BPAC-107

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University

Block

3
POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPED AND
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
UNIT 6
Political and Administrative Systems in
Developed Countries 41
UNIT 7
Political and Administrative Systems in
Developing Countries 57
UNIT 8
Fred Riggs Administrative Model for
Developing Societies 73
UNIT 6 POLITICAL AND
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS
IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Political and Administrative Systems in United States of America
6.3 Political and Administrative Systems in England
6.4 Political and Administrative Systems in Russia
6.5 Political and Administrative Systems in Australia
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 References and Further Readings

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
●● Discuss political and administrative systems in United States of
America;
●● Explain political and administrative systems in England;
●● Describe political and administrative systems in Russia; and
●● Examine political and administrative systems in Australia.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit discusses the political and administrative systems in developed
countries in United States of America, England, Russia, and Australia.
Before we initiate a discussion on the political and administrative systems
in the above mentioned countries, we will understand the concept of a
developed country.
What is a developed country? A developed country is defined, as an
economically, industrially and technologically advanced country.
Economic indicators such as gross domestic product (GDP), gross national
product (GNP), and per capita income are used to measure high economic
performance. It is a country with very high to high levels of standard of
living or human development. The high standard of living is measured with
respect to Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI is a composite index
made up of three core indicators- life expectancy, education, and per capita
income. HDI helps to understand the relation between economic indicators
and social indicators, that is, it tries to establish whether income provides
access to education and health opportunities that could lead to a better
human development.
We will now discuss the political and administrative systems in developed
countries, beginning with United States of America.
41
Political and Administrative
Systems in Developed and 6.2 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
Developing Countries SYSTEMS IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The United States of America (USA) gained freedom from British
colonization on July 4, 1776. It was recognized, as a new country after the
Treaty of Paris in 1783. Today, it spreads over a total area of 9,833,517
square kilometers. It is made up of 50 states and the District of Columbia.
The seat of state power is located in the White House, Washington, DC.
Let us begin with a discussion on political system in the United States of
America.
1. Political System
USA is a liberal democratic constitutional republic. The Federal
Republic is a presidential form of government with liberal democracy.
The Presidential election is a long process, which starts with primary
elections and caucuses1. It is followed by nominating conventions,
wherein political parties choose their nominees who, in turn, declare
the Vice Presidential candidate. Soon after, these candidates’ begin
with country-wide campaigns and debates to clarify their perspectives
and plan of action once they assume power. An electoral college is
there to select the President. The winner should obtain a majority
of electoral votes. In case no candidate gains majority, the House of
Representatives picks up a President and the Senate selects the Vice
President.
Now we will have a discussion on the administrative system.
2. Administrative System
 Legislative
The Congress is the seat of legislative power. It is represented by two
houses, ‘Senate’ and ‘House of Representatives.’ It is granted with a
range of powers from assessment and collection of taxes, regulation
of interstate and foreign commerce, making of laws, raising-cum-
maintaining-army and navy, and declaration of war. It may even call
forth the military to suppress insurrections and repel invasions.
The House of Representatives or the Lower House represents each
state, according to its population. It is chaired by a Speaker and its
members serve a term of 2 years. The House has the power to initiate
all bills and has the sole power of impeachment.
The Senate or the Upper House represents the states and certain powers
are exclusive to it and not shared with the House of Representatives.
The Vice President is the Presiding Officer of the Senate. In his
absence, the duties are to be performed by a President pro tempore,
who is either elected by the Senate or designated by the President pro
tempore. The Senators enjoy a term of 6 years. The Senate has the

A caucus is a meeting of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement.

1 

It generally refers to a regular meeting of all members of Parliament who belong to a

parliamentary party: in such a context, a party caucus can be quite powerful, as it has the
ability to elect or dismiss the party's parliamentary leader.
42
 power to approve or disapprove certain Presidential appointments by Political and Administrative
majority vote. The Senate has the power to try all impeachments. Systems in Developed
Countries
 Executive
The Constitution entrusts executive power in the President. He/she is
the Head of State, leader of the federal government, and Commander-
in- Chief of the United States Armed Forces. He enjoys a term of 4
years and can be elected no more than two times. He has been granted
power to draft treaties, nominate and appoint ambassadors, public
ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court on the advice of
the Senate.
The Vice President of the United States of America ranks just below
the President. He/she is the presiding officer of the Senate granted
with tie-breaking vote to end any deadlock in the Senate. He is elected
for a term of 4 years. He/she discharges the role of the President in
the event of removal, death, resignation, or inability on the part of the
President.
 Judiciary
Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court followed by lower
federal courts (U.S. District Courts, U.S. Courts of Special
Jurisdiction, and the U.S. Court of Appeals). Supreme Court, the
highest court in the United States, is made up of 9 justices- 1 Chief
Justice and 8 Associate Justices. They are nominated by the President
and approved by the Senate. Justices serve until death, retirement, or
removal (in exceptional circumstances). Hence, there is no term for
justices to hold office. The courts interpret laws, decide on cases of
constitutional validity (judicial review), and do resolve conflict with
federal laws.
After a discussion of USA, let us all now discuss the political and
administrative systems, as existing in England.

6.3 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN ENGLAND
As a part of the United Kingdom, England is governed by the laws and
administration of the United Kingdom. Along with Scotland, England joined
the Great Britain on May 1, 1707, by acceding to the Treaty of the Act of
Union. It is also one of the 4 countries making up the United Kingdom.
England occupies a total area of 130,279 square kilometers. The country of
England is divided into counties2, which are further clustered into regions
for statistical enumeration. There are 27 two-tier counties, 32 London
boroughs3, and 1 City of London or Greater London, 36 metropolitan
districts, 56 unitary authorities4 (inclusive of 4 single-tier counties).

2
An area in Britain, Ireland or the US, which has its own local government.
3 
A town or an area inside a large town that has some form of local government. A borough
is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term
borough designates a self-governing walled town.
4 
Unitary authorities of England are local authorities that are responsible for the provision
of all local government services within a district.
43
Political and Administrative London serves, as the seat of government of United Kingdom and capital
Systems in Developed and city for both England and the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom does
Developing Countries
not have a written constitution, so the law of the land is based on Acts of
Parliament, court judgments, and conventions.5
Now we will discuss the political system, as operating with a constitutional
monarchy along with a parliamentary system.
1. Political System
The grass root level of British politics takes place at the level of
the ward, where local elections are held. A group of wards make
up constituencies, where parliamentary elections are held. The
democratic elections are conducted based on the parliamentary system
of government but with a constitutional monarchy.
The election system in the United Kingdom is based on the principle
of ‘first past the post6,’ wherein the candidate with majority votes
is declared winner. The general elections, for example, follow
the principle of first past the post. This format of elections gives
advantage to large parties and brings stability in governments. It
precludes fragmentation of political parties and promotes unity among
strong party leaders. It was observed in the referendum of 2011 that
British voters preferred this form of voting instead of proportional
representation.
The dominant political parties in England are the Labour, Conservative,
and Liberal Democratic parties. The Labour Party, founded in 1997,
is better known as ‘democratic socialist party’ with a ‘centre-left’
orientation. The Conservative Party is known to be ‘centre-right,’
while the Liberal Democrats believes in empowering people and
cultivates ‘centre/centre-left’ tendencies. Berrington (2003) stated that
political parties perform three important functions. They formulate
issues around, which political arguments and contests can be held.
They take part in recruitment of government personnel. They help
voters to choose candidates, and also make governments accountable
to people.
2. Administrative System
 Legislative
The British Parliament, the locus of legislative power, is composed
of 2 chambers, ‘House of Commons’ and ‘House of Lords.’ The
recent fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 makes elections every 5 years
mandatory. As per this Act, the Prime Minister may change the date

A traditional way of behaving or of doing something. It is an Indian convention to touch

5 

the feet of the elders when you meet them. It also refers to a large meeting of the members
of a profession, political party, etc.
The first-past-the-post (FPTP) system is also known as the simple majority system. In
6 

this voting method, the candidate with the highest number of votes in a constituency is
declared the winner. This system is used in India in elections to the Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assemblies. While FPTP is relatively simple, it does not always allow for a
truly representative mandate, as the candidate could win despite securing less than half
the votes in a contest. In 2014, the National Democratic Alliance led by the Bharatiya
Janata Party won 336 seats with only 38.5% of the popular vote.
44
 of elections at most by two months. The Parliament is responsible for Political and Administrative
bringing in legislations, approving government spending and taxation, Systems in Developed
Countries
and preserving Parliamentary sovereignty.
The House of Commons is the First Chamber of the Parliament
representing interests of the people. Its members (Members of
Parliament) serve a term of 5 years. There is a Speaker who presides
over the meetings of the House. The House of Commons has the duty
to regulate taxes and allocate budget to departments and services.
It keeps a check on the actions of the government, drafts bills and
creates laws, and evaluates government policies.
The House of Lords is the Second Chamber of the Parliament,
which is chaired by a Speaker. The members include Life Peers7, 92
Hereditary Peers8, and 26 Lords Spiritual (Archbishops of Canterbury
and York, the Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester; and 21
other Bishops of the Church of England). The role of the House of
Lord is in the law-making process, wherein, it scrutinizes, amends,
and approves bills.
 Executive
The Crown and the Prime Minister hold the key to executive power
in the United Kingdom. The Crown is the Head of the State of the
United Kingdom assigned with formal, ceremonial, and apolitical
power. These entail consenting to legislation passed by the two
Houses of Parliament, appointing the Prime Minister and Ministers
of the Crown, and awarding honors and titles. The Crown executes
the aforementioned on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister is the Head of the United Kingdom appointed by
the Head of the State. Compared to the Head of the State, the Prime
Minister enjoys extensive powers such as the power to select the date
of the next election, represent the country abroad, negotiate treaties
and resolution of crisis, declare war, and grant pardons. The powers
of the executive are derived from either from the Act of Parliament or
common law or convention.
The Prime Minister is assisted by Cabinet Ministers, who are appointed
and removed by the Head of the State in consultation with the Prime
Minister. The Cabinet Ministers can be members of either House.
 Judiciary
There is a Supreme Court for the country. However, for England and
Wales on one hand and Scotland and Northern Ireland on the other,
there are separate court systems. The Supreme Court serves, as the
final arbiter in all cases of appeal (except cases of criminal appeals
in Scotland). The Head of the State appoints senior judges, as per the

A life peer is an honor given to individuals, which cannot be inherited by the recipient's
7 

children (in contrast to a hereditary peer). In the UK, life peerages are created under the
Life Peerages Act 1958 and entitle holders to sit in the House of Lords under the style
and dignity of Baron (male) or Baroness (female).
In Britain a member of the aristocracy, usually a man, who has received his title from his
8 

father and who therefore had the right to vote in the House of Lords.
45
Political and Administrative Constitutional provisions. The judiciary safeguards the civilian rights,
Systems in Developed and ensures adherence to the laws of the land, hears disputes, and ensures
Developing Countries
effective management of civil and criminal justice system.
Now we will undertake a description of the Russian political and
administrative system.

