Unconventional Hydrocarbon Energy Resources

Course Code - 23PEB302T

Assignment - 1

By
Dev H. Mehta
22BPE050
B.Tech in
Petroleum Engineering

School of Technology
Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Gandhinagar – 382426, Gujarat, India
Abstract

The dynamics of global CO₂ emissions, the potential of gas hydrates in the energy transition,
historical greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the role of hydrogen storage in achieving
net-zero goals. CO₂ emissions are projected to peak before 2030, with reduction rates
varying across scenarios like the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), Announced Pledges
Scenario (APS), and Net Zero Emissions (NZE) Scenario. Emerging economies, including
India and Southeast Asia, are committing to net-zero targets, which could halve emissions by
2050. Gas hydrates, a promising yet experimental energy source, offer significant potential
for future energy security, with the global market projected to grow substantially. Meanwhile,
GHG emissions have risen dramatically over the past century, contributing to a global
temperature increase of over 1°C. Hydrogen storage emerges as a critical solution for
renewable energy intermittency and decarbonizing hard-to-electrify sectors, despite technical
challenges. This study highlights the interconnected efforts required to combat climate
change and transition to sustainable energy systems.

Keywords

CO₂ emissions, gas hydrates, greenhouse gases (GHG), energy transition, net-zero emissions,
renewable energy, climate change, energy security, sustainable energy.
 Table of Contents

Sr Topic Page No.

No.

Abstract I

1 Role Of Gas Hydrates In Energy Transition 3

 Properties of gas hydrates
 Gas hydrate applications & trends

2 CO₂ Emissions in India 6

 India's Trends in CO₂ Emissions
 Environmental and climate impacts
 Policy measures and transitions
3 Green House Gas emission (GHS) past 150 years 9
 GHS impact on the earth
 Global atmospheric anomaly chart

4 References 11

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1 ROLE OF GAS HYDRATES IN ENERGY TRANSITION

Gas hydrates are a solid crystal composed of water and gas. It appears and behaves very
much like ice, but it has enormous quantities of methane; it is found on every continent; and
it is present in enormous amounts in ocean sediments in a layer several hundred meters thick
right under the sea floor and in association with Arctic permafrost. It is unstable under regular
sea-level pressures and temperatures, and this is the major reason that it is difficult to study.

Gas hydrates are significant for three reasons:

1. They potentially harbor a huge energy resource

2. It could be a serious threat since it affects sea floor sediment stability, thereby controlling
collapse and landsliding
3. The reservoir of hydrate can exert strong impact on the climate and environment, since
methane is a potent greenhouse gas.

Properties of Gas hydrates

Structure I (sI), Structure II (sII), and Structure H (sH). In general, the van der Waals radii of
the gas molecules (trapped inside the water cages) determine the structure formed.

 Structure I (sI):
sI consists of two small (5¹²) cages and six large (5¹²6²) cages with 46 water molecules
per unit cell. The common gas molecules that form sI hydrates include pure methane,
ethane, carbon dioxide, xenon, etc.
 Structure II (sII):
sII contains 16 small (5¹²) cages and 8 large (5¹²6⁴) cages with 136 water molecules
per unit cell. Natural gas compositions that include propane and cyclopentane are
examples of hydrate formers that would form sII hydrates.
 Structure H (sH):
Unlike sI and sII hydrates, sH hydrates contain three different cages:

 Three small (5¹²) cages

 Two medium (4³5⁶6³) cages
 One large (5¹²6⁸) cage

sH hydrates have 34 water molecules per unit cell. It should be noted that sH requires two
types of gas molecules to stabilize the structure, e.g., methane + methylcyclohexane.

Gas hydrates are non-stoichiometric, meaning that some cavities can be vacant while others
are occupied. They contain approximately 85 mol% of water molecules. Thus, gas hydrates
have similar properties to ice structures.

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Fig. 1 : Basic structures of Gas hydrates

Gas Hydrates as a Cleaner Bridge Fuel

 Natural gas is frequently regarded as a bridge fuel, and gas hydrate methane can be
used to extend this function. With a probable 1,800 to 20,000 trillion cubic meters of
methane locked in hydrates, they are a vast unexploited energy resource. Burning
methane releases 50% less CO₂ than coal and 30% less than oil, and they are thus a
cleaner fossil fuel. Moreover, their worldwide distribution promotes energy security,
minimizing reliance on conventional oil and gas deposits.

