

• UK -Work at Height Regulations 2005 which come under the banner of the Health and Safety at
Work etc Act 1974.
• Ireland - Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (Work at Height) Regulations 2006 (S.I. No. 318 of
2006)
Full details of each member state’s implementation of Directive 89/391/EEC are at
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71989L0391:EN:NOT

12 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

CE marking
Within Europe, a CE mark is required on regulated products, including personal protective equipment
(PPE). 1
A CE mark guarantees that the product complies with basic (minimum) European requirements for health
and safety and the environment. This is based on the European directives in force for that product (eg
Council Directive 89/686/EEC of 21 December 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member
States relating to personal protective equipment).

The primary objective of the CE mark is the free movement of goods within the European Union.
It indicates that the minimum legal requirements have been met in its manufacture. However, it isn’t an
indication of quality.

European standards (ENs)

European standards (ENs) are drawn up by the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN - Comité
Européen de Normalisation) in Brussels, and then published by the affiliated national standards institutes,
eg the British Standards Institution in the UK, the Nederlands Normalisatie-instituut, or National Standards
Authority of Ireland.

Whilst the CE mark doesn’t indicate conformity to a standard, EN numbers do. Each standard specifies the
characteristics, performance requirements and test methods for each piece of equipment. Each standard
has a number - for example, semi-static kernmantle ropes are covered by EN 1891.

Key European standards for personal protective equipment are:

• EN 397 Industrial safety helmets

• EN 12492 Mountaineering helmets
• EN 355 Shock absorbers
• EN 361 Full body harnesses
• EN 1891 Semi-static kernmantle ropes (types A and B)
• EN 341 Descenders
• EN 567 Rope clamps
• EN 353-1 Guided type fall arresters including a rigid anchor
• EN 353-2 Guided type fall arresters including a flexible anchor line
• EN 360 Retractable type fall arresters
• EN 813 Sit harnesses

Section 1: General information 13

 Risk management
1 Risk management is the implementation of appropriate policies aimed at preventing accidents. When an
accident takes place, risk management ensures that the negative effects are limited as much as possible.

Risk assessment and evaluation

When forming risk management policy relating to safe work at height and rescue, it is essential to assess
and evaluate the severity of the risks. If risks have been identified, then one can ensure that, where
appropriate, these risks can be mitigated.

When looking at risks, there are two factors:

• The likelihood of an event occurring

• The severity of an event occurring

Therefore, the risk can be calculated as:

Risk = likelihood x severity

The risk assessment should be undertaken prior to performing work at height. Having a written risk
assessment can help meet legal or operational requirements. The risk analysis can also provide key insight
into the risks faced, and how they can be managed.

Possible events that can occur are:

• Damage to equipment
• Psychological injuries
• Physical injuries
• Death

14 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Possible factors that can increase the chances of the above events include, but are not limited to:

•
•
•
Falls from height
Falling objects
Use of unsafe equipment
1
• Incorrect use of equipment
• Gas/chemical exposure
• Electrocution
• Increased temperatures when working in confined spaces
• Structural collapse
• Water
• Oxygen deprivation
• Running machinery
• Environmental factors (rain, snow, sun, wind etc)
• Release of steam
• Human error
• Inexperience
• Lack of training

With high risk activities, and activities that aren’t commonly undertaken, additional risk trade-offs may have
to be made. An activity-specific risk assessment should be developed to identify, manage and mitigate the
additional risks to an acceptable level.

Section 1: General information 15

2 SAFE WORKING
AT HEIGHT

Casualty rescue

Photo: Rescue 3 Benelux

16
 2
SECTION CONTENTS
Personal equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Introduction to technical equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fall protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Work restraint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fall arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Personal skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Knots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

OVERVIEW
This chapter focuses on different types of equipment used to work safely at height, and their
correct usage.

Personal skills when working at height are also covered step by step. There are also examples of
the most commonly used knots and anchors that you can use when working safely at height.

Section 2: Safe working at height 17

 Personal equipment
A wide variety of safe working at height equipment is available that meets the required standards, from a
large number of manufacturers. With so many different options on the market, it can be difficult to make

2
the right choice.

