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New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 2 of 14
End of Tutorial Material 12
Glossary of Key Terms 13

Tutorial Objectives
Students will have mastered the material in Tutorial Two when they can:
Session 2.1 Session 2.3
⚫ Review the principles of data validation ⚫ Place internal and external content in an
⚫ Create a DOCTYPE entity
⚫ Declare XML elements and define their ⚫ Create entity references
content ⚫ Understand how to store code in
⚫ Define the structure of child elements parameter entities
⚫ Create comments in a DTD
Session 2.2 ⚫ Understand how to create conditional
⚫ Declare attributes sections
⚫ Set rules for attribute content ⚫ Understand how to create entities for non-
⚫ Define optional and required attributes character data
⚫ Validate an XML document ⚫ Understand how to validate standard
vocabularies

XML 68: Creating a Valid Document

LECTURE NOTES
Explain what a DTD can do when used in conjunction with an XML parser that supports data
validation
Discuss what a DOCTYPE is and its purpose
Review the two parts a DOCTYPE can be divided into
Explain the reason for creating a public identifier for a DTD
Illustrate the differences between external and internal subsets used in a DOCTYPE

BOXES
TIP: The root value in the DOCTYPE must match the name of the XML document’s root element;
otherwise,parsers will reject the document as invalid.(XML 71)
InSight: Understanding URIs (XML 72)
ProSkills: Written Communication: Interpreting Public Identifiers (XML 73)
Reference: Declaring a DTD (XML 74)

FIGURES
Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2, Figure 2-3, Figure 2-4, Figure 2-5

TEACHER TIP
Provide students with a table like the one in Figure 2-1, marking which fields, if any, are optional, and ask
them to devise the corresponding structure for the data in the document, like the one shown in Figure 2-3.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Present students with scenarios and ask them to determine the kind of DOCTYPE
statement the scenario would require. For example, if a company is using a standard XML vocabulary
like MathML, what kind of statement is required? (Answer: A public identifier) If a company has

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 3 of 14

developed a customized XML parser to read its XML documents, what is required? (Answer: An
external file with a system identifier)
2. Quick Quiz:
A DTD can be used to .
a. ensure that all required elements are present in a document
b. prevent undefined elements from being used in a document
c. define default values for attributes
d. All of these are correct.
(Answer: D)
A(n) subset is a set of declarations placed within the XML document. (Answer:
internal)
True/False: An internal DTD can be easily used as a common DTD among many documents,
forcing them to use the same elements, attributes, and document structure. (Answer: False)

XML 75: Declaring Document Elements

LECTURE NOTES
Explain the meaning of an element type declaration
Illustrate the differences between elements that can contain any data, empty elements, and parsed
character data

BOXES
TIP: Element declarations must begin with <!ELEMENT in all uppercase letters and not <!Element
or <!element. (XML 75)
Reference: Specifying Types of Element Content (XML 77)

FIGURES
Figure 2-6

TEACHER TIP
Ask students to brainstorm examples of elements that would fall under each of the five types of content
models. The more examples that you can go over with them, the more it will help students understand the
various types of elements.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Present students with examples of elements that have been declared to be of a
particular type and then are invalid, and ask students to explain how to correct the element so it
complies with its assigned type.
2. Quick Quiz:
An element declaration can specify all of the following except .
a. the reserved symbols that the element name can contain
b. the element’s name
c. what kind of content the element can contain
d. the order in which elements appear in the document
(Answer: A)
An element declared as cannot store any content. (Answer: empty)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 4 of 14

True/False: Generally, elements are declared as being of type ANY or #PCDATA. (Answer:
False)

XML 78: Working with Child Elements

LECTURE NOTES
Explain how to declare an element that contains child elements
Discuss the two ways to declare an element that has multiple child elements
Define a modifying symbol and describe its uses

BOXES
Reference: Specifying Child Elements (XML 80)
TIP: You can specify that an element contains a minimum number of a child element by entering
duplicate elements equal to the minimum number and adding a + to the last one. (XML 80)
Reference: Applying Modifying Symbols (XML 81)
InSight: DTDs and Mixed Content (XML 83)
Review:Session 2.1 Quick Check (XML 83)

FIGURES
Figure 2-7

TEACHER TIP
Present students with examples of elements that have been declared to be of a particular type and then are
invalid, and ask students to explain how to correct the elements so they comply with their assigned type.
This will help them to understand child elements better.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Describe in words the child elements a parent element must contain (for example,“a
citizen must have a state or a province code, but not both”) and ask students to write the element
declarations that correspond to the examples presented. Another exercise would be to present a list of
child elements (e.g., name, company) and ask what element declaration allows the given list of child
elements, making sure to remind students that modifying symbols add extra possible solutions.
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: For content that involves multiple child elements, you can specify the elements in
either a sequence or a choice of elements. (Answer: True)
A is a list of elements that follow a defined order.
a. choice
b. source
c. sequence
d. series
(Answer: C)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 5 of 14

A(n) symbol specifies the number of occurrences of each child element. (Answer:
modifying)

LAB ACTIVITY
Have students begin to construct a DTD for the following situation:
Students who have student ID, first name, last name, email, phone
Courses which have course ID, description, and number of credits
Grade records which have record ID, student ID, course ID, and grade
They should create the main elements and then specify the children. Students may have more than one
phone number and email address.