6.4 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN RUSSIA
June 12 1992 is celebrated, as ‘Russia Day.’ This day marks the
independence of Russia after the break-up of Soviet Union in 1991. It
marks the establishment of a Republican State, its national flag and national
anthem. The Russian Federation stretches over a total area of 17,098,242
square kilometers. The Russian Federation is composed of 85 federal
subjects, as given in Article 65 of the Russian Constitution. The 85 federal
subjects are sub-divided into 22 republics, 9 Krais9, 46 Oblasts10, 3 federal
cities, 1 autonomous Oblast, and 4 autonomous Okrugs11. The capital city
of Moscow is the seat of state power in Russia.
Now we will discuss the political system, as operating with a federal semi-
Presidential system.
1. Political System
The Russian Federation may be best described, as a semi-presidential
form of government, where power is split between the President and
Prime Minister. The President is elected directly by the people. The
winning candidate must get 50% of the poll and an extra vote. In case,
a candidate fails to secure majority votes then a second ballot takes
place within 2 weeks and the winner of the presidency gets decided.
It is opined that political parties in Russia emerged around cult
personalities. Article 13 of the Russian Constitution guaranteed
recognition to political diversity, multi-party system, and ideological
diversity. With the commencement of the Putin regime in 1999, the
multi-party system got transformed into a one-man, one-party rule
in the form of Putin’s United Russia party. As a result, criticism of
the Russian political scenario has been rampant. One of the common
charges has been that it is a very rigid political system providing
little room for the opposition parties. Moreover, new parties have
been refused registration, with little or no justification for the refusal.
The political space, therefore, has not escaped accusations of secret
political agenda and political motivations.
Now we will explain the administrative system, as operating in Russia.

9
 istorically, Krais were vast territories located along the periphery of the Russian state,
H
since the word krai also means border or edge, i.e., a place of the cut-off. In English the
term is often translated as “territory.”
10
 The term is often translated as ‘area’, ‘zone’, ‘province’ or ‘region.’ An administrative
division or region in Russia and the former Soviet Union, and in some constituent
republics of the former Soviet Union.
11
In Russia and Bulgaria, a territorial division for administrative and other purposes.
46
2. Administrative System Political and Administrative
Systems in Developed
 Legislative Countries
The Russian Parliament called the Federal Assembly is the centre
of legislative power. It is bicameral in nature with two chambers,
the State Duma and the Federation Council. The Federal Assembly
operates, as a permanently functioning body, that is, it remains in
continuous sessions and breaks only during the period between spring
and fall sessions. It is responsible for federal law-making, ratifying
treaties, allocating funds, and declaring war.
The State Duma is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia. It
represents the people of Russia. It is the national, popular, democratic,
and directly elected house of the Federal Assembly. It enjoys a large
amount of legislative and financial powers. It can override the dissent
of the Federation Council. It consists of 450 deputies, who are directly
elected by the people of Russia. 225 Deputies are elected by the people
from single member territorial constituencies and the remaining 225
are elected by a system of proportional representation.
Universal adult franchise with minimum age for right to vote being
18 years, single member constituencies, single electorate, single vote
system, secret-ballot, and simple majority vote victory system are the
salient features of elections. Any citizen, who is 21 years or above of
age and who has the right to take part in elections, can be elected, as
a deputy of the State Duma.
Draft laws are introduced in the State Duma. Draft laws on financial
matters, such as, imposition or abolition or reduction of taxes,
payments, budget, and changes in financial obligations of Russia
can be introduced in the State Duma only through a corresponding
resolution of the Government of Russia. The draft laws are considered
and passed by the State Duma by a majority of votes of all its Deputies.
Thereafter these are sent, within five days of their passage in the State
Duma, to the Federation Council for review. The Federation Council
has to act within a period of fourteen days. In case it passes the law by
a majority of its deputies, it becomes an Act. In case the Federation
Council fails to take any decision on a federal law and 14 days elapse,
the concerned federal law is considered to have been passed by it.
Further a federal law duly passed by the Federal Assembly goes to
the President of Russia for his signatures and publication. Every law,
which is considered and passed by the State Duma and the Federation
Council is sent to the President within five days of its passage. With
the assent of the President the law becomes an Act.
The Federation Council (Council of Federation) or the Upper House
represents interests of the federated states. It is presided by the
Chairperson/ Speaker. There are regional bodies that elect deputies
to the Federation Council and they remain in power so long as the
members of the regional bodies remain in power.
The Federation Council can approve the border changes between
constituent entities of Russia. The Council can use the Armed Forces
47
Political and Administrative Federation outside the territory of Russian Federation. Likewise,
Systems in Developed and the Council can impeach the President. It can appoint judges of the
Developing Countries
Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of the Russian Federation,
Supreme Arbitration Court, and more.
 Executive
Executive powers are divided between the President and the Prime
Minister. The President of the Russian Federation is the Head of
State (Article 80 Part 1). The President is directly elected by citizens
by means of universal, equal, direct suffrage based on secret ballot
(Article 81). He/she enjoys tenure of 6 years (Article 81 Part 1) and
may not renew the term more than twice (Article 81 Part 2). He/she
also serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and
is responsible for protecting the Russian Constitution, and human
and civil rights and freedoms (Article 80 Part 2). The duties of the
President include forming the administration of the President of the
Russian Federation, appointing Chairpersons of the Government as
well as Supreme Commanders of the Armed Forces of the Russian
Federation, chairing meetings of the Government of the Russian
Federation, and more.
The Prime Minister is the Head of the Government appointed by the
President with the approval of the State Duma. The Prime Minister
runs the administration in congruence with the constitution and laws
and presidential decrees. He/she is responsible for implementation
of economic and fiscal policies, management of federal property,
regulation of social policy, labor policy, migration and family policies;
and more. He/she serves, as the acting President, if the President
is unable to fulfill his/her duties, as per Article 92 of the Russian
Constitution.
The Cabinet is appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime
Minister. It is headed by the Prime Minister and has the deputy prime
ministers and federal ministers. The Cabinet is responsible to design
and submit state budget to the State Duma, make provisions for its
implementation, implement financial, credit, and monetary policies,
and ensure State security and defense of the country, to mention a few.
 Judiciary
Judicial power is vested only in the court, where judicial authority
is implemented via constitutional, civil, administrative, and criminal
proceedings. The judicial system is governed by the Constitution of
Russian Federation and federal constitutional law.
There are three kinds of court systems in Russia:
I. General court system (including military courts): Municipal
court is the lowest, and the Supreme Court is the highest (23
members)
II. 
Arbitration court system: These are specialized courts for
economic disputes, where the Superior/High Court of Arbitration
is the highest body (1 Chairperson and 4 Deputy Chairpersons)
III. Constitutional Court (including those of federal entities): It
rules on matters of constitutional validity (19 members)
48
Judges of the above mentioned courts are appointed by the Federation Political and Administrative
Council after being nominated by the President. Judges at the level of the Systems in Developed
Countries
federal district courts are directly appointed by the President. Judges in
regional and city courts are appointed by the Minister of Justice. According
to Article 119 of the Russian Constitution, eligibility requirements of the
judges are:
1. Should be a citizen of the Russian Federation,
2. Should be 25 years of age or above,
3. Have higher education qualification in law, and
4. Served for a minimum of 5 years in the legal profession.
Now we will discuss the political and administrative system of Australia.