When purchasing PPE (personal protective equipment), key considerations are functionality, comfort and
whether the PPE has multiple applications. If universal PPE can be used, this is clearly an advantage.

Key PPE is as follows:

• Helmet
• Harness
• Fall arrest line
• Shock absorber
• Karabiners
• Work positioning lanyard (not pictured)

Karabiner

Fall arrest line

Karabiner

Helmet

Shock absorber

Harness

18 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

 2

Section 2: Safe working at height 19

 Introduction to technical equipment
Proper use of the correct technical equipment is an integral part of many rescue situations. By using a small
amount of equipment and some basic techniques, a rescuer will be able to set up systems which may make

2
a rescue much safer and more efficient.

Key technical equipment is as follows:

• Ropes
• Edge protection
• Karabiners
• Belay devices
• Rope grabs
• Pulleys
• Anchors
• Anchor points (mobile and man-made)

20 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Ropes
Ropes are used for a variety of applications in a rescue. It is essential that the correct type of rope is
used for each application. The characteristics and properties of a rope will depend upon the methods of

2
construction, and the materials used in its construction.

Ropes and knots

As a rule of thumb, the tensile strength of a rope will decrease by approximately 30% when a knot is tied
into it. This is because not all the fibres in the rope are equally loaded, and indeed some are redundant, due
to the turns and loops tied.

Rope construction
Some common materials used in modern rope construction and their properties include:

Nylon
• High tensile strength
• High elasticity
• High energy absorption
• High impact resistance
• It will soften at 230C (446F)
• It does not float and can absorb about water, which reduces its strength

Polyester
• High tensile strength
• Low elasticity
• High melting point (249C/480.2F)
• Good abrasion resistance
• No reduction in strength when wet
• Does not float

Polypropylene
• Strength is approximately 50% of nylon or polyester of the same thickness
• It will soften at 165C (329F)
• Floats in water
• Minimal strength reduction when wet
• Polypropylene is not as abrasion resistant as polyethylene

Polyethylene
• About 5% less strength than polypropylene
• About 5% heavier than polypropylene

Section 2: Safe working at height 21

 • Low melting point (138C/280.4F)
• Often used in non-critical applications where buoyancy is required, eg water skiing tow ropes

Aramids eg Kevlar

2
• Resistant to high temperatures
• Very high tensile strength
• Very low stretch (1.5-3% stretch at failure)
• Poor shock absorbing ability
• Does not float
• Increasingly used in winching operations

HMPE (high modulus polyethylene) eg Spectra, Dyneema

• Very strong
• Very low stretch (2.7-3.5% stretch at failure)
• Poor shock absorbing properties
• Low melting point (135C/275F)
• Floats and no reduction in strength when wet
• Very slippery and does not hold knots well

Most modern ropes for water and rope rescue are kernmantle in construction. This German word means
core (kern) and sheath (mantle).

The central core of fibres provides the

majority of the rope’s strength, and these
are protected by a woven sheath. The sheath
Core (kern) provides a lesser portion of the strength, but
also protects the core from abrasion, dirt
and UV damage. This construction method
produces ropes which are strong, resistant to
damage, and easy to handle. Some ropes found
in throwbags can be of a braided construction,
Sheath (mantle) as opposed to kernmantle construction.

22 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Ropes for work at height and rescue – types and usage
These will almost exclusively be made from nylon. Depending upon use, they will either be classified as
dynamic or semi-static ropes.

It is not possible to tell from inspection whether a rope is a dynamic, semi-static, or indeed a specialist

2
water rescue rope, as they can look and feel the same and be the same colour. Proper recording, marking
and logging of rope is required to avoid potentially lethal confusion.

Dynamic ropes (EN 892)

These ropes are designed to stretch in order to cope with the dynamic loads created by falling rock
climbers and mountaineers. They are of limited use in working at height.

Semi–static ropes (EN 1891)

These are low stretch ropes, commonly used for rope access and rope rescue applications. Generally, they
are 10.5mm or 11mm in diameter, although thicker diameters are available. Their strength and relatively
low stretch characteristics make them ideal for high load applications, such as the track line for boat on a
highline rescue systems and any high angle rescue applications. The European standard identifies two types
of rope –type A and type B. The main difference is that type A ropes are defined as heavy duty. Type B ropes
are weaker and designated as light duty. Only type A ropes should be used as the main and safety lines in
high angle rescue situations.

