Overview of Data

Communication Networking
 Contents
• Network Types
• Topology
• OSI layers and Functions
• TCP/IP layer
• LAN, MAN, WAN
• LLC, MAC and Routing
• Ethernet (ALOHA, CSMA/CD)
• X.25 Network
• Frame Relay
• ATM
 Network Models: Types
 Client Server Model
 Client Host Requests for the Service.
 Example : Browser
 Server Provides Response.
 Example : Web Server
 High End Servers can Process Multiple Requests at a Time.

 Peer to Peer Model

 No Use of Dedicated Servers.
 Example : Skype, Bit Torrent
Network Models: Client Server Model
Network Models: Peer to Peer Model
Types of connections
 Point to point
 A dedicated link is provided
between two devices

 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices
share a single link
Physical Topology

Tree
 BUS Topology

• A multipoint topology
• All devices are linked through a backbone cable
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
– Drop line
• A connection running between the device and the main cable
– Tap
• A connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core
• Advantage:
– Ease of installation
 Disadvantages:
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• Broken or fault of the bus cable stops all transmission
 STAR Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.

• No direct traffic and link between devices

• Advantages
– Less expensive

– Easy to install and reconfigure

– Robustness

• Disadvantage
– Single point of failure
 RING Topology

• Each device is dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side
of it
• A signal is passed along the ring in the direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater

• Advantages
– Relatively easy to install and reconfigure
– Fault isolation is simplified
• Disadvantage
– Unidirectional traffic
 Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple topologies together

Example: Tree topology

integrates multiple star
topologies together
onto a bus

• Advantages:
– Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
– Supported by several hardware and software venders.
• Disadvantages:
– Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
– If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
– More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 MESH Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other devices
• Dedicated
– Link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects
– A fully connected mesh network has n(n-
1)/2 physical channels to link n devices
– Every device on the network must have n-
1 input/output (I/O) ports
• Advantage
– Less traffic, robust, secure, easy to
maintain
• Disadvantage
– Need more resource (cable and ports),
expensive
Categories of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 LAN (Local Area Network)
• Group of interconnected computers within a
small area. (room, building, campus)
• Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files,
folders, printers, applications and other devices.
• Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for
connections. Due to short distances, errors and
noise are minimum.
• Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 Mbps. Example: A
computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• Design to extend over a large area.
• Connecting number of LAN's to form larger
network, so that resources can be shared.
• Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by
organization or individual. Data transfer rate is
low compare to LAN.
• Example: Organization with different branches
located in the city.
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
• Are country and worldwide network. Contains
multiple LAN's and MAN's.
• Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
Uses satellites and microwave relays.
• Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP
provider and varies over the location.
• Best example is the internet.
Layered Architecture
Layers
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session

Receiver
Sender
Layer 4. Transport

Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical
 Why layering is used in Network?
• To handle the whole network task in a single
module, it is very difficult and complicated
• A complex system is broken down into smaller,
more understandable parts and each smaller task
can be handled by an specialist team
• Provides ease for standardization and standard
interfaces between network functions
• Provides a modular structure which permits
flexibility for upgradation and reconfiguration.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
 Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
Physical layer
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

 Source-to-destination delivery
 Responsible from the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination
 Functions
 Logical addressing

 routing
Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

 Process-to- process delivery

 Functions

 Port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)

 Flow control

 Error control
Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

 It establishes, maintains and synchronize

the interaction between communicating
system
 Function
 Dialog control
 Synchronization (checkpoints)
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between two
system
 Functions
 Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file  ASCII-
coded file)

 Encryption and Decryption

 Compression
Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

 Functions
 Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)

 File transfer and access

 Mail services

 Directory services (Distributed Database)

 Accessing the World Wide Web

Summary of layers
 TCP/IP Layer
• The TCP/IP model was developed by The
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET)
• The TCP/IP suite defines a set of rules to enable
computers to communicate over a network
• Four layers are termed as
– Application layer - HTTP
– Transport Layer- TCP, UDP
– Internet layer – IP (IPV4, IPV6)
– Link layer – Ethernet, ISDN device drivers etc
THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model is the standard that covers all aspects of
network communications from ISO. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
 Data Link Layer
• Data Link Layer resides above the physical layer and below the
network layer.
• The function of data link layer is to accept the packets form
the network layer and converts it not frame
Data Link Layer
The services provided by the data link layer are:
1) Flow control
 An issue that occurs at every levels is how to keep a fast sender from
swapping a slow receiver with data. E.g. some kind of feedback from
the receiver to the sender
2) Framing
 Breaking the bits stream up into frames is know as framing
3) Physical Addressing / MAC addressing
– Physical addressing and MAC addressing are both related to the MAC
sublayer of the data link layer, and are concerned with identifying
devices on a network.
– Also known as MAC addressing, this is the process of assigning a
unique identifier to a network interface controller (NIC) on a device.
This identifier is used to communicate on a network segment.
Data Link Layer
4) Error Control
 Error control is an important issue because physical communication
circuits are not perfect. Many errors detecting codes are know, but both
ends of the connection must agree on which one is being used.