Gas Hydrates and Carbon Capture (CCS)

 Outside of energy production, gas hydrates also offer a game-changing carbon
sequestration possibility. The process of exchanging CH₄-CO₂ can substitute CO₂ for
methane in hydrate cages, facilitating methane recovery while permanently
sequestering CO₂. This process is a double win—greenhouse gas emission reduction
and energy provision, which can be an important weapon in the battle against global
warming.

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Gas Hydrates in Hydrogen Storage
 As hydrogen takes center stage in the net-zero economy, gas hydrates present a novel
storage solution. Unlike conventional hydrogen storage, where high-pressure tanks or
cryogenic cooling are needed, hydrates can store hydrogen securely at moderate
conditions. This enhances the efficiency and safety of transportation and storage,
facilitating the scaling up of the hydrogen economy.
 Though promising, gas hydrates are hindered by difficulties in economic recovery and
environmental hazards such as methane escape and seafloor failure. But technological
breakthroughs in CO₂ injection, microbial methane production, and real-time
monitoring are increasing their prospects for extraction and sustainability. Developed
responsibly, gas hydrates can fill the gap between fossil fuels and alternative energy
sources, enabling an easier transition.
 Gas hydrates are of huge significance in the world's transition to clean energy. By
acting as a low-carbon bridge fuel, facilitating carbon sequestration, and facilitating
hydrogen storage, they can contribute significantly to the realization of a net-zero
future. With increased technological development and safe extraction, gas hydrates
have the potential to be a game-changing energy source for the next few decades.

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2 CO₂ EMISSIONS IN INDIA:
 India's path as a high-growing economy is closely linked with its transformative
changes in energy consumption and related CO₂ emissions. While in previous
decades the country's carbon footprint remained small as a result of a predominantly
agrarian economy and low industrialization, accelerated economic development has
elevated India into the league of large CO₂ emitters. This paper delves into the past,
explores present trends, reviews policy interventions, and delineates future challenges
and opportunities.

1. India's Trends in CO₂ Emissions and Major Sectors Driving It

 India's industrialization and urbanization have contributed heavily to CO₂ emissions,
which make it one of the world's biggest emitters.
 The nation's energy base is still dominated by fossil fuels, especially coal, which is
the most common source of electricity generation.
 Major sectors responsible for emissions are electricity generation (coal-based power
plants), transportation (increasing vehicle fleet), heavy industry (steel, cement,
chemicals), and household-commercial energy use.
 Adequate growth in renewables has not been enough to overcome coal and petroleum
as main sources of energy, which again intensify environmental issues.

2. Environmental and Climate Impacts

 Global Warming and Climate Change: CO₂ emissions lead to rising temperatures,
more frequent weather extremes (heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall), and changing
monsoon patterns, all endangering agriculture, water security, and ecosystems.
 Glacier Melt & Sea Level Rise: The accelerated melting of the Himalayan glaciers
puts river systems at risk, lowering the availability of freshwater. Sea-level rise
threatens coastal communities, including possible displacement and economic loss.
 Urban Air Pollution: Delhi and Mumbai, among other major cities, are plagued by
high air pollution levels, as CO₂ mixes with other contaminants to create smog, acid
rain, and bad air, having a direct effect on health and urban quality of life.

3. Socio-Economic and Health Impacts

 Public Health Concerns: The high CO₂ emissions and related pollutants result in
respiratory illnesses such as asthma, COPD, and pneumonia. Greater cardiovascular
risks and pressure on healthcare systems further strain public resources.
 Agricultural & Food Insecurity: Climate fluctuation impacts crop yields, resulting in
food deficits, increased prices, and economic hardship to farmers. Erratic monsoons
and weather conditions render agriculture more unsustainable.

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  Economic Costs & Social Inequality: Environmental degradation causes higher
medical costs, loss of productivity, and damage to infrastructure. Disadvantaged
groups (urban poor, rural communities) are disproportionately impacted, increasing
economic inequalities.