Accessory cord
Low stretch rope is available in a variety of smaller diameters, for use as accessory cords and applications
such as making Prusik loops. Prusik loops are generally either made from 6mm or 8mm cord.

Webbing tape
Most webbing is made from nylon or polyester. Due to its characteristics, it may be preferred over rope
in certain applications. It is cheaper than rope, and due to its wide, flat surface, it is less susceptible to
abrasion1. There are fewer secure knots for use in webbing (normally a tape knot is used). As a result, it is
common to use pre-sewn webbing slings.

1 www.hse.gov.uk/research/crr_pdf/2001/crr01364.pdf

Section 2: Safe working at height 23

 Care of ropes, storage and recording
Ropes should be dried after use and then stored in a cool, dry location away from light. If needed, ropes
can be washed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. The life of a rope will be determined by
how well it is cared for and the use it has had. Rope usage needs to be logged and each rope should have

2
its own identification code, marking and rope log.

The general rule is that ropes should be used for up to a maximum of five years once issued (unless
condition or usage dictates an earlier retirement) Additionally, the rope can be stored for up to five years
before being issued. This means that if a rope is purchased and stored but never issued and used, it should
still be retired and destroyed after ten years.

Rope log
Rope ID:
Diameter:
Length:
Make:
Model:
Colour:
Purchased from:
Purchase date:
Date in service:
Batch number:
Serial number:

Date Use / inspection Name

Example of rope log sheet

Rope protection
Ropes and webbing are highly susceptible to damage when rubbing on edges and rough objects, especially
when under tension. Wherever ropes are at risk of damage, they should be protected. A variety of specially
designed protectors are used, plus more general material such as canvas and salvage sheets. Testing has
suggested that some of the best rope protection performance was achieved with canvas, which was also
one of the cheapest.

Edge protection is a form of rope protection, used specifically on edges. However, work restraint (see page
29) can also sometimes be referred to as edge protection. Those working at height should be aware of
the potential confusion.

24 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Karabiners

2
Karabiners (from left to right) - oval snapgate, oval auto-locking, pear-shaped/HMS screwgate, pear-shaped/HMS auto-locking,
D-shaped auto-locking

Karabiners are metal connectors that are used to clip together ropes, slings, tapes etc. Karabiners come in
many shapes and sizes. They are made from steel or aluminium alloy.

Steel has the advantages of being stronger and cheaper than similar aluminium alloy, but has the
disadvantages of being heavier and prone to rust.

Aluminium alloy karabiners have an excellent strength to weight ratio and are generally used for water
rescue applications. Although they do not rust, they are susceptible to corrosion, especially if exposed to
sea water.

Karabiners are available as either snapgate or locking gate designs. As the name suggests, locking gate
karabiners have a locking mechanism on the opening gate. This makes them safer for use in safety-critical
applications, such as clipping a rope to a quick release chest harness.

There are a number of designs for this locking mechanism, ranging from traditional screwgates through to
more modern twist lock designs. Screwgates require the user to manually lock the gate closed, whereas
twist lock systems will automatically do so.

It is important that karabiners are used correctly, to

ensure they are used to their full strength. The load
should be applied along the major axis with the gate
locked. This ensures the karabiner maintains its full Gate
strength.

Barrel Major axis

Section 2: Safe working at height 25

 Belay devices

Belay devices (from left) - Italian hitch (Münter hitch), figure of eight, belay plate, Petzl GriGri, Petzl I’D

Belay devices are used to control the rope under load. There are many variations available.

Whichever method is used to control a rope, it is essential the manufacturer’s instructions are followed.

It’s important to note the difference between belay devices used for rock climbing and similar activities, and
belay devices designed and used as PPE. Local regulations (such as those in the Netherlands and Belgium)
may require that a CE mark for PPE is present. In addition, these regulations may also require that a self-
locking mechanism is present when using a belay device as PPE. Of the devices shown above, only the Petzl
I’D meets both these requirements.