MAC address
A MAC address is a unique identifier for a device on a local network. It's also
known as a physical address, and is usually burned into the NIC's read-only
memory (ROM) chip.
Data Link Layer

• Datalink sublayer constitutes of Logical Link

Control and Media Access Control
• Logical Link Control (LLC)sublayer
– Also known as data link Control (DLC) sublayer
– Handles communication between upper and lower
layer
• Media Access Control (MAC)sublayer
– Constitutes the lower sublayer of the data link layer
– It is normally implemented by hardware, typically in
the computer network interface card (NIC)
MAC sublayer

• The two major responsibilities of MAC sublayer are

a) Data Encapsulation
 MAC sub layer adds a header and trailer to the network layer
PDU
 Frame assembly before transmission and frame disassembly
after/upon reception of a frame

b) Responsible for the placement of frames on he media

and the removal of frames from the media
 On the media  sender side
 From the media  receiver side
 Communicates directly with the physical layer
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

PDU is a significant term related to the initial

four layers of the OSI model
In layer 1, PDU is a bit
In layer 2, PDU is a frame
In layer 3, PDU is a packet
In layer 4, PDU is a segment
In layer 5, PDU is a data
Which sublayer is responsible for
which of the services?

Services Sub Layer

Flow Control LLC or DLC

Framing MAC

Physical Addressing MAC

Error Control MAC

Access Control MAC

 Channel Access Mechanisms
• ALOHA
– Pure ALOHA
– Slotted ALOHA
• CSMA/CD
 Channel Access Mechanisms
• ALOHO
– The earliest technique for accessing any shared
transmission medium is ALOHA
 Random Access
• Each station has the right to the medium
without being controlled by any other station.
– Two features gives the method its name:
– There is no schedule time for a station to transmit:
transmission is random among stations

• Collision: an access conflict occurs when more

than one station tries to send, as a result the
frame will be either destroyed or modified.
 Aloha
• The earliest technique for accessing any shared
transmission medium is Aloha
• Random access protocol for data transfer
• Allows subscriber to transmit whenever they have data
to send
• The transmitter listens for a time interval to determine
feedback from the receiver
– If an acknowledgement is received, the transmitter knows
that the data has been received successfully; otherwise
the data is re-transmitted
– If the station fails to receive an acknowledgment, after
repeated transmission it gives up.
 Aloha
• Aloha is simple to implement but causes
degradation in performance as traffic
increases
• Increase load causes high number of traffic
 Pure Aloha
• The earliest random access method developed
at the Univ. of Hawaii in the early 1970s
• Designed for a radio (wireless) LAN
• Simple method. Each station sends a frame
whenever it has a frame to send.
• Since there is only one channel to share, there
is the possibility of collision between frames
from different stations.
Pure Aloha
 Slotted Aloha
• Slotted Aloha is a network protocol that improves the efficiency of
the original Aloha protocol by dividing time into discrete slots.
• It is a refinement over the pure aloha. It requires that time be
segmented into slots of a fixed length be exactly equal to the packet
transmission time
• How it works?
– In Slotted Aloha, users can only transmit data at the beginning of a
time slot, which prevents partial overlap and reduces collisions.
• Benefits
– Slotted Aloha increases the network's capacity and maximum
throughput.
• Uses
– Slotted Aloha is used in many applications, including computer
networks, wireless sensor networks, GSM cellular networks, and
military satellite communications
 CSMA/CD
• The access mechanism used in ethernet is
called CSMA/CD i.e. carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection
• A station wishing to transmit first listens to the
medium to determine if another transmission
is in progress (carrier sense)
• If the medium is in use, the station must wait
• If the medium is idle, the station may transmit
 CSMA/CD
• It may happen that two or more stations attempt
to transmit at about the same time
• If this happens, there will be a collision; the data
from both transmissions will be grabbled and is
not received successfully.
– To account for this, the station waits a reasonable
amount of time after transmitting and
acknowledgement
– If there is no acknowledgement, the station assumes
that a collision has occurred and retransmits.
CSMA/CD
 X.25
• It is an interface between public packet
switched networks and their customers
• The figure below gives the conceptual
overview of X.25 network
• DTE = Data Terminal Equipment
• DCE = Data Communication Equipment
 X.25
• It defines how a packet mode terminal can be
connected to the other packet network for the
exchange of data. It describes the procedures
necessary for establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections.
• It explains how the user’s DTE communicates with the
X.25 network and how the packets are sent over that
network using DCEs
• X.25 protocol species three layers which defines
functions at the physical, datalink and network layers
of the OSI modelIn 1920’s it was largely replaced by a
new kind of technology called Frame Relay.
 X.25
• In 1920’s it was largely replaced by a new kind of technology
called Frame Relay.
• Moreover, if X.25 network is connected to internet, then we
know internet already has its own network layer. Hereby,
packet layer of X.25 network which is analogous to network
layers of internet results ambiguity in function occurring.
 Disadvantages of X.25 network
1. Low 64 Kbps rate
– Most X.25 networks work at speeds upto 64 Kbps, which
makes them obsolete from many purposes.
2. It has extensive flow and error control at both data link and
network layer. In fact this will create large overhead and slow
down the transmission
3. X.25 has its own network layer, so if it is used for the purpose
of internet connection, it results to increase in overhead
because of duplication of network layers.
 Frame Relay
• Frame relay is a relay that connects different LANs.