4. Policy Measures and Transition to Sustainable Energy

 Government Initiatives: India has initiated several climate action initiatives such as
the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and ambitious renewable
energy expansion (wind, solar).
 Air Quality and Emission Control: Industrial emission control laws, fuel efficiency for
vehicles, and electric vehicles promotion are some of the measures to reduce
emissions.
 Technological Innovations: Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS), energy efficiency
enhancement, and hybrid and distributed solar and wind energy systems development
are important for minimizing fossil fuel dependence.
 Challenges & Future Outlook: Despite efforts, infrastructure limitations, economic
pressures, and the need for large-scale investments remain key hurdles in India’s
transition to a low-carbon economy. A balanced approach integrating environmental,
economic, and social factors is essential for long-term sustainability.

Fig. 3 :Global CO2 Emissions through time 1950-2022

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Fig.4 : Per capita Co2 emmissions, 2023

Fig. 5 : Climate change : Global atmospheric CO2 annual emission

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3 GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR ROLE IN
EARTH’S CLIMATE
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are specific molecules present in our atmosphere that play a
crucial role in regulating Earth’s temperature. They do this by absorbing infrared radiation—
the heat energy that Earth emits after being warmed by the sun—and then re-emitting it in all
directions. This process creates a natural “blanket” that traps heat near the planet’s surface,
making Earth hospitable for life. Without this greenhouse effect, our planet would be much
colder. The most abundant greenhouse gases, by atmospheric concentration, include water
vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). In addition,
there is a group of industrially produced gases, such as various halocarbons (for example,
fluorocarbons), which, even in trace amounts, have potent warming effects.

 Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric molecules that trap heat radiating from
Earth’s surface, preventing it from escaping into space. This process, known as the
greenhouse effect, helps maintain Earth’s temperature at a level suitable for life. The
primary greenhouse gases include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and industrial halogen-bearing gases such as
fluorocarbons. While water vapor is naturally occurring and influenced by
temperature fluctuations, human activities, including industrial processes and land-
use changes, have significantly increased the concentration of other greenhouse
gases over the past 150 years. This increase has led to a rise of over 1°C (2°F) in
global temperatures since the pre-industrial era, contributing to climate change.

 The Earth’s atmosphere consists mostly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), which
do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect. However, trace gases—those
present in much smaller amounts—play a disproportionate role in regulating the
climate. Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere, warming
the Earth’s surface. However, instead of letting this heat escape back into space, they
absorb and radiate it, much like a blanket traps body heat. Even minor changes in the
concentration of these gases can have dramatic effects on global temperatures. For
instance, historical fluctuations in greenhouse gas levels have contributed to extreme
climate conditions, ranging from ice ages, when large mammals like mastodons
thrived, to much warmer periods, such as the age of the dinosaurs.
 Carbon dioxide is one of the most influential greenhouse gases, primarily emitted
from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activities. Since the pre-
industrial era, CO2 levels have risen significantly, remaining in the atmosphere for
centuries. Methane, although less abundant than CO2, is a much more potent heat
trapper and is released through agricultural activities, landfill decomposition, and
fossil fuel extraction. Nitrous oxide, mainly produced by agricultural fertilizers and
combustion processes, has an even greater warming potential than methane. Synthetic
halogenated gases, used in refrigeration and industrial applications, have extremely
high global warming potential despite their low atmospheric concentration.

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  As greenhouse gas levels continue to rise due to human activities, the resulting
climate changes include more extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and
disruptions to ecosystems. Understanding the role of greenhouse gases is essential for
mitigating climate change and implementing solutions to reduce emissions and protect
the planet’s future.

Fig.5. Global Temperature Anomaly , Atmospheric CO2 concentration , Atmospheric CH4

concentration, Atmospheric N2O concentration from 1850-2025

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4 REFERENCES

1. International Energy Agency. (2024). World energy outlook 2024.Retrieved

from https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/c036b390-ba9c-4132-870b-ffb455148b63/
WorldEnergyOutlook2024.pdf

2. Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. (n.d.). Main greenhouse gases. Retrieved
from https://www.c2es.org/content/main-greenhouse-gases/

3. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. (n.d.). 4 ways of storing hydrogen from renewable energy.
Retrieved from https://spectra.mhi.com/4-ways-of-storing-hydrogen-from-renewable-energy/

4. Our World in Data. (n.d.). CO₂ emissions per capita. Retrieved from
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co-emissions-per-capita?time=1923..latest

5. Precedence Research. (n.d.). Gas hydrates market. Retrieved from

https://www.precedenceresearch.com/gas-hydrates-market

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