6.5 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN AUSTRALIA
The Commonwealth of Australia came into being in 1901. Today, it is
hailed, as one among the fastest growing economies in the developed world.
The country is over 7,741,220 square kilometers of total area 65. Australia
is divided into 6 states and 2 territories (Australian Capital Territory and
Northern Territory). The seat of the federal government is located in
Australia’s capital city- Canberra.
1. Political System
Australia is run by constitutional monarchy and is a parliamentary
democracy. Wiltshire, Kenneth have stated that the Australian system
represented an amalgamation of the Westminster model of government
and the American federal design. Elections are held every 3 years and
the Prime Minister plays an important role in choosing the date of the
election. For this, the Prime Minister can advise the Governor-General
to dissolve the House of Representatives and call for fresh elections.
Once the House of Representatives gets dissolved or expires, it leads
to a situation, when no law can be passed. As a result, the executive
government takes charge during an election period.
The political arena in Australia came to be dominated by two major
parties from 1922 onwards. These are the Australian Labor Party and
the coalition parties composed of the Liberal Party of Australia and
The Nationals. Overtime, the former remained, as the most stable
party while the latter underwent numerous rifts.
Australia follows the policy of compulsory voting at the national
and state level. The elections are conducted under the purview of
the Electoral Commission. The Electoral Commission also holds
referendums, prepares electoral roll, and redistributes electoral
boundaries.
2. Administrative System
 Legislative
The legislative branch of administration is based on the Commonwealth
Parliament. It is composed of three parts- the Queen, the Senate, and
49
Political and Administrative the House of Representatives. The Parliament has four departments,
Systems in Developed and namely the Department of the Senate, the Department of the House of
Developing Countries
Representatives, the Department of Parliamentary Services, and the
Parliamentary Budget Office. The main functions of the Parliament
include legislation, looking into the funding of the government,
functioning, as a channel of popular representation; and keeping a
check on the government.
The Senate is also known, as the State’s House. It represents States
equally irrespective of population. It is headed by the President of the
Senate chosen from amongst the Senators. The members (Senators)
may be State Senators12 or territory Senators13, who serve a term of 6
years or 3 years respectively. The Senate reviews government action
as well as scrutinizes laws and policies implemented by ministers
and public servants on a continuous basis. It has the power to reject
or amend government legislation. The Senate also has the power to
initiate any bill (except money bill), if a senator is in charge of the bill
or the House of Representatives is not in session.
The House of Representatives is also known as ‘people’s house’ or
‘house of government.’ It is presided over by the Speaker and the
members have a maximum term of 3 years from the first meeting of
the House. The House of Representatives represents the people and
performs functions such as, drafting laws, and regulating governmental
administration and expenditure. The political party or coalition of
parties with majority of members in the House of Representatives is
the ruling party and its leader becomes the Prime Minister.
 Executive
While the Queen represents executive power of the Commonwealth,
it is exercised by the Queen’s representative or Governor-General.
The Queen appoints the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime
Minister. Since the Governor-General is appointed at the pleasure of
the Queen, there is no specific term of service. In reality, it is expected
that the term will be for 5 years and will be subject to extension.
The Governor-General is bestowed with constitutional, statutory, and
reserve powers. He/she exercises his/her power based on the advice
of the Federal Executive Council and also presides over meetings
of the Executive Council. He/she fulfills functions such as issue
writs for new elections, give assent to laws passed in both Houses
of Parliament, commission the Prime Minister and appoint other
ministers. The reserve powers are used to appoint a Prime Minister in
case of a ‘hung parliament,’ dismiss a Prime Minister in case he/she
loses confidence in the Parliament or is found guilty of conducting
unlawful activities, and dismiss any request of the Prime Minister to
dissolve the House of Representatives. According to Article 68 of the
Australian Constitution, the Governor-General is the commander in
chief of the Australian Defence Forces. In this capacity, he appoints

12
A senator is a member of the Australian Senate, elected to represent a state or territory.
13
 Territory senators commence their terms on the day that they are elected. Their terms
expire the day prior to the following general election day.
50
 chiefs of the armed forces and officers to the navy, army, and air force. Political and Administrative
However, these duties are carried out on the advice of the Minister for Systems in Developed
Countries
Defence.
 Judiciary
Judicial power or judicature is vested in the Federal Supreme Court
called the High Court of Australia. The High Court is headed by a
Chief Justice appointed by the Governor- General in Council. He/she
enjoys a term, which expires upon attaining 70 years of age. The High
Court is the apex court with the mandate to interpret and implement
legal codes, decide on cases of constitutional validity of laws, resolve
conflicts during law-making in the Parliament, and hear appeals from
Federal, State, and Territory courts. In all cases, the judgment of the
High Court shall be taken, as final and conclusive.
Activity
Let us make a comparative study of the political and administrative systems
of any the two developed countries.

6.6 CONCLUSION
This Unit has dealt with the political and administrative systems of four
developed countries-USA, England, Russia, and Australia.

6.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. 12th June Russia Day. RIBTTES. [online] Available at: https://www.
ribttes.com/news/12th-june-russia-day-independence-day-in-russia/
2. A special role in Parliament. [online] Available at: https://www.senat.
fr/lng/en/the_senates_role/a_special_role_in_parliament.html
3. About Parliament. [online] Available at: http://www.aph.gov.au/
About_Parliament
4. About the House of Representatives. [online] Available at: http://
www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/
About_the_House_of_ Representatives
5. About the Judicial Branch. [online] Available at: https://www.usa.
gov/about-the-judicial- branch
6. About the Senate. [online] Available at: http://www.aph.gov.au/
About_Parliament/Senate/About_the_Senate
7. Act of Union. Encyclopedia Britannica. [online] Available at: https://
www.britannica.com/event/Act-of-Union-Great-Britain-1707
8. Assemblée nationale. [online] Available at: http://www.ipu.org/
parline- e/reports/2113_B.htm
9. Australia’s Constitution. (2010). [online] Available at: http://www.aph.
gov.au/~/media/05%20About%20Parliament/52%20Sen/523%20
PPP/2012_ Australian_Constitution.pdf
10. Basic facts about Russia: Political system. [online] Available at: http://
russiapedia.rt.com/basic-facts-about-russia/political-system/

51
Political and Administrative 11. Belonuchkin, Grigory. (1996). Federation Council of the Federal
Systems in Developed and Assembly of the Russian Federation. [online] Available at: http://
Developing Countries
www.politika.su/e/fs/sf.html
12. Berrington, Hugh. (2003). Role of Political Parties. BBC. [online]
Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/bbc_
parliament/2443563.stm
13. Blackburn, Robert. (2015). Britain's unwritten constitution. British
Library. [online] Available at: https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/
britains-unwritten-constitution
14. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Fact Book: Australia. [online]
Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/as.html
15. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Fact Book: North America:
United States. [online] Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/
publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html
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

56
UNIT 7 POLITICAL AND
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Political and Administrative Systems in India
7.3 Political and Administrative Systems in China
7.4 Political and Administrative Systems in Brazil
7.5 Political and Administrative Systems in South Africa
7.6 Conclusion
7.7 References

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
●● Describe the political and administrative systems in India;
●● Discuss the political and administrative systems in China;
●● Highlight the political and administrative systems in Brazil; and
●● Explain the political and administrative systems in South Africa.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit discusses the political and administrative systems in developing
countries, especially in countries of India, China, Brazil, and South Africa.
However before we get into a discussion of the features of political and
administrative systems in the mentioned countries, it seems necessary to
understand the concept of a ‘developing country.’
What is a developing country? A developing country is defined in contrast
with a developed country. It is suffers from low per-capita income, low levels
of human capital, high levels of poverty, under-nutrition, higher population
growth rates, predominance of agriculture, low levels of industrialization,
low level of urbanization, but rapid rural-to-urban migration, dominance
of informal sector, un-skilled labor, and poor financial, and other markets.
In short, it is characterized by low levels of economic and technological
advancement as well as poor state of general conditions of living. A
developing country tends to have low gross domestic product1 (GDP), gross

1
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the monetary value of all finished goods and services
made within a country during a specific period. GDP provides an economic snapshot of
a country, used to estimate the size of an economy and growth rate.
57
Political and Administrative national product (GNP)2, and per capita income3 . It tends to have a low score
Systems in Developed and with respect to Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI is a composite
Developing Countries
index made up of three core indicators- life expectancy, education, and per
capita income. HDI helps to understand the relation between economic
indicators and social indicators, that is, it tries to establish whether income
provides access to education and health opportunities, which could lead to
better human development.

7.2 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN INDIA
We will now discuss the political and administrative systems in developing
countries, beginning with India. We will first discuss the political system
followed by the discussion on the administrative system.
1. Political System
India has adopted a parliamentary form of government wherein the
Parliament is a supreme body with directly elected people and the
political party with the majority forms the executive. The President of
India is a Republican head and everything in the executive is carried
out in his name.
We have three organs of the government that is legislature, executive,
judiciary. We do follow separation of powers but along with a system
of checks and balances.
2. Administrative System
To begin is with a discussion on legislature.
 Legislature
Chapter II of Part V of the Constitution lays out the national legislature
represented by the Parliament. According to Article 79 the Parliament
consists of the President and two houses, namely Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha. Moreover, the Parliament or the State Legislatures or
both can legislate on subjects mentioned in Lists I, II, and III of the
Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.
i. Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha or the Lower House has representatives from various
constituencies. It is not permanent house, as it can be dissolved, if
the Prime Minister advises the President to dissolve the House before
the completion of 5-year term, which is the maximum tenure or if the
Prime Minister fails to prove his majority in the Lok Sabha.
The Speaker is the Presiding Officer of Lok Sabha. Lok Sabha is
responsible for passing laws. According to the Constitution of India,
2
 Gross National Product (GNP) is the total value of all finished goods and services
produced by a country's citizens in a given financial year, irrespective of their location.
GNP also measures the output generated by a country's businesses located domestically
or abroad.
3
 Per capita income is a measure of the amount of money earned per person in a nation or
geographic region. Per capita income helps determine the average per-person income to
evaluate the standard of living for a population.
58
 the maximum strength of the House is at 552 of, which 530 members Political and Administrative
should represent the States, 20 members should represent the Union Systems in Developing
Countries
Territories, and not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian
Community may be nominated by the President, if found none. The
Lok Sabha members are directly elected by citizens of the country
based on universal adult suffrage4. To be eligible to the Lok Sabha, a
person must be (1) a citizen of India, (2) not less than 25 years of age,
and (3) possess such other qualifications, as may be prescribed by or
under any law made by Parliament.
The Lok Sabha can legislate on subjects mentioned under the Union
List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India such as
Defence, Foreign Affairs, Railways, Transport and Communications,
economic and social planning, labor welfare, price control, and more.
It is a forum, where questions are answered by Ministers, thereby, it
helps to keep a check on the actions of the government and safeguard
people’s rights. It has the exclusive authority to introduce and enact
money bills. Together with the Rajya Sabha, the Lok Sabha can
approve the non-money bills and constitutional amendments as well
as impeach the President and Vice- President.
ii. Rajya Sabha
The Rajya Sabha or the Upper House represents the States of India.
Under Article 80 of the Indian Constitution, the maximum strength
of Rajya Sabha is 250 from which12 members are nominated by the
President from the fields of literature, science, art, and social service.
The remaining 238 are representatives from States and the two from
union territories of Delhi and Puducherry. Rajya Sabha members are
voted by a system of indirect elections by means of a single transferable
vote. The Rajya Sabha members are selected by elected members
of state legislative assemblies via single transferable vote through
proportional representation. As per Article 84 of the Constitution, one
is eligible to become a member of this House if he/she is (1) a citizen
of India, (2) not less than 30 years of age, (3) possesses qualifications,
as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by
Parliament.
The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairperson of Rajya
Sabha and members have a term of 6 years and can be re- elected.
It is a permanent body, which can never be fully dissolved. It has
two special powers namely, the power to consent and approve matters
relating to states as well as removal and inclusion of items from State
list to Union or Concurrent list.
 Executive
Chapters I and II of Part V of the Constitution informs about the
Executive power of the Union exercised by the President, Vice
President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, and the Attorney