Figure shows interconnection of LANs using frame relay

• Frame relay operates at only the physical and data link layers. Here
all error checking is left to the protocols at the network and
transport layers which uses the services of frame relay
 Advantages - Frame Relay
• It operates at higher speed (1.544 to 44.376 Mbps)
• Frame relay operates at only the physical and datalink
layers, so there is no duplication if TCP/IP protocol already
has a network layer protocol. But for X.25 network, there is
duplication of network layer function because X.25 has its
own network layer.
• It allows bursty data. It allows a frame size of 9000 bytes,
which can accommodate all local area network frames
• It is less expensive than other traditional LANs.
• It can be used as a low cost, high speed backbone for WAN
network to connect LAN that do not need real time
communication but may have bursty data.
 Disadvantages - Frame Relay
• The data rate of frame relay is still not high
enough for protocols with higher data rates (such
a s BISDN)
• Frame relay allows variable length frames. This
may create varying delays for different users.
• Due to varying delays, it is not suitable for
sending delay sensitive data such as real-time
voice or video. e.g. It is not suitable for tele
conferencing.
 ATM
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• ATM is not a frame relay, it is a cell relay
• ATM is a cell relay protocol designed by the ATM forum
and adopted by the ITU-T; ATM can be thought of as
the “highway” of information superhighway.
• In fact Atm is going to solve the world’s networking and
telecommunication problems by merging voice, data,
cable television, telex. Telegraph etc. connected by
strings into a single integrated system that could do
everything for every one
 ATM
• The basic idea behind ATM is to transmit all
the information in small fixed size packets ( or
small data size packets) called cells. The cells
are 53 bytes long of which 5 bytes are header
and 48 bytes are payload (information)
 ATM
• Cell routing is done in hardware at high speed.
• Because of the fixed cell size, it is easy to build
hardware routers to handle short, fixed length cells.
• In ATM, hardware can be set up to copy one
incoming cell to multiple output lines which is
required to broad cast television program to many
receivers.
 ATM
• Small cell does not block any line for very long, which
makes guaranteeing quality of service.
• ATM networks are organized like traditional WANs
with lines and switches. The most common speed for
ATM networks are 155 Mbps and 622 Mbps although
higher speeds are also available.
Transmission Media
 Contents

• Electromagnetic Spectrum for

Telecommunication
• Types of Propagation
• Guided Media: Copper, Fiber Cabling
• Unguided Media
• Cellular Telephony
 Electromagnetic Wave
• Process of production of electromagnetic
energy
– Accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires
– Nuclear reaction
– Metal bombarded with high energy electrons
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Propagation Methods

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 Antennas : Omnidirectional
• An antenna is metallic device (a rod or a wire)
for radiating or receiving radio waves.
• In other words, antenna is transducer that
converts photons to electrons and vice versa
 Antenna

In radio engineering, an antenna (or, aerial) is

the interface between radio wave propagating
through space and electric current moving in
metal conductors, used with a transmitter or
receiver
Antennas : Unidirectional