Rope grabs
A rope grab is a device which locks onto the rope, to grip
against a pulling force from one or both directions. This may
be a mechanical device, or a non-mechanical device, such as
a Prusik knot. Prusik knots are less common in an industrial
setting, but are widely used in wilderness rescue and leisure
activities.

Some rope grabs have a toothed design. These are generally

designed for use of a single person load only. If they are
overloaded, they can cause critical rope damage.

Rope grabs (from left) - Petzl Rescucender, Petzl

shunt, handled ascender, triple wrap Prusik,
klemheist Prusik

26 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Pulleys

Pulleys.Top row (from left) - Petzl Rescue, Petzl Tandem Cable, Petzl Mobile, Petzl Minder
Bottom row (from left) - Rock Exotica Mini, Rock Exotica Omni Block 1.1”, Rock Exotica Omni Block 2.0”, Rock
Exotica PMP 2.0, Rock Excotica Kootenay Ultra

A pulley is a wheeled device which is used to reduce friction when the rope changes direction. There are
a wide variety of designs and shapes for use in particular applications, such as Prusik-minding, knot-passing
and tandem pulleys.

Pulleys are rarely used at Awarness level.

Section 2: Safe working at height 27

 Fall protection
When considering work at height, it is vital to eliminate any risk of falling. For example, in some
circumstances, it may be possible to carry out work at ground level, rather than at height, by using

2
extendable equipment.

If it isn’t possible to eliminate the danger, then the risk of falling should be mitigated as much as possible,
and the appropriate protective equipment should be used. For example, it may be possible to use collective
protection, such as guardrails. However, if people and equipment need to pass in and out of the area
regularly, this solution brings additional problems.

A work restraint system prevents an operative from reaching an edge from which they could fall.

A fall arrest systems is used when there is likelihood of a fall, for example while climbing a structure.

Fall arrest systems can either be general/collective (eg guardrails or nets) or personal (eg a fall arrest
lifeline).

The use of personal fall arrest systems offers a useful and workable alternative to closing off the area. The
use of these systems is subject to the following conditions:

• The use of shielding of permanent and temporary workplaces is not possible

• The use of permanent and temporary means of access is not possible
• The installation of collective fall protection is technically impossible
• The use of PPE can reduce the risk, and is temporary in nature and duration

The above conditions often hold true when carrying out inspection and maintenance work in confined
spaces.

28 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Work restraint
A work restraint system prevents an operative from reaching an edge at height or above depth, from which
they could fall. Normally a single attachment point is sufficient. The work restraint system ensures that the

2
user can only move within a safe area. This should be arranged in such a way that a fall cannot take place.

Work restraint equipment consists of:

• The anchor point

• An adjustable working line
• The attachment point on the harness

When using work restraint equipment, the user is attached to an adjustable connection point (attached to
the harness and anchor point) in the safe area. The only possible fall would be within the safe area, if, for
example, the user slipped and tripped. Work restraint prevents a fall by stopping the user actually reaching
the edge.

With proper use of work restraint equipment, the risks are considerably lower than when using a fall arrest
system, because no fall takes place. For this reason, the attachment point on the harness may be lower than
with the use on a fall arrest system.

When using work restraint systems in accessible locations, normally no rescue facilities are needed.
Therefore, this approach is preferable over other fall protection systems.

Section 2: Safe working at height 29

 Fall arrest
The fall arrest system consists of:

• The anchor point

2 •
•
A personal fall arrest system consisting of a force attenuating device
The attachment point on the harness

When working at height and/or above depth with a fall protection system, the user faces additional risks.
When falling, the user faces the possibility of:

• Impact with obstacles during the fall (secondary strikes)

• Spinal trauma associated with a rapid fall-arrest
• Suspension trauma when hanging in the harness after the fall

The consequences of a fall to the user are dependent on:

• The strength and position of the anchor point

• Type and performance of the fall arrest system
• Position of the attachment point on the harness
• Presence of rescue procedures

30 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Fall arrest systems
When working at height (or above depth), several fall arrest systems are available, and new systems are
regularly introduced. Because of the wide variety of systems, this manual lists the most common and
appropriate systems for working in confined spaces.