XML 86: Declaring Attributes

LECTURE NOTES
Review the various purposes of an attribute list declaration
Discuss the different ways to declare elements with multiple attributes

BOXES
Reference: Declaring Attributes in a DTD (XML 87)

FIGURES
Figure 2-8, Figure 2-9

TEACHER TIP
Stress that right now the attribute declarations would be rejected since the attribute types are not specified.
As with the other sections, go through several examples to help students understand the process.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. Class Discussion: Ask students to come up with attributes for a course element. What attributes
would they have? How would they be specified in a DTD?
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: If a parser encounters more than one declaration for the same attribute, it only
recognizes the second statement and ignores the first. (Answer: False)
Which of the following is true of attribute-list declarations?
a. They must be located at the beginning of the DTD.
b. They must be located at the end of the DTD.
c. They must be located adjacent to the declaration for the element with which they are
associated.
d. They can be located anywhere within the DTD.
(Answer: D)
To enforce attribution properties on a document, you must add a(n) to the
document’s DTD. (Answer: attribute-list declaration)

XML 89 Working with Attribute Types

LECTURE NOTES
Discuss different data types that DTDs support for attribute values
Explain the differences in character data and enumerated types of attribute values
© 2015 Cengage Learning
 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 6 of 14

Discuss the four types of tokens that DTDs support

BOXES
TIP: You’ll learn more about default attribute values later in this tutorial. (XML 90)
TIP: Because an ID must be valid XML names, it cannot begin with a number. Commonly used
identifiers, such as Social Security numbers, must be prefaced with one or more alphabetical
characters, such as SS123-45-6789. (XML 93)

FIGURES
Figure 2-10, Figure 2-11, Figure 2-12, Figure 2-13

TEACHER TIP
Point out the fact that quantities, to which students would expect to assign a data type of “integer” or
“number,” are expressed as being of type “CDATA.” If they have programmed at all before, they may be
confused about this. Caution students that the use of the IDREF token requires that there be a matching
attribute to be cross-referenced, or the document will be rejected as invalid.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Ask students to brainstorm scenarios in which enumerated-type attributes would be
useful because the values must be limited to a known, bounded set.
2. Quick Quiz:
The simplest form for attribute text is .
a. CDATA
b. ID
c. enumerated list
d. NMTOKEN
(Answer: A)
Attributes that are limited to a set of possible values are known as types. (Answer:
enumerated)
True/False: Tokens are used when an attribute value refers to a file containing nontextual data,
like a graphic image or a video clip. (Answer: False)

XML 95: Working with Attribute Defaults

LECTURE NOTES
Review the four types of attribute defaults and explain their uses
Demonstrate how to declare each of the four types

BOXES
TIP: If you specify a default value for an attribute, omit #REQUIRED and #IMPLIED from the
attribute declaration so parsersdon’t reject the DTD. (XML 95)
Reference: Specifying the Attribute Default (XML 96)

FIGURES
Figure 2-14, Figure 2-15

TEACHER TIP
© 2015 Cengage Learning
 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 7 of 14

In studying XML, students often worry that there are too many options to remember. Provide more
examples and ask students to contribute a few; thiswill help students to remember the various options.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. Class Discussion: Ask students to break into teams. Have them devise scenarios that allow them to
provide examples of the uses of each of the attribute defaults in Figure 2-14. Have them discuss their
results with each other.
2. Quick Quiz:
You can indicate that a given element must always have a particular attribute by adding the
value to the attribute declaration.
a. #FIXED
b. #REQUIRED
c. #IMPLIED
d. #MANDATED
(Answer: B)
The value for an attribute indicates that the use of this attribute is optional.
(Answer: #implied)

XML 97: Validating an XML Document

LECTURE NOTES
Discuss the process of validating an XML document
Explain how to correct common errors

BOXES
TIP: You can also press F7 (Windows) of fn+F7(Mac) to validate a document in Exchanger
XMLEditor. (XML 98)
ProSkills: Problem Solving: ReconcilingDTDs and Namespaces (XML 102)
Review:Session 2.2 Quick Check (XML 103)

FIGURES
Figure 2-16, Figure 2-17, Figure 2-18, Figure 2-19, Figure 2-20

TEACHER TIP
As the text example shows, go through a document with errors and let students see how to correct them.
This really helps them prepare for when they are on their own and validating their work.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: If you have a computer with a projection device, use it to open valid XML code and
make changes to it, creating some errors on purpose, in order to illustrate the kinds of errors students
will become familiar with as they do more coding in XML.
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: You can use Internet Explorer’s MSXML parser to validate your XML document
yourself. (Answer: False)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 8 of 14

LAB ACTIVITY
Students should now add attributes to their DTD. For “phone,” they should add a phoneType
attribute that identifies the phone as home, work, or cell. For “email,” there should be an emailType
attribute that identifies the email address as home, work, or school. For “first name,” they can add
an attribute of title. Also, the record “no” for grade should include semester and year attributes,
which will be used to indicate which semester and year the grade was given for a course. The grade
record attributes are required. Have the students specify default values where appropriate.
Students should create an XML file to go along with this (or you can provide one if you like), and
then they should validate their work.

XML 106: Introducing Entities

LECTURE NOTES
Identify the five built-in entities supported by XML
Discuss the usefulness of creating customized entities

FIGURES
Figure 2-21

TEACHER TIP
Stress that entities can be used to avoid data entry errors. An analogy from outside programming is macros,
such as Microsoft Word’s AutoText feature, which allows a few keystrokes to represent a longer character
string.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. Class Discussion: Can students think of scenarios when they might use a customized entity?
2. Quick Quiz:
Which of the following is not a built-in XML entity?
a. &lt;
b. &amp;
c. &quot;
d. &posit;
(Answer: D)
True/False: Using entities can help you to avoid data errors. (Answer: True)

XML 106: Working with General Entities

LECTURE NOTES
Identify the differences between general, external, and internal entities
Explain that the content referenced by an entity can be either parsed or unparsed
Explain how to create a parsed entity
Illustrate how to reference a general entity

BOXES
TIP: For a long text string that will be repeated throughout an XML document, avoid data entry
errors by placing the text string in its own entity.(XML 106)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 9 of 14

TIP: Including markup tags in an entity value lets you create a section of XML code and content,
and insert it once or multiple times into a document. (XML 107)
Reference: Declaring and ReferencingParsed Entities (XML 108)