4
 Universal suffrage gives the right to vote to all adult citizens, regardless of wealth,
income, gender, social status, race, ethnicity, political stance, or any other restriction,
subject only to relatively minor exceptions.
59
Political and Administrative General. Articles 52 to 78 of the Constitution of India deals with the
Systems in Developed and Executive power of the Union.
Developing Countries
i. President
The President of India is the Head of the Indian State as well as of
executive, legislature, and judiciary of the country. The President is
elected for a term of 5 year. As per Article 52 of the Constitution of
India, there shall be a President of India who will be the first citizen
of the country. He is selected by an electoral college composed of
elected members of both Houses of Parliament and state legislative
assemblies, and legislative assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry,
by means of a single transferable vote. To be eligible to become a
President, s/he should (1) be citizen of India, (2) have completed 35
years of age , (3) have qualified for election as a member of Lok
Sabha, and (4) not hold any office of profit under the Union or any
state government, or any local or other authority.
However, s/he may resign from office by writing his resignation to the
Vice President of India. Further, the President may be removed from
office by impeachment on grounds of violation of the Constitution
(Article 61). In case of vacancy of the office of the President, the
Vice President acts, as a substitute, till the post is filled by an election
immediately conducted within 6 months of the office becoming
vacant.
The President enjoys legislative, executive, and judicial powers.
Legislative powers provide him/her with the authority to dissolve the
Lok Sabha and end a session of the Parliament, address the Parliament
in its first session every year, nominate 12 members with extra ordinary
accomplishments in the fields of science, art, literature, and social
service to the Rajya Sabha, nominate 2 members from the Anglo-
Indian Community to the Lok Sabha, withhold or give assent to a bill
passed by the Parliament. If it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional
Amendment Bill, the President can return it to the Parliament for
reconsideration. The executive functions of the President include
appointment of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, judges
of the Supreme Court and the High Courts in the States, and Attorney
General and Comptroller and Auditor General of India. He/she is the
Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces of the country.
ii. Vice President
The Vice President is the second highest office in the country. He/She
acts, as the ex-officio Chairperson of Rajya Sabha. The Vice President
has a term of 5 years. S/He also acts, as the President, in case the
office of the President becomes vacant due to his/her death, removal
or resignation. He/she may act, as a President for a maximum period
of 6 months within, which a new President must be elected.
The Vice President is not directly elected by the people but by an
electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament.
To be eligible, he/she should (1) be citizen of India, (2) have completed
35 years of age, (3) have qualified for election, as a member of Rajya
60
 Sabha, and (4) not hold any office of profit under the Union or any Political and Administrative
state government, or any local or other authority. Systems in Developing
Countries
iii. Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the Head of the Government. He/she is the
real executive authority (de facto executive) while the President is
the nominal executive authority (de jure executive). As per Article 74
(1) of the Constitution, the Prime Minister is the Head of the Council
of Ministers with whom he shall aid and advise the President. While
the Prime Minister has a full term of 5 years, it is not a fixed tenure.
S/He holds office till the pleasure of the President, that is, as long
as he/she enjoys majority support in the Lok Sabha. Once he/she
loses confidence of the House, he/she must resign or the President
can dismiss him/her. The Prime Minister acts, as the link between
President and Council of Ministers, allocates portfolios among the
ministers, coordinates work of ministries and departments with the
Cabinet Secretariat, and presides over cabinet meetings.
There is no specific procedure for the selection and appointment of
the Prime Minister in the Constitution. However, Article 75(1) of the
Constitution mentions that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by
the President. He/she shall appoint the leader of the majority party
in the Lok Sabha, as the Prime Minister. In case no party has a clear
majority in the Lok Sabha, the President shall appoint the leader of the
largest party or coalition in the Lok Sabha, as the Prime Minister. He/
she must seek a vote of confidence in the House within a month. To
become eligible to be selected, as the Prime Minister, he/she should
(1) be a citizen of India, (2) completed 25/30 years of age, necessary
to fulfill qualifying age of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha respectively,
and (3) be a member of either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha.
The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister to aid and
advise the President. These ministers are appointed by the President
on the advice of the Prime Minister. Article 75 (1A) clarifies the total
number of ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the Council of
Ministers shall not exceed 15% of the total number of members in the
Lok Sabha. The Council of Ministers holds office till the pleasure of
the President.
 Civil Servants
Civil Servants known, as bureaucracy, are the permanent executive
of the Indian administrative system. Officials like Secretary, Joint
Secretary, Principal Secretary, and Additional Secretary do hold
the helm of the administrative affairs of the Central Secretariat and
departments and ministries. Besides, there are middle level officials
and also the staff working at the lower rungs of the government
organizations. All secretarial work do emanate from here. They are
here to aid and assist the political leaders with all documents, reports,
data, and facts that are required to design and formulate policies.

61
Political and Administrative They are regulated by the personnel rules of the Department of
Systems in Developed and Personnel. All grievances are also looked into by the concerned
Developing Countries
Department.
 Judiciary
Chapter IV of the Constitution vests judicial powers on the Supreme
Court, High Court, and other lower courts in India. The Supreme Court
is the apex court led by the Chief Justice of India, who is appointed
by the President. He/she holds office till the age of sixty-five. Below
the Supreme Court are High Courts in the states. The High Courts are
discussed Chapter V of Part VI, Article 214 of the Indian Constitution.
At present, there are 24 High Courts in the country. The judgments
and orders of the Supreme Court of India are binding on them. Below
the High Courts are various subordinate courts, for example district
courts, civil courts, family courts, and criminal courts. The court
system in India is responsible for protecting fundamental rights of
citizens and is the guardian of Constitution. It performs advisory
functions, interprets laws, decides on issues of constitutional validity,
and punishes for violation of laws of the land.
Now we will discuss the political and administrative system of China.