Fall arrest systems are divided into the following types:

•
•
Inertia reel fall arrest blocks
Inertia reel fall arrest blocks with built-in rescue possibility
2
• Fall arrest rope grabs on a vertical anchor line

Inertia reel fall arrest blocks

A wide variety of fall arrest devices are available, from mini-blocks weighing less than 1kg, to 50kg or more
fall arrest blocks for permanent attachment. The fall arrest devices are all fitted with a retractable rope,
cable or tape. The working length ranges from 1.5m for a mini-block, up to 25m or more for a permanently
attached fall arrest block.

Section 2: Safe working at height 31

 These fall arrest devices work as follows: a flexible rope, cable or tape is stored on a reel. This reel is in an
impact-resistant housing. At the end of the line is a connection in the form of a karabiner. When moving the
user to the required length, the line is automatically fed out on a spring-loaded reel.

When a fall occurs placing the line under load, the line is stopped by a centrifugal brake/inertia reel (as in
a car seat belt). The emergent energy is absorbed by the internal shock absorber. With mini-blocks, the

2
energy absorber runs as a tape damper between the end of the tape and the connection.

When using larger fall arrest blocks, the housing is suspended from the anchor point. The karabiner at the
end of the line is attached to the user’s harness. When using a mini-block, the housing is attached to the
harness, and the end of the line is attached to the anchor point. This gives the user more freedom as they
have the fall arrest block with them. It is important that the attachment or anchoring point for the fall
arrest blocks are located above the user.

Inertia reel fall arrest blocks with built-in rescue

capabilities
Fall arrest blocks are available that work in a similar manner to those above, but that also have a built-in
winch function, to aid rescue. In the event of a fall, the user is secured by the line or cable being stopped.
The supervisor or a rescuer can then turn on the winch function and move the victim up or down, to a
safe(r) position, depending on a variety of factors.

When using a fall arrest device with built-in rescue capabilities, it should be attached to a temporary anchor
point, in the form of a tripod. This arrangement is often used when entering confined spaces vertically, and
offers a number of advantages over other systems. The user is protected not only when entering and
leaving the room, but it is also easy to evacuate the area from outside if necessary. A precondition for this
is that the user is connected in open space and continues into the confined space with the fall arrest and
rescue system.

A fall arrest system with built-in rescue capabilities is less suitable for a larger confined space, where more
than one person is working and horizontal movements take place over larger distances. The user would
then have to detach from the system, which means that they can no longer rely on the evacuation system.
This method means that greater demands are made on the reliability and monitoring of the atmosphere
within the confined space.

Fall arrest rope grabs on a vertical anchor line

This type of fall arrest system has versions with rigid and flexible anchor lines, both permanent and
temporary. In confined spaces, temporary flexible anchor lines will be primarily used.

The anchor line hangs vertically from the anchor point (above the user) to the bottom of the confined
space. The user is connected to the anchor line by means of a rope grab. When a fall occurs, the rope grab
will immediately clamp the line, arresting the fall. To absorb the energy of the fall, a tape damper exists
between the line clamp and the user’s harness.

32 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Placing of the attachment point on the harness
There are only two possible locations for attaching fall arrest systems on the user’s harness:

• The front of the harness, level with the sternum (sternal point of attachment)

2
• The rear of the harness (dorsal point of attachment)

Any other attachment points on the harness (if any) are only earmarked for work restraint equipment and
work positioning systems.

Work positioning
When a user needs to have both hands free, they can use work positioning lines in order to ensure their
position in relation to the structure. The user must use fall protection equipment in addition to the work
positioning lines. The user must use a full fall arrest system and positioning harness. The harness must be
suitable for both fall arrest and work positioning.

Section 2: Safe working at height 33

 Fall factor
The maximum force exerted on a system should not exceed 6kN. The height of chosen anchor point above
the user is an important factor in limiting this force. The fall factor describes the degree of shock load, as
well as the forces on the anchor point and the falling user.

2 The fall factor is the ratio between the height of the fall and the available rope length to absorb the energy
of the fall. It is calculated as follows:

Height of fall
Fall factor = ------------------------------------
Rope length

A fall factor greater than 1 must be avoided at all times, as the distance fallen and risk of receiving secondary
strikes becomes unacceptable. In all cases where a fall factor greater than 0.3 may occur, special energy-
absorbing features are used, eg shock-absorbing lanyards in fall arrest systems. These energy-absorbing
features bring forces in the system to a maximum of 6kN.