FIGURES
Figure 2-22, Figure 2-23,Figure 2-24,Figure 2-25,Figure 2-26,Figure 2-27

TEACHER TIP
Caution students that if they use an external file, it must contain well-formed XML content and no XML
declaration. Emphasize that students must handle the & and % symbols with careful consideration.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Present students with a series of types of content and ask them to characterize what
type of entity could be used to reference them (e.g., a paragraph of text inside the DTD would be an
internal parsed entity; a video file would be an unparsed external entity).
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: You cannot use the hyphen character in an entity’s value because this is the symbol
used for inserting parameter entities. (Answer: False)
Which of the following entity types would reference a video file?
a. unparsed internal
b. parsed internal
c. unparsed external
d. parsed external
(Answer: C)
A(n) entity is an entity that references content to be used within an XML
document. (Answer: general)

XML 113: Working with Parameter Entities

LECTURE NOTES
Explain that a parameter entity is used to insert content into the DTD because it can be used to
break it into modules
Demonstrate how to declare parameter entities and then reference them

BOXES
TIP: Note that when declaring a parameter entity, you include a space after the %; but when
referencing a parameter entity, there is no space between the % and the entity name. (XML 114)
Reference: Declaring and ReferencingParameter Entities (XML 115)

FIGURES
Figure 2-28

TEACHER TIP
Make sure to point out that not all browsers support external entities in combination with DTDs.

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 10 of 14

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Have students come up with scenarios when parameters may be used, and then have
themcreate declarations for the scenarios.
2. Quick Quiz:
You use a(n) to insert content into a DTD. (Answer: parameter entity)
True/False: Firefox browsers allow external entities in combination with DTDs. (Answer: False)

XML115: Inserting Comments into a DTD

LECTURE NOTES
Explain how to put comments into a DTD
Give examples of how documenting code in comments is beneficial

BOXES
ProSkills: Teamwork: Documenting Shared Code with Comments (XML 115)

FIGURES
Figure 2-29

TEACHER TIP
Let students know that comments can also be useful to explain the browser compatibility issues.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. Class Discussion: Have students brainstorm ways to use comments in their DTDs.

XML 116: Creating Conditional Sections

LECTURE NOTES
Explain how to create a conditional section in an external DTD to either include or ignore sections
of the declaration
Discuss the best ways to use conditional sections

TEACHER TIP
Remind students thatconditional sections cannot be applied to internal DTDs.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. Class Discussion: If you have a computer with a projection device, show a couple of examples of
conditional sections. Can students think of other uses?
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: One effective way of creating IGNORE sections is to create a parameter entity that
defines when the section should be included or not. (Answer: True)

XML 117: Working with Unparsed Data

LECTURE NOTES
Discuss the steps involved when working with unparsed data
Demonstrate how to declare a notation to identify the data type of the unparsed data
Explain how to create an unparsed entity that references specific items that use a notation
© 2015 Cengage Learning
 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 11 of 14

BOXES
TIP: As an alternative to notations, you can place a URL that lists a resource for nontextual content
in an element or attribute, and then allow your application to work with that element or attribute
value directly. (XML 118)
Reference: Declaring an Unparsed Entity (XML 119)

TEACHER TIP
Stress that the notation will not necessarily enable an application to open. Current Web browsers may not
support notation mechanisms to display files from helper applications.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: Ask students to brainstorm scenarios in which unparsed data would be useful to an
XML document.
2. Quick Quiz:
1. True/False: Current Web browsers support mechanisms for validating and rendering unparsed
data declared in the DTDs of XML documents. (Answer: False)
2. True/False: An alternate to notations is to place a URL in an element or attribute. (Answer:
True)

XML 119: Validating Standard Vocabularies

LECTURE NOTES
Discuss how to validate a standard XML vocabulary by specifying an external DTD
Review the different DOCTYPEs for standard vocabularies

BOXES
InSight: Advantages and Disadvantages of DTDs (XML 121)
Review:Session 2.3 Quick Check (XML 121)

FIGURES
Figure 2-30, Figure 2-31

TEACHER TIP
The online validator by W3C is a great tool. Show how to use it to validate and fix errors so that students
can become familiar with common errors.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1. GroupActivity: If you have a computer with a projection device, use it to show a portion of the
XHTML 1.0 strict DTD from W3C.org for another element or elements.
2. Quick Quiz:
True/False: Most standard vocabularies make their DTDs available online for inspection.
(Answer: True)
True/False:The W3C does not provide an online validator.(Answer: False)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 12 of 14

LAB ACTIVITY
Students are going to modify the grades section of their XML document to include a reference to the
professor. They should modify their DTD to add the professor element. They should create elements for
five professors called prof1, prof2, prof3, prof4, and prof5. The elements should contain the professor’s
name and title (i.e., John Smith, Associate Professor). Then, in the XML, they should just reference the
entity when referring to the professor. They should then add appropriate comments to their work.
Finally, have the students validate their work again to make sure it is correct.

End of Tutorial Material

SAM Assessment, Training, and Projects: This text is available with SAM Assessment, Training, and
Projects that map directly to the learning objectives covered in each chapter. SAM's active, hands-
on training and skill-based assessment help you master Microsoft Office skills. SAM Projects let you
apply skills in real-world scenarios using the actual Microsoft Office applications. Immediate
feedback and comprehensive study guides give you the practice and support you need to succeed.
To obtain a SAM account, visit www.cengagebrain.com or contact your instructor or bookstore for
additional information.
Review Assignments: Review Assignments provide students with additional practice of the skills
they learned in the tutorial using the same tutorial case, with which they are already familiar. These
assignments are designed as straight practice only and should not include anything of an
exploratory nature.
Case Problems:A typical NP tutorial has four Case Problems following the Review Assignments.
Short tutorials can have fewer Case Problems (or none at all); other tutorials may have five Case
Problems. The Case Problems provide further hands-on assessment of the skills and topics presented
in the tutorial, but with new case scenarios. There are four types of Case Problems:
Apply. In this type of Case Problem, students apply the skills that they have learned in
the tutorial to solve a problem. “Apply” Case Problems can include “Explore” steps,
which go a bit beyond what was presented in the tutorial, but should include only 1 or 2
Explore steps if any at all.
Create. In a “Create” Case Problem, students are either shown the end result, such as a
finished Word document, and asked to create the document based on the figure
provided; or, students are asked to create something from scratch in a more free-form
manner.
Challenge.A “Challenge” Case problem involves 3 or more Explore steps. These steps
challenge students by having them go beyond what was covered in the tutorial, either
with guidance in the step or by using online Help as directed.
Research.In this type of Case Problem, students need to go to the Web to find
information that they will incorporate somehow in their work for the Case Problem.
A tutorial does not have to include each of the four types of Case Problems; rather, the tutorial’s
content should dictate the types of exercises written. It’s possible, therefore, that some tutorials
might have three Case Problems of one type and only one Case Problem of a different type. To the
extent possible, the first Case Problem in a tutorial should be an “Apply,” so that the Case Problems
progress in degree of difficulty.
ProSkills Exercises:ProSkills exercises integrate the technology skills students learn with one or
more of the following soft skills: decision making, problem solving, teamwork, verbal
communication, and written communication. The goal of these exercises is to enhance students’
© 2015 Cengage Learning
 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 13 of 14

