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MAT509 Topology

The document outlines the syllabus and structure for the MAT509 Topology course at Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University as part of the M.Sc. Mathematics program. It includes a message from the Vice-Chancellor emphasizing the importance of self-study and guidance from qualified faculty, as well as a forward from the Director about the course material's design for effective learning. The content covers fundamental concepts of topology, definitions, examples, and exercises to aid student understanding.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views190 pages

MAT509 Topology

The document outlines the syllabus and structure for the MAT509 Topology course at Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University as part of the M.Sc. Mathematics program. It includes a message from the Vice-Chancellor emphasizing the importance of self-study and guidance from qualified faculty, as well as a forward from the Director about the course material's design for effective learning. The content covers fundamental concepts of topology, definitions, examples, and exercises to aid student understanding.

Uploaded by

rajjadhav132456
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 190

Y ASHWANTRAO C HAVAN M AHARASHTRA O PEN

U NIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
(F ORMERLY S CHOOL OF A RCHITECTURE , S CIENCE & T ECHNOLOGY )

V151: M.Sc. Mathematics


2023 {As per NEP 2020}

Pattern

MAT509
TOPOLOGY
(4 Credits)

Semester - II

Email: [email protected]
Website: www.ycmou.ac.in
Phone: +91-253-2231473
MAT509
MAT509 Topology

S25014: Topology

Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University


Vice-Chancellor: Prof. Dr. E. Vayunandan
School of Architecture, Science and Technology
Programme Advisory Committee (PAC)
Dr Sunanda More Dr Manoj Killedar Dr Chetana Kamlaskar
Director(I/c) & Associate Associate Professor, Assist. Professor,
Professor, School of School of Architecture, School of Architecture,
Architecture, Science & Science & Technology, Science & Technology,
Technology, YCMOU, Nashik YCMOU, Nashik YCMOU, Nashik
Dr. T.M. Karade Prof. Dr Shivdas D Katore Prof. Dr J N Salunke
Retired Professor, Professor, Professor, Swami Ramanand
R.T.M. Nagpur Sant Gadge Baba,
Teerth Marathwada
University, Nagpur Amravati University
University, Nanded
Prof. Dr Meenakshi Prof. Dr S R Chaudhari, --
Wasadikar, Professor and HOD,
Professor and HOD, KBC North Maharashtra
Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar University, Jalgaon
Marathwada University
Development Team
Course Coordinator and Book Writer Book Editor
Instructional Technology Editor
Dr. Chetana Kamlaskar 01. Dr. B. Surendranath Dr Meenakshi Wasadikar
B.E., M. Tech., Ph.D., Reddy M.Sc., PhD(Maths),
B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D,
Assistance Professor, Ex-Professor and Head,
Assistant Professor, School
School of Architecture, Depart. of Maths.,
of Mathematical Sciences,
Science & Technology, SRTM University, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
YCMOU, Nashik Experience: 8+ Yrs, Marathwada University
Experience@YCMOU: Credits written: 01, 02 and two Experience: 26+ Yrs
20+ Yrs units of Credit 03
02. Dr. D. D. Pawar
M.Sc., Ph.D.,
Professor & Director, School
of Mathematical Sciences,
SRTM University
Experience: 20+ Yrs.
Credits written: T wo units of
Credit 03 and Credit 04
This work by YCMOU is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License .
 First Book Publication : 14 Mar 2020 , Publication Number: 2367
 Publisher : Dr. Dinesh Bhonde, Registrar, YCMOU, Nashik - 422 222, MH, India
 ISBN Number : 978-93-91514-53-2

This SLM Book used in


V130: M.Sc. (Mathematics) {2021 Pattern}, dtd. 14/03/2020
V151: M.Sc. (Mathematics) {2023 Pattern}, dtd. 20/02/2024
V ICE CHANCELLOR ’ S M ESSAGE

Dear Students, Greetings!!!

I offer cordial welcome to all of you for the Master’s degree programme of Yashwantrao
Chavan Maharashtra Open University. As a post graduate student, you must have autonomy to
learn, have information and knowledge regarding different dimensions in the field of
Mathematics and at the same time intellectual development is necessary for application
of knowledge wisely. The process of learning includes appropriate thinking, understanding important
points, describing these points on the basis of experience and observation, explaining
them to others by speaking or writing about them. The science of education today accepts the
principle that it is possible to achieve excellence and knowledge in this regard.