/ X
/

34 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Personal skills
In order to feel safe and be able to move and work safely at height, users must have a number of basic skills.
Each person must, of course, have basic PPE that takes into account all applicable laws and regulations. The

2
worker at height must be able to move and position themselves independently, and self-rescue.

Climbing in a structure when wearing a fall arrest lanyard

• Attach the fall arrest lanyard to the chest attachment point of the harness via the lanyard focal
point, typically located at the shock-absorber.
• Attach the first hook to the structure. Note the cross-loading from the hook
• Attach the second hook to the structure, preferably to a different point to the first hook
• When climbing, ensure that two/three limbs are making contact with the structure at all times (see
below).
• When climbing in the structure, ensure that the hooks are as high as possible. Never place the
hooks lower than the attachment point on the harness, to avoid a large fall factor
• When moving the hooks, ensure that only one hook moves at a time, with the other hook
remaining attached.

When ascending purpose-made access structures including fixed ladders and pegs, a natural climbing
rhythm should be established so that there is concurrent movement of left hand with left foot, followed by
right hand with right foot etc. Students should grip the horizontal section of the ladder in preference to the
vertical sides and should consider the distance to be climbed so matching their cadence or rate of ascent
accordingly. Breathing should be relaxed and the grip on the ladder rounds should be just tight enough to
prevent falling backwards, otherwise lactic acid will soon build up in the forearms, leading to what rock
climbers describe as being pumped. If fall arrest lanyards are used to protect the ascent, then students may
find that it may be useful to place the scaffold hook on the round immediately above the one that they can
comfortably grip. By doing so, the hand naturally falls to an appropriate height, while the scaffold hook is
located in such a way that should a fall occur then the distance is minimised.

If students are to climb a structure that does not have evenly placed treads like a ladder, then students may
wish to consider a different climbing approach. A concept borrowed from mountaineers (who must remain
in balance and not fall off should a single hand or foothold fail) is based upon maintaining three points of
contact at all times. By moving only one hand or one foot at a time during ascent, a triangle of stability
is maintained, from which it is possible to always remain in balance, or reverse a move should there be a
requirement. Under such circumstances, the climbing is likely to be more considered and less rhythmical
than that of a ladder ascent (or descent). It is also very likely that climbers who are accessing a patient
away from the normal route of access will be using fall arrest lanyards with scaffold hooks and they must be
careful to pre-place the hooks above their location at all times and use different clipping locations for each
hook wherever possible, so maintaining redundancy.

Down-climbing in a structure when wearing a fall arrest lanyard

• When down-climbing, ensure that two/three limbs are making contact with the structure at all
times (see above).
• When down-climbing in the structure, ensure that the hooks are as high as possible. Never place
the hooks lower than the attachment point on the harness, to avoid a large fall factor.
• When moving the hooks, ensure that only one hook moves at a time, with the other hook
remaining attached.

Section 2: Safe working at height 35

 Knots
When using specialist rope rescue techniques, a number of knots are required. For example, we use
knots to create anchor points, to connect rescuers and victims, and to secure equipment. Many books

2
are available with hundreds of knots for all kind of applications. However, for specialised rescues, such as
rescues from height, there are only a limited number of knots that you need to use.

Depending on the knowledge or skills of the user, this means that one can limit the number and difficulty of
the knots that are learnt. However, as knowledge and skills increase, further knots can be learnt, which can
make things easier.

When using knots, there are a number of important issues to note:

• Knots reduce the breaking strength of the rope

• The tail of the knot must be at least 10 times the diameter of the rope
• Knots must be functional - in short, they need to do the job
• Knots should be neat and well dressed, so that a colleague can easily recognise the knot
• The knots used should retain as much of the tensile strength of the rope as possible
• Knots should be able to be loosened after use
• Knots that are used must be 100% correct. If they are knotted incorrectly, then they are dangerous
and there is a great risk of a failure.

All the following knots are shown in their completed format, rather than showing step-by-step instructions
for tying them.