understanding of the soft skills and how to apply them appropriately in real-world, professional
situations that also involve software application skills. ProSkills exercises are offered at various
points throughout a text, encompassing the concepts and skills presented in a standalone tutorial or
a group of related tutorials.

Glossary of Key Terms

#IMPLIED (XML 85) mixed content (XML 83)
#PCDATA (XML 67) modifying symbol (XML 67)
#REQUIRED (XML 85) module (XML 113)
attribute declaration (XML 84) NMTOKEN (XML94)
attribute-list declaration (XML 84) NMTOKENS (XML95)
CDATA data type (XML85) notation (XML 92) (XML 117)
conditional section (XML 116) parameter entity (XML106) (XML 113)
DOCTYPE (XML71) parsed entity (XML 104)
document type declaration (XML71) public identifier (XML 72)
element declaration (XML66) sequence (XML 67)
element type declaration (XML66) system identifier (XML 71)
enumerated type (XML 85) tokenized type (XML 92)
external entity (XML106) token (XML 92)
external subset (XML 71) unparsed entity (XML106)
formal public identifier (XML 72)
general entity (XML 104)
ID token (XML 92)
ID token type (XML 85)
IDREF token (XML 93)
IDREF token type (XML 85)
internal entity (XML 104)
internal subset (XML 71)

© 2015 Cengage Learning

 New Perspectives on XML Comprehensive, 3rd Edition, Instructors Manual 14 of 14

Top of Document

© 2015 Cengage Learning

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Water Tower, and in the basements of Vernon's Toy Bazaar and other
shops in Chester.
These pillars were made to support the porches and colonnades with
which the fronts and sometimes the sides also of Roman buildings
were adorned. No doubt you have noticed them in pictures you have
seen of ancient Rome. In a later chapter you will learn that the
Englishmen of the eighteenth century copied the Roman or Italian
style of architecture in their churches, town halls, and other public
buildings, and from the buildings then made you can get some idea of
those of a Roman town.
The pillars were of three different patterns or 'orders', and by
observing carefully their differences you will be able to tell at a glance
to which particular order a modern building belongs. The capitals of
the Doric and Ionic pillars are much simpler in design than those of
the Corinthian, which were often of a very ornamental nature.

Roman Capitals: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian

The Romans felt the cold and damp of the British climate, so different
from that of their own warm and sunny land. Many of their houses
and public buildings were warmed by 'hypocausts' or heating
chambers, and every city had its public baths with rooms heated by
hot air. In Bridge Street is a hypocaust remaining just where the
Romans left it. The pillars which you see in the illustration are those
of another hypocaust found many years ago in Bridge Street.
The pillars were set up in rows on a solid foundation, being fixed in
their places by cement. On the top of these a second floor of cement
and bricks, several inches thick, was laid. The space between the two
floors was heated by hot air, introduced through an opening in the
side wall communicating with a furnace or oven. In their own country
the bath was an important event in the everyday life of the Romans.