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 Radio waves
• Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel
long distances and penetrate buildings easily,
so the are widely used for communication
both indoor and outdoor. They are
omnidirectional
• At low frequency, radio waves pass through
obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply
with distance from the source.
 Micro waves
• Micro waves travel in a straight path and
therefore can be narrowly focused. It gives
much higher signal to noise ratio, but the
transmitting and receiving antennas must be
accurately aligned with each other.
• Since microwaves travel in a straight line, if
they are too far apart, repeaters are needed
periodically. Generally 100 m of tower has the
spacing of 80 km
 Ethernet
• When you say ethernet, it generally reminds us of a
computer network
• When ethernet was developed it did not use any type
of cable at all
• In mid 1970’s, Xerox Corporation developed ethernet
network on basis of research at University of Huwaii
• An ALOHA network was established using radio
broadcast to connect different sites on the island.
• As this network was connecting different sites
wirelessly and transmission medium was ether, this
type of network was termed as ethernet.
 What is ether transmission?
• Ether also spelled as aether also called
luminiferous ether, in physics is a theoretical
substance believed during the 19th century to
act as the medium for transmission of
electromagnetic waves
– e.g. Light and X rays, much as sound waves are
transmitted by elastic media such as air
 Ethernet
• Initially Xerox system went very successful. Soon,
it was applied to connect various office
equipment like printers, computers, scanners etc.
• In 1883, IEEE published IEEE 802.3 standard
based on ethernet specification

Ethernet is a set of technologies commonly

used in LAN/MAN/WAN for controlling access to a
shared network medium
 Ethernet
• Ethernet surpassed its competitors due to the
following advantages
– Simple to install and manage
– Flexible and scalable
– Inexpensive
– Easy interoperation between vendors, since all
manufacturers are providing support for ethernet
cables by making their devices ethernet complaint
 Ethernet
• Initially ethernet network used ether as a
medium but now ethernet medium uses
– Twisted pair cable
– Co-axial cable
– Optical fiber cable

RJ45 cable is the most widely used connecting

medium for ethernet networks and has become the
representative of ethernet networks
 Network Cabling
• Cabling specifications
– Bandwidth measures cable speed
• Typically measured in Mbps
– Maximum cable length
– Connector describes the type of plug
 Network Cabling
• Ethernet
– Very popular cabling technology
– 10 Base T, 10Base2, 10Base5
– Maximum bandwidth 10 Mbps
– Maximum distances 100 to 500 meters
IEEE standard Physical Cable Type Maximum Maximum Cable Length
Standard Speed
802.3 10baseT Twisted Pair 10 Mbps 100m
802.3 10baseF Optical Fiber 10 Mbps 200m
 Network Cabling
• Fast Ethernet
– Newer version of Ethernet
– Bandwidth is 100 Mbps
– Uses Cat5 or greater cable
• Sometimes called 100Base T
– Requires a switch
 Network Cabling
• Gigabit Ethernet
– High bandwidth version of Ethernet
– 1 to 10 Gbps
– Cat 5 or fiber optic cable
– Video applications
 Network Cabling
• Token ring
– Uses shielded twisted pair cabling
– Bandwidth between 10 and 25 Mbps
– Uses a multiple access unit (MAU)
– Popular in manufacturing and finance
 Transmission Media
• Transmission media is a communication
channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver. Data is
transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
 Guided Media
• It provides conduction from one device to
another via twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and
fiber optic cable.
• Twisted pair cable and coaxial cable use metallic
conductors that accepts and transports signals in
the form of electrical current whereas
• Optical fiber is a glass of plastic cable at accepts
and transport signals in the form of light
Guided Media – twisted pair cable
• It consists of two insulated copper wires typically
about 1mm thick. The wires are twisted together
in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule
• The purpose of twisted pair wires is to reduce
electrical interference form similar pairs close by
• Twisted pair cable run several kilometers without
amplification, but for longer distances repeaters
are used
 Twisted pair cable – UPT and STP
• UPT – unshielded twisted pair – cheap flexible
and easy to install
• STP – shielded twisted pair
• less susceptible to noise, used for highly sophisticated
networks such as research lab, almost zero interference
exists for such cable
 Guided Media – coaxial cable
• Instead of have two wires, coaxial cable has a
central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating
sheath which is, in turn, enclosed in an outer
conductor of metallic foil.
Coaxial Cable : Baseband Cable

 Carries Single Signal at a Fixed Frequency.