7.3 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN CHINA
The People's Republic of China was founded on 1st October, 1949. Keeping
in view the vast expanse of land and the large population, the Chinese
administrative system functions at five levels. These are Provincial,
Prefecture (region), County (district), Township (communities), and
Villages. The People’s Republic of China has administrative system divided
into 4 branches- legislative, executive, judiciary, and military.
Let us now discuss, beginning with the political system.
1. Political System
The political system in China depicts a communist socialist state.
The election system helps to recruit deputies to people’s congresses
at several levels. The election takes the form of general election of
local deputies. Right to vote and right to stand in election are granted
to all citizens, who are 18 years or above irrespective of their ethnic
status, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief,
education, property status, or length of residence. The election of
deputies is governed by the procedure of consultation at the level
of organizations of standing committees of people’s congresses of
provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities that are directly
under the Central Government. Voting takes place through the medium
of secret ballot.
The Communist Party of China, established in 1921, formed the
People’s Republic of China in 1949. Since then, it has been the
predominant party in China. It leads and organizes China’s legislative
and law enforcement activities. It heads China’s armed forces.
The Chinese political party system functions on the basis of multi-
62
 party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership Political and Administrative
of the Communist Party of China. Multi-party cooperation aims to Systems in Developing
Countries
continue socialist construction of the nation through the leadership
of the Party and participation of 8 other political parties. The multi-
party cooperation system has various advantages, as it provides an
institutionalized medium for political participation of democratic
parties, incorporates various social forces into the political system, and
consolidates and expands the foundation of the people's democratic
practices. It also helps to represent varied interests, aspirations, and
demands of all social sectors, and achieve social integration and
political stability. Thus, China’s political system demonstrates a
socialist political party system.
2. Administrative System
 Legislature
The National People’s Congress (NPC) is the most powerful
administrative branch of China. The NPC is composed of 3,000
members, who all meet once in every year. The members serve a
tenure of 5-years. It has the mandate to draft and sanction all laws,
amend state constitution and enact laws, supervise enforcement
of constitution and other laws, elect the President and the Vice
President, and more. NPC has six permanent committees with respect
to minorities, law, finance, foreign affairs, overseas Chinese, and
education, science, culture, and health combined.
When the NPC is not in session, its functions are carried out by a
Standing Committee. In 1987, the Standing Committee’s powers
were increased to make it have a real influence within the NPC. It
meets bimonthly to preside over sessions of the NPC, determine the
agenda, route legislation, nominate and/or remove officials, and even
proclamation of war when the NPC is not in session. Some of the major
responsibilities of the Standing Committee comprise of conducting
election of NPC, interpreting state constitution and laws, supervising
work of the executive, the military commission, and judicial organs;
and more.
The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC),
also known as the People’s PCC is a political advisory body in
the People’s Republic of China and a central part of the Chinese
Communist Party’s United Front system. The body traditionally
consists of delegates from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and
its allied front organizations, eight legally-permitted political parties
subservient to the CCP, as well as nominally independent members.
The CPPCC is chaired by a member of the Politburo Standing
Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.
The National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political
Consultative Conference typically holds a yearly meeting at the same
time, as plenary sessions of the National People’s Congress (NPC).
The organizational hierarchy of the CPPCC consists of a National
Committee and regional committees. The CPPCC is intended to be
more representative of a broader range of people than is typical of
63
Political and Administrative government office in the People's Republic of China. According to
Systems in Developed and Sinologist Peter Mattis, the CPPCC is "the one place where all the
Developing Countries
relevant actors inside and outside the party come together: party elders,
intelligence officers, diplomats, propagandists, soldiers and political
commissars, united front workers, academics, and businesspeople." In
practice, the CPPCC serves "the place where messages are developed
and distributed among party members and the non-party members,
who shape perceptions of the CCP and China.”
 Executive
The State Council is the highest executive body of the People’s
Republic of China. The Chinese Constitution directs the State Council
to assure that laws passed by the NPC are executed- promptly and
properly. It is the biggest organ of state administration. The Premier
heads the Council and is assisted by the Vice Premiers, ministers and
chairpersons of various commissions. The State Council meets in a
monthly plenary session.
The functions of the State Council are to promulgate administrative
regulations and rules in accordance with the Constitution, introduce
motions to the NPC and its Standing Committee, oversee and guide
the works of ministries, manage economic development in urban and
rural areas and more. The State Council is responsible and accountable
to the NPC or the Standing Committee, when NPC is not in session.
Executive power is also exercised by the President of Peoples
Republic of China. The President is the Head of the State (Chinese
Constitution of 1982). The term of office of the President coincides
with that of the NPC and may serve at most 2 consecutive terms.
The duty of the President includes promulgating statutes, appointing
or removing the Premier, Vice Premiers, State Councilors, Ministers
in charge of ministries or commissions, the Auditor-General and the
Secretary-General of the State Council; conferring State medals and
titles of honor, issuing orders of pardons, proclaiming a state of war,
and more.
The Vice President is also a part of the executive organ of the state.
He/she assists the President and performs the functions of the office of
the President, in case the office of the President falls vacant. Like the
President, the term of office of the Vice President also coincides with
that of the NPC and may serve at most 2 consecutive terms.
 Judiciary
China’s two most important courts vested with judicial power are the
‘Supreme People's Court’ and the ‘Supreme People's Procuratorate’
(magistrate).
The Supreme People's Court is the apex court, which controls all
subordinate courts. It hears civil, criminal, and administrative cases,
and also is the appellate authority. It is headed by a President, whose
tenure is similar to that of the NPC.
Article 129 of the Constitution and Article 1 of the Organic Law of
the People’s Procuratorates stipulate that ‘the People’s Procuratorates
64
 are state organs for legal supervision.’ According to the law, the state Political and Administrative
makes it clear that people’s procuratorates are state organs for legal Systems in Developing
Countries
supervision and exercise the right of legal supervision on behalf of
the state. Procuratorial organs perform their functions and powers
independently, according to the law, and shall not be subject to
interference. Article 131 clearly states that ‘people’s procuratorates
shall, in accordance with the law, exercise procuratorial power
independently and are not subject to interference by administrative
organs, public organizations or individuals.’ The Supreme People's
Procuratorate is the highest procuratorial institution for legal
supervision. It is led by the Procurator-General, whose tenure is
similar to that of the NPC.
 Military
The State Central Military Commission is entrusted with military
powers in order to direct the armed forces, that is, the People’s
Liberation Army, the People’s Liberation Army militia, and the
People’s Armed Police. The State Central Military Commission is
headed by a Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, who is elected
by the NPC. This Commission has 11 members, who are responsible
for various activities pertaining to the armed forces.

7.4 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN BRAZIL
Brazil became a sovereign country in 1822 after gaining independence from
centuries of Portuguese rule. Brazil is divided into 26 states and 1 federal
district and 5,581 municipalities. The capital city, Brasilia, is the seat of
federal government of the republic.
1. Political System: Federal Representative Democratic Republic
The Federative Republic of Brazil is a presidential representative
democracy. Elections are conducted every 2 years on the first Sunday
of October or on the last Sunday of October. Article 77 allows
simultaneous elections of the President and the Vice President of the
Republic on the first Sunday of October for the first round, and on
the last Sunday of October of the year, if there is a second round.
The election method of the majority system is followed, wherein the
candidate with majority votes will be declared winner.
In matters of election, the Superior Electoral Court (TSE) remains
the fundamental body to ensure a vibrant democracy in Brazil. Its
mandate is established by the Federal Constitution and by the Electoral
Code (Law No. 4,737, dated 07/15/1965). The Court operates with 7
Judges of whom 3 are from the Federal Supreme Court, 2 are from
the Superior Court of Justice, and 2 representatives with outstanding
legal knowledge and practice. The Court is headed by a Judge from
the Federal Supreme Court. In 2012, Electoral Accountability System
was brought in to bring about electoral campaign accountability in
financial committees and political parties, as well as, the candidates.
65
Political and Administrative 2. Administrative System
Systems in Developed and
Developing Countries  Legislative
The legislative branch is represented by the National Congress
(Congresso Nacional) made up of the Federal Senate and the Chamber
of Deputies. The Brazilian Constitution allows every legislative term
to last for 4 years. The National Congress has been given the power
to regulate tax system and income distribution, make multi-year
plans and annual budgets as well as national, regional, and sectoral
development plans and programs, and determine the number of troops
in the Armed Forces. It has been given certain exclusive powers, for
example, permit the President to declare war, allow foreign forces to
transit through or remain on the national territory temporarily, and
ratify international treaties, agreements or acts.
The Chamber of Deputies signifies the Brazilian people who elect
their representatives every 4 years through direct universal suffrage. It
is headed by the President/Speaker and the members of the Chamber
(Deputados Federais) serve for a 4-years term. The Chamber of
Deputies has been granted exclusive powers for impeachment of
the President, the Vice President, and the Ministers of the Federal
Government, initiate confiscation of the accounts of the President,
if they are not submitted to the National Congress within 60 days
after commencement of the legislative session, elect members of the
Council of the Republic, and more.
The Federal Senate symbolizes interests of the Federation Units. It is
headed by the President of the Senate, who serves for four years. The
Members of the Senate (Senadores) serve a term of 8 years subject
to renewal after 4 years. The Federal Senate has the exclusive power
to impeach the President, the Vice President, the Ministers of the
Federal Government, and the Commanders of the Navy, Army, and
Air Force. It can approve the appointment of judges, President, and
Directors of the Central Bank by secret ballot; and authorize State
external (foreign) financial operations.
 Executive
The President of the Republic is conferred with executive powers by
Article 76 of the Constitution... The President is the Head of the State
and the Head of the Government as well as the Commander-in-Chief
of the armed forces. He/she is directly elected for a term of 4 years
and is allowed to stand only once for a re-election. The President has
been granted exclusive powers to appoint and dismiss Ministers of the
Federal Government, ensure efficient federal administration, and veto
bills wholly or partially.
The Vice President is elected simultaneously with the President for a
term of 4 years. He/she serves, as the acting President when the office
of the falls vacant. He/she is mandated to perform his/her duties, as
mentioned in the Constitution.
The Ministers of the Federal Government are appointed by the
President. As per Article 87 of the Constitution of Brazil, Ministers
66
 should be selected from among Brazilians, aged more than 21, in full Political and Administrative
possession of their political rights. The Ministers have been granted Systems in Developing
Countries
power to ensure good federal administration within one’s authority,
countersign laws and decrees signed by the President, supervise
implementation of laws, decrees and regulations, and submit the
annual performance report of the Ministry to the President.
 Judiciary
Judicial powers are shared between the ordinary branch and the
special branch. The former includes Federal Supreme Court (Supremo
Tribunal Federal/STF), Superior Court of Justice (Superior Tribunal
de Justiça/ STJ), and Regional Federal Courts (Tribunais Regionais
Federai/TRF) while the latter includes Labor Courts, Electoral Courts,
Military Courts; and State, Federal District, and Territory Courts. The
Federal Supreme Court is the apex court in the country. It is composed
of 11 justices appointed by the President in consultation with the
federal Senate. It has the duty to ensure that the Constitution is not
violated and to provide the final verdict on constitutional questions.
The Superior Court of Justice is the next important organ of judicial
power. It is made up of 33 justices appointed by the President on the
basis of the list of three names given by the Court itself and approved
by the Senate. This Court has the duty to provide for a uniform
interpretation of federal legislation. Below the Superior Court of
Justice are the Federal Courts composed of federal judges.
The Labor Courts hear cases of individual and collective conflicts
between employees and employers. The Electoral Courts ensure
proper implementation of electoral procedures and the right to direct
and secret ballot. Military Courts judge military crimes while State
Courts to rule on cases not under the jurisdiction of Federal, Labor,
Electoral and Military Courts.