Remains of Hypocaust, Chester

The floors of Roman buildings were paved with tiny blocks of brick
called 'tesserae', three to four inches long and one inch wide. A piece
of flooring in the Grosvenor Museum shows that the bricks were laid
on a bed of cement or concrete in 'herring-bone' pattern, that is, with
the bricks at right angles to one another. A large number of tiles used
in roofing have been found all over the city; on many of these you will
see the stamp LEG XX VV of the Twentieth Legion. There was a tile
factory at Holt on the Dee where also many of these tiles bearing the
same stamp have recently been found.
The Romans taught the Britons many useful trades. 'Veratinum' or
Wilderspool became under the Romans quite a busy manufacturing
town, the forerunner of a modern Warrington or Wigan. The site of
the ancient Roman town has been carefully dug over. Traces have
been found of many pits, hearths, furnaces, and ovens for the
manufacture of glass and pottery, a bronze foundry, and an iron
smelting furnace, and an enameller's workshop. In the museums at
Warrington and at Stockport are many fragments of pottery found
here. Most of it is of a rough brown-red ware, called 'rough-cast', of
which the commoner utensils, water-jugs and bowls and funeral urns,
were made. A more ornamental kind is called 'Samian', and is of a
darker colour, highly glazed and decorated with embossed figures of
men and animals. Many articles of iron, knives, padlocks, keys, nails,
found on the same spot show that Veratinum was the Birmingham of
the Roman occupation.
Roman coins have been dug up in large numbers at Chester and other
sites along the Roman roads. Many of them are to be seen in Chester
Town Hall and in our museums. Nearly all the emperors of the first
four centuries are represented upon them. Several emperors came to
Britain, and we may be sure that in their tours of inspection they paid
visits to the important garrison city of the 'great legion'.
Some of these coins bear the name of Constantine, the first Christian
emperor, who was born at York, and whose mother was perhaps a
lady of British birth. There is unfortunately nothing to show that there
was any Christian church in Roman Cheshire, though many of the
Roman soldiers must have been familiar with the Christian faith.
Romans who became Christians were allowed to worship in the
basilica, which in after days, as we shall see, became the model upon
which Christian churches were built.
On a house near the East Gate of Chester are carved these words:
'The fear of the Lord is a fountain of life.' This is the translation of an
inscription on a Roman coin found when the workmen were digging
the foundations of the building. The coins of the Emperor Magnentius
show the monogram of the first two letters of Christ.
The Roman rule lasted for 370 years. During this period they had
transformed a desolate and barren land, inhabited by a people that
were almost savages, into a fertile and prosperous province; Britannia
Felix the Romans themselves called it. Large tracts of forest land were
cleared and brought under cultivation. Britain became one of the chief
granaries of Rome. In the museums you may see the Roman querns
or handmills with which they ground their corn.
The Romans worked the copper mines on Alderley Edge; stone
hammer-heads with which the Britons crushed the ore for their
Roman masters have been found there. A 'pig' of lead weighing over
a hundredweight, dug up in the Roodee, shows that lead mines were
extensively worked. The lead was brought to Chester from the mines
of Denbighshire and was part of the tribute paid by the Britons to the
Roman emperors. Salt, a scarce commodity in many countries, was
obtained, as at the present day, from the salt beds of Northwich.
At the end of the fourth century the Roman empire was overrun by
hordes of barbarians from Northern Europe. The Romans, weakened
by luxury and wealth, were unable to beat back the ruthless invaders.
Legion after legion was summoned from the distant parts of the
empire for the defence of the imperial city itself. About the year A.D.
380 the 'Conquering Legion' marched out for the last time through the
city gates of Chester, and by 410 no Roman soldiers were left in
Britain.
With sorrow and despair the Britons watched the last soldiers depart.
Their own fighting-men were far away in distant lands, and they knew
that without the protection of the Roman legions on whom they had
so long relied, they were left a defenceless prey of the foes that were
threatening them on all sides.
 CHAPTER VII
SAXONS AND ANGLES COME TO CHESHIRE

As the Romans retreated southwards, tribes of Picts, a fierce race

inhabiting the northern parts of Britain followed in their wake
plundering and destroying the cities built by the Romans, and
everywhere falling upon the defenceless Britons. We know little of the
doings of this terrible time, for with the departure of the Romans
there descended upon Britain a veil of darkness that was not to be
lifted for 150 years.
In the latter part of the fifth century the tide of Pictish invasion was
rolled back by other races who landed on our southern and eastern
coasts. These were the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, the rude
forefathers of the English people, who left their homes in Northern
Germany to make new settlements and found kingdoms in our
country. You will read elsewhere of the long and gradual conquest of
England by these barbarian invaders. 'Field by field, town by town,
forest by forest, the land was won' from the British inhabitants.
According to the story usually told, though I am obliged to admit that
we have very strong evidence for it, it was not until the year 584 A.D.
that any of them reached the part of the country that is now
Cheshire. By that time the West Saxons, one of the most powerful of
these tribes, had fought their way from the English Channel to the
River Severn and Shropshire, where they destroyed the great Roman
city of Uriconium. Under their leader Ceawlin they appear to have
made an attempt to reach Chester, but were met near Nantwich at a
spot called Fethanleagh, now probably the modern village of Faddiley,
by Brocmael, Prince of Powys or mid-Wales. The Saxons were routed
and retired quickly to the South. Chester was saved for a time and
became the capital of the Welsh kingdom of Gwynedd.
Thirty years later, however, a greater than Ceawlin appeared before
the walls of the Roman city. The Angles, who had founded on our
north-eastern shores the powerful kingdom of Northumbria, crossed
the Pennine Hills under their leader and king Aethelfrith, and
descended upon Cheshire. Once more Brocmael put himself at the
head of the Britons and Welsh. We are told by Bede, the earliest of
our English historians, who wrote in the succeeding century, that
1,200 monks from a great monastery at Bangor-Iscoed on the Dee
accompanied Brocmael after a fast of three days to the battlefield to
offer up prayers for victory. Aethelfrith watched the wild gestures of
the monks and bade his followers slay them first of all. 'Bear they
arms or no,' he said, 'they fight against us when they cry against us
to their God.' Brocmael left them to their fate and fled from the battle,
which ended in the utter defeat of the Britons.
The victory of Aethelfrith was followed by the capture of Chester, and
Cheshire became a portion of a kingdom that stretched from the
Tweed to the Dee. But the most important result of the 'Battle of
Chester' was that the northern Welsh Britons or 'Cumbrian' Welsh
were now completely cut off from their kinsmen in Wales. Everywhere
the conquered Britons were driven northwards and westwards to the
mountains of Cumberland or Wales, and the Britons as a united
nation ceased to exist.
For forty years Cheshire was ruled by Northumbrian kings, but during
the latter part of this period another kingdom was gathering strength
in the Midlands of England. This was the kingdom of Mercia or the
Marchland. The Mercian Penda defeated the Northumbrian king and
added Cheshire to the lands over which he ruled. Mercia and Cheshire
were frequently raided by the Welsh, and it was to keep them out
that Offa, greatest of the Mercian kings, built his famous 'Dyke' from
Chester to South Wales, many portions of which you may trace to this
day.
Mercia in turn was conquered by the kings of Wessex, one of whom,
Ecberght, is usually styled the first king of all England. Ecberght and
his West Saxons overran Cheshire and captured the city of Chester in
the year 828. Thus did three kingdoms strive for the possession of
Cheshire, which from its central position must have been the scene of
many an unrecorded fight.
Numbers of Cheshire villages show by their names their Anglo-Saxon
origin. Davenham, Frodsham, and Warmingham speak to us of the
'hams' or homesteads that the Saxons made for themselves in their
newly won lands. Bebington, Bollington, and Congleton take their
names from the 'tun', the enclosure or hedge of a farm or village;
Prestbury, Marbury, and Astbury from the 'burh' or fortified house of
the headman of a tribe.