 It is used for Digital Transmission.

 Uses Digital Signaling Technique.

 It is used for Small Area.

 Repeaters Can be used to deal with attenuation.

86
Coaxial Cable : Broadband Cable

 Carries Multiple Signals => Multiplexing.

 It is used for Analog Transmission.

 Uses Analog Signaling Technique.

 It is used for Large Area => Cable Television

 Amplifiers Can be used to deal with attenuation.

87
Guided Media – optical fiber cable
• Optical fiber is a glass of plastic cable that accepts and
transports signal in the form of light
• The lowest losses have been obtained by using fibers of
ultra pure fused silica
• Optical fiber has a cylindrical shape and consists of three
concentric sections: the core, the cladding and the jacket
• Refractive index of core is always greater than the
refractive index of the cladding
• The outermost covering is known as jacket. This jacket is
composed of plastic and other materials layered to protect
against moisture, crushing and other environmental
damages
• Optical fiber uses the total internal reflection feature.
Optical Fiber : Bending of Light Ray

89
Optical Fiber : Structure ?

90
Fiber Construction

91
 Optical Fiber : Benefits

 Supports Higher Data Rate => data rate is 2 Gbps over tens of
sub km

 Smaller Size and Lighter Weight.

 Lower Attenuation

 Electromagnetic Isolation

 Greater Repeater Spacing

92
 Unguided Media – Satellite
Communication
• Satellite is a distant microwave repeater
 Satellite Communication
• Generally 6 GHz is used for uplink connection and 4 GHz is used for
downlink connection. So we got to use the frequency translator in
addition to a normal repeater
• In other words, the satellite receives transmission on one frequency
band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal and transmits it on
another frequency (downlink)
• Reason for employing two frequencies
– If same frequency is used, amplifiers used result in oscillations and
interference between the uplink and downlink takes place
• Half circuit
– It implies the communication between the earth station via a satellite
• Full Circuit
– It is the communication between the two stations via a satellite
 Satellite Communication
• The most desired frequency band for satellite
communication system is 6 GHz on the uplink
(Earth to Satellite transmission) & 4 GHz on the
downlink (Satellite to Earth transmission)
i.e. C = 6/4 GHz
• In this frequency range, the equipment is
relatively inexpensive, the cosmic noise is small
and the frequency is low enough that rainfall
does not appreciably attenuate the signal.
 Satellite Communication
• The fundamental advantage of a satellite is its
ability to obtain a global look of large portion
of the Earth’s surface
 Satellite Communication
• A system of three satellites in geosynchronous orbit
can cover almost all of the earth’s surface. This has
lead to the application of satellites in several areas
such as communication in mobile satellites,
photography for meteorology and earth’s resources,
navigation for aircraft and ships etc.
• Some of the services provided by the satellites are:
– Fixed satellite service
– Broadcasting satellite service
– Mobile satellite service
– Navigational satellite service
– Meteorological satellite service
 Cellular Telephony
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication.
• GSM is one of the most widely used digital
wireless telephony technologies. It operates at
either the 900 megahertz (MHz) or 1,800 MHz
frequency band.
Architecture of GSM
 Architecture of GSM
• MS = mobile station
• BTS = base transceiver station
• BSC = base station controller
• MSC = mobile switching center
• HLR = home location register
• VLR = visitor location register
• AUC = authentication center
• OMC = operation and maintenance center
• PSTN = public switched telephone network
• EIR = Equipment Identity Register
 Architecture of GSM
• Base station system provides and manages
radio transmission path between MS and MSC
• Network switching system manages the
switching function of the system and allows
the MSC to communicate with other networks
such as PSTN and ISDN (Integrated service
digital network)
 Architecture of GSM
• HLR
– Each subscriber in a particular GSM market is assigned a
unique international mobile subscriber identity [IMSI] and
the number is used to identify each home user
– It is a static database when a user apply for mobile service,
all data about this subscriber will be stored in HLR
• VLR
– It is a dynamic database. It stores all related information of
mobile subscribers that enter into its coverage area, which
enables MSC to set up incoming and outgoing calls
 Architecture of GSM
• AUC
– It is a strongly protected database which handles the
authentication and encryption keys for every single
subscriber in the HLR and VLR
– It is used to prevent unauthorized subscriber from access
to GSM network or from a mobile number being used by
unauthorized person.
• EIR
– EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a
database that keeps the record of all allowed or banned in
the network. If you are banned in the network then you
can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.