7.5 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa, an erstwhile colony of the British, became the Republic of
South Africa in 1961. It is divided into 9 provinces to be governed on the
premise of ‘co-operative government.’ Chapter 3 of the Constitution provides
for a ‘co-operative government’, i.e., government at national, provincial,
and local spheres that are distinct yet interdependent and interrelated.
Governance is managed from three capital cities - the Executive Capital of
Pretoria, the Judicial Capital of Bloemfontein, and the Legislative Capital
of Cape Town.
1. Political System
The government in South Africa is better described, as a unitary and
parliamentary constitutional republic. Herein, democratic elections
are conducted every 5 years to create a new Parliament. Elections are
carried out via a list-system of proportional representation based on
universal adult suffrage.
67
Political and Administrative The most important among elections is the election of the President of
Systems in Developed and South Africa. The National Assembly elects the President every 5 years.
Developing Countries
The President remains in office so long as he/she enjoys the confidence of
the Assembly.
South Africa follows two types of electoral systems. These are the
constituency-based elections and the proportional representation elections.
In the constituency-based elections, voters from every local area elect
their choice of candidate, who will represent them in the Parliament. The
candidate with majority votes from each constituency becomes a Member
of Parliament. Here, the individual, who becomes a Member of Parliament,
is not affiliated to any political party.
In the proportional representation elections, voters from large areas elect
their preferred political parties. Thereafter, these political parties select
Members of Parliament from among themselves and every party is allocated
a certain number of seats proportional to the number of votes it gets in the
election.
2. Administrative System
 Legislative
Legislative authority is vested in the bicameral Parliament consisting
of two houses, National Assembly and National Council of Provinces.
According to the Constitution, Parliament must represent its people and
ensure a democratic government. For this, it passes laws, scrutinizes
and oversees executive action, facilitates public participation in
legislative processes, promotes co-operative government, and engages
in international participation.
The National Assembly represents people and ensures government
by them. The members hold a term of 5 years. It oversees the
implementation of legislations, while making the executive answerable
to it.
The National Council of Provinces represents provinces and safeguards
provincial interests in the national sphere of government. It is headed
by the Chairperson and along with the representatives from provinces
serve a term of 5 years. It is responsible for overseeing legislative
processes at the provincial and local governments.
 Executive
Executive authority is entrusted in the President, who is Head
of State and Head of Government. The President is elected by the
National Assembly for a term of 5 years. The powers and functions
of the President include giving consent to bills, referring bills back
to the National Assembly for reconsideration, appointing government
diplomats(ambassadors, plenipotentiaries, and diplomatic and
consular representatives), pardoning or reprieving offenders, and
remittances.
The Deputy President is appointed by the President. He/she is selected
from among the Members of Parliament of the National Assembly.
He/she is the ex-officio member of the National Working Committee.
68
 His/her role involves assisting the President, acting on behalf of the Political and Administrative
President whenever necessary, and executing responsibilities allocated Systems in Developing
Countries
by the National Conference, National General Council, President,
National Executive Committee or National Working Committee.
The Cabinet is appointed by the President. The President not only
assigns powers and functions to the cabinet members but also has the
power to remove them from office. Cabinet is headed by the President
who appoints a member of the Cabinet to lead government business in
the National Assembly. The Cabinet consists of the President, Deputy
President, ministers and deputy ministers of national departments.
 Judiciary
Judicial authority is distributed among Constitutional Court, Supreme
Court of Appeal, High Courts, and Magistrates courts. According to
the Constitution, the courts are to act independently, impartially, and
without fear, favor or prejudice. The judiciary is headed by the Chief
Justice with the mandate to establish and monitor norms and standards
in the judicial functioning in all courts.
The Constitutional Court is the highest court of South Africa. It has
a Chief Justice, Deputy Chief Justice, along with nine other judges.
Adjudication of a matter before the Constitutional Court requires at
least 8 judges. It is also responsible for interpreting of constitutional
matters and upholding of constitutional values.
The Supreme Court of Appeal has a President, Deputy President,
and judges (their number is determined by Act of Parliament). It is
primarily concerned with redressal of non-constitutional matters.
Majority of the cases are dealt by the High Courts and Magistrates
Courts.
Activity
Let us make a comparative study of the political and administrative systems
of any the two developing countries.

7.6 CONCLUSION
The Constitution of India provides for a Parliamentary form of government
with both federal and unitary features. The Chinese politico-administrative
setup represents a socialist/communist state and the doctrine of unitary
state structure and a regional national autonomy system (one country,
two systems). Brazil is a federal representative democratic republic with
a presidential form of government. South Africa is a democratic republic
under the presidential form of government.

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72
UNIT 8 FRED RIGGS ADMINISTRATIVE
MODEL FOR DEVELOPING
SOCIETIES
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Ecological Approach
8.3 Agraria and Industria Models
8.4 Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Societies
8.5 The Prismatic-Sala Model
8.6 Appraisal
8.7 A Comparison between Bureaucracy and Sala
8.8. Conclusion
8.9 References and Further Readings

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
1. Discuss the essential features, merits, and limitations of the Ecological
Approach to the study of Comparative Public Administration;
2. Appreciate the way Fred W. Riggs has used the Ecological Approach
in the creation of his models;
3. Understand the key elements of the Riggsian models of Agraria and
Industria and their limitations;
4. Examine the attributes of Fused, Prismatic, and Diffracted societies,
more particularly the Prismatic system and its administrative sub-
system, the Sala;
5. Develop insights into the utility and limitations of the Prismatic-Sala
model in the context of ‘developing societies’; and
6. Have a brief view of the concepts of Development Administration and
Administrative Development.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Fred W Riggs (1917-2008) has been a pioneer in the discipline of comparative
public administration. A political scientist by training, his professional focus
on comparative analysis of governance systems has been most prominent
and commendable.
Some of the books written or edited by Fred Riggs are as under:
1. The Ecology of Public Administration (1961)
2. Models and Priorities in the Comparative Study of Public
Administration (CAG monograph with Edward Weidner, 1963)
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Political and Administrative 3. Administration in Developing Countries: Theory of Prismatic Society
Systems in Developed and (1964)
Developing Countries
4. Thailand: Modernization of a Bureaucratic Polity (1966)
5. Frontiers of Development Administration (Editor, 1970)
6. Prismatic Society Revisited (monograph, 1973)
7. The Development Debate (co-authored with Daya Krishna)
Besides, there are a number of scholarly articles penned by Riggs. His
writings have transformed the discipline of Public Administration,
particularly through integrating it with its sub-discipline of comparative
public administration. The conceptual theoretical base to the contribution
of Fred W. Riggs was provided mainly by three intellectual approaches.
These are:
1. General Systems Approach
2. Structural-functional Approach
3. Ecological Approach
While the first and second approaches have been discussed in the first unit,
the third, that is, the Ecological Approach is being discussed in this Unit.
This is being done to facilitate a proper understanding of the conceptual
context of Fred W Riggs’s writings.

8.2 THE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH

In common parlance, ‘ecology’ means ‘environment’. However, in
the context of comparative public administration, it implies a mutual or
reciprocal relationship and interaction between an administrative system
and its environment. Among scholars who have highlighted this approach
in the context of public administration are John M.Gaus, Robert A. Dahl,
and most importantly, Fred W. Riggs, whose lectures delivered on this
approach at the Indian Institute of Public Administration were published
in a book titled ‘The Ecology of Public Administration’ in 1961. Riggs
emphasized that differences and similarities among administrative systems
in the western and the non-western world could be understood properly
only when we look at their environment and its dynamic relationship with
the administrative system.
In 1962, in his seminal article ‘Trends in the Comparative Study of Public
Administration’ published in International Review of Administrative
Sciences, Riggs had mentioned that comparative public administration was
moving away from a state of being “non-ecological” to a state of being
“ecological”. What he meant was that traditional studies of comparative
public administration did not adequately take into account the reciprocal
relationships between the administrative system and its environmental
context.
Premise
Under the ecological approach, there are four premises:
1. An administrative system is a subsystem of the political system and
hence it is deeply influenced by the political executive, the legislature,
74
 the judiciary, political parties, pressure groups, and the election system Fred Riggs Administrative
of a country. Model for Developing
Societies
2. An administrative system is impacted by the economic system, the
social system, the cultural system, demographic structure, and mass
psychology (including the technological system), which together
form its context.
3. Likewise, the administrative system directly or indirectly, affects the
functioning of political institutions, the economic system, the social
system, the cultural system, the technological system, and mass
psychology, all comprising its broader environment.
4. There is a constant dynamic relationship between an administrative
system and its environment. Since the environments of various
nations and culture have diversity, at the comparative level, all
administrative systems develop their own distinctive characteristics.
The similarities and differences between an administrative system at
the cross-national and cross-cultural levels can be appreciated only
through the ecological approach.
Application
As mentioned above, Fred Riggs is the foremost scholar, who has applied
the ecological approach to the comparative study of administrative systems.
His models of ‘Agraria’, Industria,’ ‘Fused’, ‘Prismatic,’ and ‘Diffracted’
societies and their respective administrative systems are rooted in the
ecological approach. It may be mentioned that the ecological approach
is a component of the system approach. Both are interactional in their
perspectives.
Besides Riggs, there are other scholars who have analyzed administrative
systems of various nations in an ecological context, although they may not
have used the nomenclature of the ‘ecological’ approach. Such scholars
include Ferrel Heady, Ralph Braibanti, Milton Esman, A. H Hanson, and
Krishna K Tummala.
Merits
1. The ecological approach is constructed logically. It focuses on
administrative reality in various contexts and environments.
2. It has the intrinsic capacity of explaining the sources of similarities
and differences among administrative systems working in different
nations and cultures.
3. The ecological approach signifies that administrative reforms in
various countries ought to be given priorities that are useful for them.
4. It underlines that administrative reforms can be facilitated only when
they attain the support of political, economic, and socio-cultural
systems.
5. This approach makes us aware that there are varying cultural
frameworks influencing the administrative system. For instance, what
is considered a ‘corrupt’ practice in one culture may not be treated so
in another country or culture.