Runic Stone, Upton

Goostree is perhaps the 'God's tree' where the land was parcelled out
among the villagers and punishment meted to wrong-doers;
Thurstaston, or the tun of Thor's stone, the place of sacrifice to their
heathen god Thor.
The ash tree gives its name to several Cheshire villages, Ashton,
Ashley, Astbury, for instance. This fact tells us that the tree was held
in great veneration by the Angles and Saxons. Even to this day the
tree is thought to possess the power of bringing good or evil. A
superstitious Cheshire labourer will not, if he can help it, cut down an
ash tree for fear it should bring him misfortune, and churn staves
made of ash are used by farmers' wives to prevent the butter from
being bewitched.
It is in fact from the Angles and Saxons that we have inherited the
priceless possession of our English tongue. The oldest traces of our
language in a written form in Cheshire may be seen in the Grosvenor
Museum at Chester. Here on a plaster cast is an inscription written in
strange letters, 'Runes' or 'mysteries' as they are called. This cast is a
copy of an inscribed stone discovered at Upton-in-Wirral when the old
church was pulled down. The stones of this building had previously
been taken from the ancient ruined church at Overchurch. Learned
scholars examined the stone carefully and made out these words:
FOLCAE AREARDON BEC[UN]. [GI]BIDDATH FOR ATHELMUND. The meaning is 'Folk
reared tomb, bid (i.e. pray) for Athelmund'. You can see that the
words are English, though their form has changed considerably during
the 1,200 years or more that have gone by since the runes were
carved.
Fierce and bloodthirsty were these early ancestors of ours, 'hateful
alike to God and men,' as Gildas, a Welsh monk, described them. Yet
even they were taught in time to abandon their strange gods and turn
to the worship of Christ, and through the land in town and village
uprose a cross of wood or stone, the outward symbol of a new and
better faith.
 CHAPTER VIII
THE CROSS IN CHESHIRE

During the latter years of the Roman occupation there must have
been many among the Roman soldiers stationed in Cheshire who had
heard the message of the Gospel, and, following the example of their
emperors, professed the faith of Christ. But, as we have before
stated, there is no proof that a Christian church existed in Cheshire in
those days, though tradition says that where the cathedral church of
Chester now stands there was a church dedicated to S. Peter and S.
Paul, which had previously been a temple of Apollo.
In Wales and Ireland the Church flourished greatly through the
troublous period of the Anglo-Saxon invasions. We are told that
Kentigern, the first bishop of Glasgow, on his return to Wales landed
in Wirral and founded a church there. In the previous chapter we
have seen that at Bangor-Iscoed on the Dee there was a monastery
of great importance, which after the victory of Aethelfrith of
Northumbria was razed to the ground.
Yet it was from Northumbria that Christianity was destined to be
brought and preached to the Angles and Saxons of Cheshire. Oswald,
the son of the heathen Aethelfrith, had during his exile in Scotland
been converted by Celtic missionaries. During the reign of this 'most
Christian king, a man dearly beloved of God, and fenced with the faith
of Christ', missionaries from Scotland 'began with great and fervent
devotion to preach the word of faith to those provinces which King
Oswald governed, baptising all such as believed. Therefore churches
were builded in places convenient: the people rejoicing assembled
together to hear the word of God,' The ancient churches dedicated to
S. Oswald at Chester, Malpas, Brereton, Peover, Bidston, and
Worleston, are proof of the great part played by King Oswald in the
conversion of Cheshire and of the high repute in which he was held as
a champion of Christianity.
The tiny hamlet of Chadkirk near Marple suggests to us a famous
missionary who lived at a time when Cheshire had become part of the
kingdom of Mercia. This was Ceadda or Chad, who was sent by the
Irish saint Colomba to preach the gospel to the people of Mercia, and
became in later times the patron saint of the bishopric of Mercia,
founded by King Offa. Chad, who like Oswald had received
Christianity from the Celtic missionaries of North Britain, continued
the good work of the Northumbrian missionaries. At the village of
Over were formerly two stone crosses which may well mark the spots
where Chad preached to the Saxons of Cheshire, baptizing the
converts in the river Weaver that flows hard by. The old church of
Over is dedicated to him, as are also the churches of Farndon and
Wybunbury. It is worthy of note that all the Cheshire churches named
after him were built on the banks of streams, which leads us to
suppose that S. Chad, like S. John the Baptist by the banks of Jordan,
chose places where his preaching might be immediately followed by
the ceremony of baptism.
At Sandbach are two stone crosses which are thought to be closely
connected with the conversion of Cheshire. The story goes that
Peada, son of Penda the heathen king of Mercia, wished to marry the
Christian daughter of Oswiu of Northumbria. To win the maiden the
young man consented to forsake his old religion and become a
Christian; whereupon the crosses were set up to commemorate his
conversion and marriage.
If you look carefully at the Sandbach crosses you will see that the
Angles of Mercia had reached a very high level of art in sculptured
stones. Carved upon them are several scenes in the life of our Lord,
the Nativity in the stable at Bethlehem with the ox and the ass
kneeling before the infant Christ, the Crucifixion with S. Mary and
Apostles below, Christ carrying the Cross, and Christ in glory with S.
Peter on His right hand bearing the keys of heaven.
Few crosses were, however, carved so elaborately as these Sandbach
crosses. The majority were doubtless of wood, set up in the middle of
the open space round which clustered the huts and wattled dwellings
of the inhabitants. Others consisted of a plain stone shaft set upright
in the ground or on a base of stone steps, sometimes rudely adorned
with scroll-work such as you may see on the fragments of a cross
preserved in the churchyard of Prestbury. Most of them have
perished, broken into fragments where they fell, or have been used
for repairs to damaged buildings. Many were wantonly destroyed in
the seventeenth century during the Civil War.
 Anglian Crosses at Sandbach