36 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

 2

Overhand Figure of 8 Double overhand

stopper knot

Overhand on a bight Figure of 8 on a bight

Section 2: Safe working at height 37

 Anchors
Personal fall protection is only effective if suitable anchors are used, close to the point of access. The
number and type of anchors are highly dependent on the location and work to be carried out.

2
Anchors can be man-made or natural, and options include steel beams, chimneys, railings, anchor eyes or
trees.

The preferred option is to use a permanent or temporary anchor that complies with EN 795, and that is
periodically checked.

When a fall occurs, the maximum arrest force should not exceed 6kN. The height of chosen anchor point
above the user is an important factor in limiting this force. (See page 34).

Anchors must be have a sufficient safety factor to withstand static and dynamic loads. Assuming a 2-person
load of 2kN, allowing for a static safety factor of 10x, then a 20kN (10 x 2kN) anchor rating is appropriate.

Permanent man-made anchors

Permanent anchor systems involve anchor bolts or plates attached to buildings or structures.

Permanent anchor points are most commonly attached to wood, stone/concrete and steel. Each has its
own advantages and disadvantages.

When installing permanent anchor points, one should assess and check the stability and solidity of the
structure. This assessment can often be difficult if the inside of the structure can’t be accessed.

Temporary man-made anchors

Temporary anchors include tripods, multipods, moveable lifting frames and counterweights.

Natural anchors
Natural anchors are more commonly used in a wilderness rescue setting. Depending on circumstances,
they may be used in conjunction with temporary man-made anchors.

Rescue anchor systems are built with two important principles: redundancy and focus.

The main line anchor system and belay line anchor system are built entirely separately of each other. Should
the main line system fail, then the belay system and anchors are designed to catch the load. Each anchor
system can be constructed with multiple anchors to further contribute towards redundancy

The individual anchor points are rigged in such a way to provide a focal point for the system to operate
from. The focal point may be a rigging plate or a multiple strand overhand knot on a bight (colloquially
known as a BFK or big fat knot). Separate focal points are required for main and belay lines. For rescue
operations, separate anchor systems should be used for the rescuers and for the victim.

38 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Assessing anchor points
The following should be considered when assessing anchor points:

• Type of material

2
• Effect of external heat/cold sources
• Effect of chemicals
• Diameter
• Rust/rot
• Hollow vs not hollow
• Sharp edges
• Environmental factors
• Favourable/unfavourable location
• Quality of any secondary attachments to larger objects

With attachment points on vertical uprights, the closer they are to the ground, the stronger they will be,
due to less leverage.

With trees, consideration should be given to whether they’re alive or dead.

Single anchor points

If using a single anchor point that doesn’t conform to EN 795, the anchor point can either be bombproof
or marginal.

Bombproof anchor points

These anchor points are so strong and so solid, that they won’t give way even in a worst case scenario. If
there is any doubt about whether an anchor point is bombproof or not, always assume that it’s not!

Marginal anchor points

Marginal anchor points will typically be able to hold a static load on their own. However, when subjected to
shock-loading, they are likely to fail under the additional force. Multiple load-sharing marginal anchor points
may be sufficiently strong enough to create a reliable anchor system.

Multiple anchor points

There are a number of reasons for creating multiple anchor points:

• Load-sharing
• Creating a backup, in case a single anchor point fails
• Creating a more convenient focal point, close to the attachment point

When creating multiple anchor points, ensure that if one anchor point fails, the other anchor points aren’t
subjected to a large shock load.

The internal angle of multiple load-sharing anchor points should not exceed 120°, due to force
multiplication.

Section 2: Safe working at height 39

 Single-point anchors

Basket hitch with Basket hitch with delta Basket hitch with extra
karabiner maillon karabiner

Basket hitch, karabiners Strop Anchor strap

and anchor plate

40 © Rescue 3 International - Safe Working at Height manual v1.1

Multi-point anchors

Load-distributing Load-sharing V-anchor Improved load-

V-anchor (overhand on a bight) distributing V-anchor
(figure 8 on a bight)

Section 2: Safe working at height 41

 Rescue 3 Europe Ltd
The Malthouse
Regent Street
Llangollen
Denbighshire
LL20 8HS
United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0) 1978 869 069

Email: [email protected]
Website: www.rescue3europe.com

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