75
Political and Administrative 6. In the context of development administration, it is the ecological
Systems in Developed and approach that helps in determining the direction of change in the
Developing Countries
administrative system and other systems comprising the environment.
It posits a relationship between ‘administrative development’ and
‘development administration.’
Limitations
1. It is difficult to assess the nature and quantum of the impact of various
environmental structures on an administrative system.
2. It is also problematic to analyze the nature and extent of the influence
exercised by an administrative system over its environment.
3. It is difficult to be operationalized for empirical research.
Nevertheless, the ecological approach has made a most visible impact on
comparative administrative studies and has made us aware that one cannot
ignore this perspective while trying to understand how and why administrative
systems are characterized by certain similarities and differences.
Let us now move to a discussion of the two prominent typologies of
Fred Riggs that have used the general system, structural-functional, and
ecological approaches.

8.3 AGRARIA AND INDUSTRIA MODELS

Inspired by Dwight Waldo, Fred W. Riggs utilized in an innovate manner the
essential feature of the general system approach, the structural-functional,
and the ecological approach, while developing a typology of models in his
path-breaking article entitled, ‘Agraria and Industria- Toward a Typology
of Comparative Administration’ published in an anthology, Towards a
Comparative study of Public Administration edited by William J Siffin in
1957.
In the agrarian-industria models, Riggs used the ideal-type methodology,
which has logically inter-related various important and relevant concepts and
their relationships and, which are based on an imagination and extrapolation
of societies that represent the total development of the characteristics of
a particular model. Like Max Weber’s models, Riggs’s models are ideal-
typical or ‘pure’ in formulation and are not found in real life. It may,
however, be pointed out that Riggs abstracted his Agrarian model from the
features of Imperial China of ancient times and likewise, for Industria, he
abstracted the features of modern United States of America. Normally, we
can say that two were inductive models derived from the study of distinct
historical societies. However, we should remember that ideal-type models
are not necessarily inductive or deductive. Deductive models by some
scholars are constructed on the basis of the analysis of features of several
societies or systems. It is assumed by some scholars that Weber’s model of
bureaucracy was apparently ‘deductive’ in nature. Nevertheless, the caution
is clear: Ideal type models need not be inductive or deductive. They have a
methodology of their own.
Agraria
The main features of an agrarian society were as follows:
76
1. Man’s status is based on his birth (parentage, lineage) Fred Riggs Administrative
Model for Developing
2. Traditions are followed, as the basis of functioning of an administrative Societies
system. These traditions favor particular privileged groups over the
rest.
3. There are structures that perform a large number of functions; they are
multi-functional in nature.
4. Social groups at the local level are stable and there is very little
movement from one social group to another. Thus, the status system
is rigid and almost closed.
5. Occupations in this society have very little specialization.
6. Various groups in the agrarian society have specific tasks defined
by traditions. This leads to rigidity in their classification in social
hierarchy that is based on conventional stratification.
Industria
An industria society has the following features:
1. There is universalism and equity in the application of rules in society.
No special privileges are granted to any particular section of society.
2. Structures are specialized in their nature. They perform tasks
particularly related to their own special sphere.
3. Progress of a person in society and the administrative system is
decided on merit and achievement (as against birth in the agraria)
4. Certain social groups have the opportunity and freedom to move on
to other social groups depending on their will and skill. The road to
progress, vertical or horizontal, is not blocked for anyone.
5. The occupational system is well-developed with its own norms and
rules. There is no interference of any outside structure in the conduct
of occupational roles.
6. The class system in society is not rigid or based on any conventional
social hierarchy. Instead, it is based on a generalized pattern of
occupational achievement.
7. Associations in society are not based on rigidity or birth. Instead, they
are functionally specialized and based on achievement.
Limitations
The agraria- industria typology paved the way for an exciting debate on
the need for innovative conceptual constructs for studying the developing
as well as developed societies and countries. However, within two years,
Riggs himself abandoned these two models and created a new typology of
Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted societies, to which we shall refer later.
What were the limitations of the agraria-industria typology? Briefly, these
limitations are being mentioned, as follows:
1. The polar types of agrarian and industria societies were not helpful
in studying traditional societies, which were neither totally agrarian,
nor totally industria. This limitation led to the creation of a fresh
middle category of ‘transitia’ that was considered useful for studying
77
Political and Administrative transitional societies. However, compared to the categories of agrarian
Systems in Developed and and industria, this new model of ‘transitia’ was less developed and
Developing Countries
therefore, it could not sufficiently explain the nature of societies and
their administrative systems in developing countries.
2. Critics argued that the categories of agraria and industria did not
explain the socio-cultural reality, for in an industria society, there
were always present a few features of agraria. In other words, most
societies were ‘mixed’ societies, while the Riggsian typology could
not explain their functioning.
This criticism appears to be valid, but it should be remembered that the
Riggsian typology was based on the ideal-type methodology, which
is not designed to describe any real-life social systems. It should
be accepted, nevertheless, that it did not help in understanding or
explaining the nature of transitional societies and their administrative
systems.
3. Riggs’s models of agraria and industria assumed that there is only one-
way movement of societies. That all agrarian societies move towards
an industria state, since becoming an industria was the preferred
goal. This reflected a bias in favour of developed industrial societies,
ignoring that even an agrarian society might progress and not move
on the rigidly drawn path for one-way movement. Instead, it might
choose its own direction, depending on its needs and circumstances.
4. The categories of agraria and industria were too abstract or theoretical
in nature, providing little help in conducting empirical research.
Riggs had not offered any appropriate methodology for conducting
empirical research through his abstract concepts.
5. In both the models, very little analysis was made of the administrative
systems functioning in the agrarian as well as the industria societies.
6. It was assumed that the features of both societies will necessarily
determine the character of respective administrative systems. There
was no analysis of the impact that an administrative system might
have on its socio-cultural or political environment. In other words, the
models were not ecological in orientation, but only ‘environmental’ in
perspective.
The above limitations were responsible for abandoning the agrarian-
industria typologies. Nevertheless, it led to a fresh thinking on the nature
of models that could be constructed to understand better administrative
systems and their external environment in developing countries. And thus, a
new typology of Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted societies was designed which,
in many ways overcame the limitations of the Agraria-Industria typology.

8.4 FUSED-PRISMATIC-DIFFRACTED
SOCIETIES
Riggs has classified societies under his revised typology on the basis of
the level of differentiation (specialization) and the level of integration
(coordination). Riggs does not use the term ‘developing’ or ‘developed’
nations or societies in his fused-prismatic-diffracted typology. He is of the
78
view that the term ‘developed’ or ‘developing’ nations are too general and do Fred Riggs Administrative
not reflect his notion of classifying societies on the basis of differentiation– Model for Developing
Societies
integration relationship.
Fused Society
A fused society has the following features:
1. It is a traditional society, where old structures exist.
2. Most structures are multi-functional, i.e. one structure performs a
large number of functions.
3. Status and privileges in society are determined by birth or traditional
status (Ascription).
4. Certain specific groups in society gain preferred treatment and status
in society (Particularism).
5. There is very low mobility in terms of status and occupations. The
social structure and occupations are rigid, since they are based on
birth and time-honored conventions.
Diffracted Society
A diffracted society has the following features:
1. It has a very high level of specialization of structures and functions.
2. There is also a high level of integration (coordination) in these
societies, thus there is hardly any gap existing between the levels of
specialization and integration (Diffraction).
3. There is equity among social groups, with no group enjoying special
preferences and privileges (Universalism).
4. There is considerable mobility in status and occupations. People can
move from one occupation to the other.
5. Progress in the socio-economic system is based on merit and
performance (Achievement).
The administrative system functioning in diffracted society is called ‘bureau’
the characteristic of, which are similar to those of a diffracted society.
Prismatic Society
In between the two categories of ‘fused’ and ‘diffracted’ societies are
prismatic societies that have the following features:
1. Selectivism: This is an intermediate category between universalism
and particularism. Under a prismatic system, certain groups, though
larger in number than in a fused society, gain precedence over the less
privileged groups.
2. Attainment: This is an intermediate category between ascription
and achievement, implying that in a prismatic society, merit as well
as traditional status, that is, based on birth, caste etc. determine the
movement of a person to a higher level.
3. Poly-functionalism: This is an intermediate category between
functional specification and functional diffuseness. It implies that
in a prismatic society, the level of specialization is much larger than
found in a fused society, but less than what is prevalent in diffracted
societies.
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Political and Administrative The administrative system of a prismatic system is called ‘sala’ meaning a
Systems in Developed and room or office in Spanish language. A ‘sala’ shares the features of prismatic
Developing Countries
society.
It may be mentioned that in the agrarian-industria typology, there was a
detailed analysis of agrarian as well as industria societies, but only a marginal
reference was made to ‘transitia’. In the latter typology of fused-prismatic-
diffracted societies, the emphasis was reversed. In this typology, the focus is
on the prismatic society, while the analysis of fused and diffracted societies
is in brief. Likewise, there is an inadequate description of the ‘court’ of a
fused society and the ‘bureau’ of a diffracted society. On the other hand, the
‘sala’ of a prismatic society has been adequately discussed.
It may be mentioned once again that even though a prismatic society has
not been termed, as a ‘developing’ society, it is assumed throughout the
Riggsian analysis that most developing countries share the features of a
prismatic society.