Crosses were set up by the wayside at the junction of important

highways or in towns at the crossing of the principal streets, as at
Chester. Here in the open air the monks would gather round them
bands of listeners, and preach the Word of God. Afterwards close to
the cross was erected an edifice of wood or wattles in which the
services of the Church were held, and in still later times these wooden
churches would be replaced by stone buildings. Nowhere, however, in
Cheshire are there any churches or even portions of churches
remaining which can be said to have been built by our early Saxon
forefathers.
The church of S. John's, Chester, is said to have been founded by King
Aethelred of Mercia in the year 689. An ancient legend states that
Aethelred 'was admonished to erect a church on the spot where he
should find a white hind'. In the church you may see fragments of an
ancient wall-painting or 'fresco' on one of the pillars of the nave which
illustrates this story. A church certainly did exist here in very early
times, for we read that in later days Leofric, Earl of Mercia, repaired
and enriched the church of S. John's, which may mean that the earlier
wooden church had fallen into decay, and a more substantial building
of stone was erected in its place.
The house of the Mercian Penda produced yet another name closely
connected with the story of the Cross in Cheshire. Werburga, a great-
granddaughter of Penda, succeeded her mother as head of several
great abbeys. She died at Trentham in Staffordshire towards the end
of the seventh century, and two hundred years later, when the Danes
(of whom you will read more in the next chapter) were harrying the
land, her body was removed to Chester for safe keeping, and placed
in the church of S. Peter and S. Paul which had been re-dedicated to
S. Werburga and S. Oswald. For many centuries crowds of devout
pilgrims made their way to Chester to offer prayers and gifts at S.
Werburga's shrine.
 CHAPTER IX
THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN

With the capture of Chester (Chap. VII) Ecberght's conquest of Mercia

was complete. Northumbria, Kent, and East Anglia also submitted to
him. But neither Ecberght nor the kings that came after him were to
be allowed to enjoy the blessings of peace, for a new and terrible
enemy now appeared on our shores.
In the ninth century, the coasts of Britain were ravaged by the
Northmen or Vikings, those

Wild sea-wandering lords

Who sailed in a snake-prowed galley with a terror of twenty swords.

The word Vikings or 'wickings' means creek-men, from a Scandinavian

word 'wick', 'a creek'. These Scandinavian and Danish sea-pirates left
their homes in the bays and fiords of North-West Europe, and made
raids upon Britain and the neighbouring lands more at first from
greed of plunder than with any idea of conquest. Large numbers of
Danes landed on our eastern coasts and ravaged the midlands. Under
their leader Hasting or Hastein, they seized and occupied the city of
Chester. We can imagine the hasty flight of the monks, for the abbeys
and churches were always the first objects of attack by these heathen
invaders. You will read elsewhere how King Alfred finally saved the
greater part of England from the Danes and converted their leaders to
Christianity.
The little village of Plemstall (or Plegmundstall), near Chester, reminds
us of Plegmund, a Saxon hermit, who took refuge here to escape the
Danes. Plegmund had been a friend and tutor of King Alfred. When
Alfred's work was done, and peace made with the Danes, he called
Plegmund from his lonely retreat in the marshes of the Gowy to be
Archbishop of Canterbury.
Meanwhile, the Scandinavians had sailed round the north and west
coasts of Scotland, plundering the rich monasteries that had been
built by S. Patrick and his followers, and making new homes for
themselves in the Isle of Man and in Ireland. Towards the end of the
ninth century they crossed into Wales and sailed up the Dee to the
walls of Chester, drawn thither perhaps by the report of the wealth of
the great church that had been built on the banks of the river. But
they found only a deserted city in ruins, and retired to the shores of
Wirral, where they settled and tilled the land, and devoted themselves
to the more peaceful pursuits of agriculture.
In the Wirral peninsula many of the names of the villages still show
their Scandinavian origin. Thus Shotwick means the south wick or
creek. This village stands at the edge of a strip of land that has been
recovered from the sea. In early times, boats could run along the
creek right up to the rising ground where now stands the village
church.
An interesting name survives in the little hamlet of Thingwall, situated
almost in the centre of the Wirral. Thingwall is the field where the
'thing', that is the tribe, assembled to divide the land and to dispense
justice. You will recognize the same word in the town of Dingwall in
the North of Scotland, and at the present day 'thing' is the Norwegian
and Danish name for Parliament.
The ending '-by' in the villages Kirby, Irby, Raby, Frankby, and Helsby,
is the Danish name for a township, and we see the word in our
modern word 'by-laws', that is town laws. You will not find this ending
in the names of villages in any other parts of Cheshire.

Norse Hog-back, West Kirby

In the museum in the old school-house by the churchyard at West

Kirby you may see a stone, which, from its shape, antiquaries call a
'hog-back'. The hog-back was a tombstone or grave-slab that marked
the burial-place of some Scandinavian chief. The carved
ornamentation as well as its shape is like that of other similar stones
that have been found in the parts of Britain where the Northmen
settled. The stone gives you some idea of the homes from which
these pirates came, for the carved oval shapes represent little wooden
tiles; and the interlaced lines are the wattles or osiers of which their
huts were made. The heathen Scandinavian liked his place of burial to
be as much like home as possible, which may be taken as a proof that
he did not think that his soul would perish along with his body. In the
same museum is another stone with a head shaped like a wheel,
which is also the work of the Vikings.
We are, fortunately, able to tell almost the exact time at which the
settlements in the Wirral were made. We read in an old chronicle that
in the year 900 A.D. Alfred's daughter Ethelfleda, Lady of the Mercians,
granted lands in Wirral to one Ingimund who had been driven out of
Ireland. This lady, Ethelfleda, fortified Chester and rebuilt the walls
which had lain in ruins since the departure of the Romans. Perhaps
Ingimund and his followers had already become Christians during
their stay in Ireland. If they had not, we may be sure that Ethelfleda
did as her father had done in his treaty with the Danes, and insisted
on their becoming Christians in return for being allowed to settle in
Cheshire.
It was in the reign of Alfred that many English counties or shires first
received their modern names. Cheshire or Chester-shire, like
Staffordshire and Warwickshire, took its name from the chief city or
fortress which dominated the district and protected it from the
ravages of the Danes.
Alfred also ordered an English history to be written, in which the chief
events of each year were recorded. This Old English Chronicle, as it is
called, was kept up in the reigns of the successors of Alfred, and is
the principal source of our knowledge of England under the Anglo-
Saxon kings.
The Chronicle tells us that, in order to prevent any fresh landing of
Danes, Ethelfleda built a castle or 'burh' at Runcorn at the head of the
estuary of the Mersey. The very site of her castle has now
disappeared, for 'Castle Rock', upon which it was built, was destroyed
when the Ship Canal was made.
Another fortress was erected by Ethelfleda on Eddisbury Hill, the
highest point of Delamere Forest, where, probably, there was a large
camp in British times. Her brother Edward, who succeeded Alfred as
King of England, also fortified Thelwall on the Mersey, as an
inscription on the gable of an inn at Thelwall tells us. For the next
twenty years he carried on a vigorous war against the Danes of the
'Five Boroughs', Nottingham, Leicester, Derby, Stamford, and Lincoln.
But in many parts Saxon and Dane had already settled down side by
side, the Danes abandoned the worship of their heathen gods Odin
and Thor, and received the Gospel of Christ, and in the next century a
Danish king was destined to rule over all the land and to advance
greatly the cause of Christianity.
Edward's work was done when he received the homage of the chief
kings of Britain, and made the royal house of Wessex supreme. In the
year 924, as you may read in the English Chronicle, 'then chose him
for father and lord the King of Scots ... and all those who dwell in
Northumbria whether English or Danes, and also the King of the
Strathclyde Welsh.'
Chester appears to have rapidly risen in importance, largely no doubt
owing to its central position, and to have become a great and
populous city. The walls were extended beyond the limits of the
ancient Roman city, and a new fortress built where the present
'Castle' of Chester now stands, to guard the road over the river.
Henceforth, the city was kept in a state of defence by a custom which
bound every 'hide' in the shire to provide a man at the town-reeve's
call to keep its walls and bridge in repair. A considerable trade with
the seaports of Ireland followed, largely it is to be feared in connexion
with the slave traffic, and the city became a favourite resort of the
English kings. Coins were minted here in the reign of Athelstan.
Athelstan must often have been in Cheshire, for this favourite
grandson of King Alfred was brought up by the Lady of Mercia, and no
doubt learned from her the ways of a strong and wise ruler. When
Athelstan became king he was attacked by the King of the Scots and
the Danes of Ireland. A great battle was fought, perhaps on Cheshire
soil, and the English Chronicle breaks out into a wonderful song of
victory.
 Athelstand King
Lord among Earls,
He with his brother,
Gained a lifelong
Glory in battle,
Slew with the sword-edge,
There by Brunanburh ...
..................
Bow'd the spoiler,
Bent the Scotsman,
Fell the ship-crews
Doom'd to the death.
All the field with blood of the fighters
Flow'd, from when first the great
Sun-star of morningtide,
Lamp of the Lord God
Lord Everlasting
Glode over earth till the glorious creature
Sank to his setting.

Brunanburh has been thought by some writers of history to be the

village of Bromborough in Wirral. We cannot be sure of this, but some
day perhaps the land will give up its secret, when some labourer's
spade shall dig up the javelins and the war-knives of the defeated
Northmen.
'Edgar's field' is supposed to mark the site of the palace of one of the
greatest of the Anglo-Saxon Kings of England. It is related that in the
year 973, Edgar the 'Peacewinner' visited Chester, and received there
the submission of many tributary kings. He assembled an imposing
fleet of ships on the Dee, and was rowed from his palace to the
minster of S. John's by six under-kings, the King of Scots, the King of
Cumberland, the King of Man, and three Welsh princes, he himself
taking the helm as being their head-king. 'Those who come after me',
he said, 'may indeed call themselves kings, since I have had such
honour.'
Guided by his chief adviser, the good Archbishop Dunstan, Edgar also
did much to increase the power and influence of the Church. He gave
a charter in 958 to the church of S. Werburga, and endowed it richly
with lands. The English Chronicle thus speaks of him:

He upreared God's glory

and loved God's law
and bettered the public peace
more than the kings
who were before him
within man's memory.
God also him helped
that kings and earls
gladly to him bowed
and were submissive
to all that he willed.

In Edgar's reign we first hear of the division of the shire into

'hundreds' for the trial and punishment of evildoers. Why this name
was chosen is not quite clear, but the Hundred probably denoted a
collection of a hundred homesteads or hamlets. The Hundred had its
'moot' or assembly of freemen, held near some sacred spot or
conspicuous landmark. In Cheshire some of them, Bucklow for
instance, took their names from the ancient 'lows' or burial-places.
Early in the eleventh century fresh invasions of Danes took place, and
in 1016 Cnut Dane became King of England. Cheshire formed a
portion of a great earldom, embracing the whole of Mercia and
governed by Earl Leofric. Cnut, who during his reign visited Rome and
had there learnt much about church building, was a generous friend
to the churches, rebuilding those that had suffered in the wars and
erecting many new ones. The church of S. Olave or Olaf, in the south-
eastern part of the city of Chester, probably owes its foundation to
him, for the name shows that there was a Danish settlement in the
city. The city itself was governed at this time, like other Danish cities,
by twelve 'lagmen' or lawmen who presided over its law-courts.
Leofric, not to be outdone by his master Cnut, almost entirely rebuilt
the church of S. Werburga in 1057, and if we may judge from the
memorials of his work which he has left in other cities of his earldom,
much of the new church was probably built of stone. It is doubtful
whether he lived to see the completion of his work. In any case,
before many years had passed, the church was again enlarged on a
still grander scale and by a greater race of church builders than any
that had gone before them.