8.5 THE PRISMATIC-SALA MODEL

A ‘prism’ is a transparent glass or plastic object, often with ends in the shape
of a triangle, which separates light that passes through it into the colours of
a rainbow. Riggs has borrowed the term ‘prismatic’ from the discipline of
Physics, for it appropriately explains his conceptualization. A ray of light,
before it enters the prism, has no refraction, hence it denotes a ‘fused’ society
that has no differentiation or specialization. When the ray enters the prism,
it is in a state of progressive refraction, but it is not still fully refracted. This
state denotes a ‘prismatic’ state. And when the rays come out of the prism,
it converts into a rainbow-like profile, and has seven distinct colors of a
rainbow. This ‘refracted’ state denotes a ‘diffracted’ society.
Thus a prismatic society is a ‘mixed’ society that has the features of ‘fused’
as well as ‘diffracted’ societies. Let us look at the main features of prismatic
society and its administrative system, the ‘sala’. These features can be
interpreted, as the characteristic of ‘developing’ or ‘transitional’ societies
and their administrative systems.
1. Heterogeneity
Heterogeneity means diversity. In a prismatic society, there is a co-
existence of the features of fused as well as diffracted societies. There
are in this society, traditional as well as modern systems, practices,
viewpoints, norms, and behavior patterns co-existing. There are
metropolitan towns and rural areas; traditional and modern attitudes,
western style departmental stores and small village shops; large
companies as well as small cooperative societies and cottage industries
run by families; giant universities as well as one-teacher schools; and
multi-specialty large hospitals and one-physician Ayurveda or Unani
clinics. Such diversity can also be seen in the simultaneous existence
of financial institutions such as SEBI and village moneylenders;
multinational corporations and village patwaris (revenue officials);
and old manual typewriters along with sophisticated information
technology.
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2. Formalism Fred Riggs Administrative
Model for Developing
In prismatic societies, there is wide gap existing between laws and Societies
their implementation, promises made by leaders and their execution
and plans and their implementation. While government programmes
are meant to benefit all citizens or specific groups, there is partiality
seen in granting such benefits. Those who pay bribe or are in friendship
with powerful leaders or administrators or are themselves socially
and economically influential, grab a major chunk of benefits. The sala
officials may also take advantage of this situation and receive illegal
income through unethical practices. Riggs observes that in prismatic
societies, a large number of administrative reforms committees and
commissions are appointed for improving the performance and
behavior of the sala, yet their recommendation are rarely accepted by
the government, and even when these recommendations are accepted,
they are rarely executed faithfully. Thus, the impact of administrative
reforms remains only superficial.
3. Overlapping
In a prismatic society, new and modern structures are designed to
perform important socio-economic functions, but along with them,
traditional structures continue to exercise an overlapping influence on
the dynamics of such functions. Likewise, old traditional values and
modern objective and rational values overlap with each other. Thus,
one function may be performed by more than one structure. Some of
these structures are formal, others are informal. While administrative
functions should be performed mostly by administrative institutions,
the reality in prismatic societies is that political leaders, political
parties, pressure groups, industrialists, businessmen, caste leaders,
religious leaders, and other sections of society also influence the
developmental and regulatory policies and programmes and their
implementation.
Overlapping has several dimensions--political, economic, social,
culture, and administrative, a brief reference to, which is made below:
a. Political System: Bureaucratic Polity
In a prismatic society, there is a separation of ‘authority’
(officially sanctioned or legitimate power) and ‘control’ (‘real’
but ‘unofficially’ permitted or illegitimate power’.) Riggs
observes that a ‘balanced polity’ is characterized by a balance
between the power enjoyed and exercised by politicians and
the bureaucrats. While bureaucrats are expected to implement
policies made by political leaders, they, in actual behavior, carry
considerable informal influence on the drafting of policies and in
controlling the governance system through their high intellectual
ability, communication powers, specialized knowledge, and
long administrative experience. A polity, where, bureaucrats
dominate the governance system is called ‘bureaucratic polity’.
Riggs observes that an excessive bureaucratic power leads
to lack of controls and regulations and thus to administrative
ineffectiveness. On the contrary, there may be a situation,
where the politicians enjoy excessive powers and control the
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Political and Administrative governance system for achieving their ‘own’ narrow goals.
Systems in Developed and Even this is an unbalanced polity. It would then be a ‘party-run’
Developing Countries
polity that works against a rational governance system.
b. Economic System: Bazaar-Canteen Model
In a prismatic society there exists a ‘price-indeterminacy’
or a bazaar-like (market) situation. While the clients or
citizens are the buyers of government services, public
officials are the sellers of such services. Although rates
and rules are fixed legally for each service, public officials
discriminate among citizens and charge higher prices or
lower rates, depending on a client’s status and influence.
Further, the rates of government services are specially
subsidized for certain influential social and political
groups. This is a ‘canteen’ approach, where the ‘insiders’
enjoy more benefits at reduced rates than do the less
privileged ‘outsiders.’
c. Social System: Poly- Communalism or ‘Clects’
In a prismatic society, there simultaneously exist a
number of ethnic, religious, and racial groups that are
in relatively hostile interaction with each other. Such
groups or ‘clects’ work in their own interest and try to
dominate the governance system. When they come to
power, the administrative system or ‘sala’ is used to be
in favour of a few privileged groups. Sometimes, there is
proportional representation given to various communities
in recruitment to government positions. However, when
a particular community controls the administrative
system, it gives undue benefits to the members of its
own community at the cost of other communities.
Such hostility decreases the objectivity, integrity, and
effectiveness of the administrative system.
d. Cultural System: Poly-Normativism or ‘Normlessness’
In a prismatic society, there is a proclaimed acceptance
and respect for western rational, equalitarian, democratic
values, but in actual behaviour, the traditional values
favouring birth, caste, and relationships dominate. While
in the sala, public officials claim to follow rational, legal,
and achievement-orientated practices, however, in actual
behaviour, they give undue benefits to people on the
basis of their social standing and influence. Likewise,
public officials apply different sets of values or norms of
conduct for different groups or clients. Sometimes, they
become rigid in following the rules, while at other time,
they become very flexible. This is called ‘normlessness’.
e. Administrative System: Nepotism
Public officials in the sala are guided in their decisions
and actions by considerations of family, loyalty, kinship,
82
 and friendship. Thus, nepotism and favoritism rule the Fred Riggs Administrative
governance system. Yes, a lip service is paid to the Model for Developing
Societies
norms of universalism and impartiality, while in the
system of recruitment and in the distribution of services,
discrimination is found rampant.
In sum, according to the prismatic-sala model, there is dominance of non-
formal structures and patterns of behavior in society and the administrative
system, which are not in conformance with the goals of development,
rationality, objectivity, and justice.
Riggs’s prismatic-sala model is only an ideal type-construct and may not
portray the reality of the social or administrative systems of developing
countries. It may be pointed out that all features of prismatic societies
may not apply to all ‘developing’ nations. There is no uniformity in the
level of ‘prismatism’ existing among all nations. Some are more prismatic
while others may be ‘less prismatic’. There is no society that is ‘totally
prismatic’. In fact, even developed nations like the USA, Great Britain, and
Russia contain a few prismatic traits in their social, political, economic, and
administrative systems.

8.6 APPRAISAL
Riggs’s prismatic-sala model is a leading model that reflects the socio-
administrative realities in developing countries. It has led to several studies
of specific nations like India, the Philippines, and Japan. However, there are
a few points that need consideration in this respect.
1. The prismatic model focuses on negative aspects of society and
administration and ignores the positive aspects. In real life, there
are many ‘diffracted’ traits found in a prismatic society. Sweeping
generalizations of the model sometimes takes it away from objectivity.
2. It underestimates the positive developmental role of bureaucracies in
developing countries.
3. It does not explain the way the sala affects the rest of prismatic society.
Besides, it is not clarified how the sala can facilitate the process of
development. (Riggs fills this gap in his analysis of development
administration).
4. In the model, there is greater stress on the environment of an
administrative system than on the administrative system itself.
5. Riggs has not looked at the positive side of the negative traits of
prismatic society. E. H. Valsan has observed that ‘formalism’ may
have its positive side, when the public officials go out of the way
to help the needy citizens, sometimes flexing the rules. Compassion
becomes difficult be practiced in a water-tight rule-structure.
6. Riggsian concepts are not operational in nature. It becomes difficult to
translate his numerous qualitative concepts into quantified categories.
Despite the above limitations, Rigg’s models have proven to be an exciting
interpretation of transforming societies and their governance system.

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Political and Administrative
Systems in Developed and 8.7 A COMPARISON BETWEEN
Developing Countries BUREAUCRACY AND SALA
It would be interesting to attempt a brief comparison between Weber’s
bureaucracy and Riggs’s sala. Both models are ideal-type. While Weber’s
typology has three models (traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational),
Riggs’s typology has also three models (fused, prismatic, and diffracted).
A gist of salient differences between bureaucracy and sala should be
interesting.
BUREAUCRACY SALA
1. Organized in hierarchy of offices 1. Heterogeneity
2. Defined competence of each office 2. Overlapping
3. Selection of officials by 3. Attainment as the basis of
achievement recruitment; nepotism
4. Administration by rule 4. Formalism
5. Universalism and impersonal 5. Personalized norms in official
operations; officials are subject to behavior
authority only in official capacity
6. Separation of public funds from 6. Widespread official corruption.
the private.
Activity
We can have a case study of a policy/programme/project based on the
approaches.

8.8 CONCLUSION
Riggs has used the ecological studies in terms of both the developing and
developed societies. Initially, he dealt with Agraria-Industria Model and later
he replaced it with ‘Fused-PRiggs’s prismatic-sala model is only an ideal
type-construct and may not portray the reality of the social or administrative
systems of developing countries. It may be pointed out that all features of
prismatic societies may not apply to all ‘developing’ nations. There is no
uniformity in the level of ‘prismatism’ existing among all nations. Some are
more prismatic while others may be ‘less prismatic’. There is no society that
is ‘totally prismatic.’

8.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Arora, Ramesh K. 2021. Comparative Public Administration: An Ecological
Perspective. New Delhi: New Age International.
Heady, Ferrel. 1995. Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective.
New York. Marcel Dekker.
Riggs, Fred. 1964. Administration in Developing Countries: Theory of
Prismatic Society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Riggs, Fred. 1961. The Ecology of Public Administration. Bombay: Asia.
Sahni, Pradeep and E. Vayunandan. 2009. Administrative Theory. New
Delhi: Prentice-Hall.
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