The syllabus of this course has been structured in this book in such a way, to give you autonomy to
study easily without stirring from home. During the counseling sessions, scheduled at
your respective study centre, all your doubts will be clarified about the course and you will
get guidance from some qualified and experienced counsellors / professors. This guidance will not
only be based on lectures, but it will also include various techniques such as question-
answers, doubt clarification. We expect your active participation in the contact sessions at the study
centre. Our emphasis is on ‘self study’. If a student learns how to study, he will become independent in
learning throughout life. This course book has been written with the objective of helping in self-study and
giving you autonomy to learn at your convenience.

During this academic year, you have to give assignments, complete laboratory
activities, field visits and the Project work wherever required. You may have to opt for
specialization as per programme structure. You will get experience and joy in personally doing
above activities. This will enable you to assess your own progress and there by achieve a larger
educational objective.

We wish that you will enjoy the courses of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open
University, emerge successful and very soon become a knowledgeable and honorable
Master’s degree holder of this university. I congratulate “Development Team” for the
development of this excellent high quality “Self- Learning Material (SLM)” for the
students. I hope and believe that this SLM will be immensely useful for all students of
this program.

Best Wishes!

- Prof. Dr. E. Vayunandan


Vice-Chancellor, YCMOU

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 3


F ORWARD B Y THE D IRECTOR

This book aims at acquainting the students with advance Mathematics required at post
graduate degree level.

The book has been specially designed for Science students. It has a comprehensive
coverage of Mathematical concepts and its application in practical life. The book
contains numerous mathematical examples to build understanding and skills.

The book is written with self- instructional format. Each chapter is prepared with
articulated structure to make the contents not only easy to understand but also
interesting to learn.

Each chapter begins with learning objectives which are stated using Action Verbs as
per the Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each Unit is started with introduction to arouse or
stimulate curiosity of learner about the content/ topic. Thereafter the unit contains
explanation of concepts supported by tables, figures, exhibits and solved illustrations
wherever necessary for better effectiveness and understanding.

This book is written in simple language, using spoken style and short sentences. Topics
of each unit of the book presents from simple to complex in logical sequence. This book
is appropriate for low achiever students with lower intellectual capacity and covers the
syllabus of the course.

Exercises given in the chapter include MCQs, conceptual questions and practical
questions so as to create a ladder in the minds of students to grasp each and every
aspect of a particular concept.

I thank the students who have been a constant motivation for us. I am grateful to the
writers, editors and the School faculty associated in this SLM development of the
Programme.

- Dr. Sunanda More


Director (I/C) & Associate Professor,
School of Architecture, Science and Technology

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 4


CREDIT 01

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 5


UNIT 01-01: TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Understand the concept of topology

 Construct examples of topology

INTRODUCTION
Various mathematicians like Frechet, Hausdorff, proposed different definitions for
topology over a period of years during the first decades of the twentieth century,
but it took quite a while to settle down to one definition for topology that seemed
most suitable. In this unit, we learn the definition of a topological space and
important examples of it.

Definition 1.1.1. Topology


A topology on X is a collection T of subsets X satisfying the following properties

1. φ , X ∈ T .

2. The union of the elements of any subcollection of T is in T . (i.e. If


Xα ∈ T α ∈ Λ, then Xα ∈ T ).
S
α∈Λ

3. The intersection of elements of any finite subcollection of T is in T . (i.e.


n
If X1 , X, ..., Xn ∈ T , then Xi ∈ T )
T
i=1
The set X with topology T is called a topological space and is denoted by (X, T )
or simply by X.

Example 1.1.2. Let X = {a, b, c}.

1. There are many topologies on X, for example, T1 = {φ , X} and T2 =


{φ , X, {a}, {b, c}} are topologies on X. Infact, there are total 29 topolo-
gies on X.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 6


2. Whereas the set T = φ , X, {a}, {b} is not a topology as {a}, {b} ∈ T


/T.
but {a, b} ∈

Definition 1.1.3. Open Set


Let X be a topological space with topology T . We say that a subset U of X is an
open set if U ∈ T .

Example 1.1.4. Let X = {a, b, c} and T = φ , X, {a}{b, c} . Then {a} ⊂ X is




an open set whereas {b} ⊂ X is not an open set.

Definition 1.1.5. Discrete Topology


Let X be any set. Then the collection T of all subsets of X is a topology, called
the discrete topology. (i.e. T = P(X) is called the discrete topology).

We now give an equivalent definition of discrete topology in terms of singleton


sets.

Theorem 1.1.6. A topology (X, T ) is discrete if and only if every singleton is


open.

Proof. If X is discrete, then every subset is open , so in particular, every singleton


is open.
Conversely, suppose that for all x ∈ X, {x} ∈ T .
Let Y be a subset of X. We have to show that Y ∈ T .
We can write the set Y as Y = ∪{{y} | y ∈ Y }.
As {y} ∈ T , and T is a topology, we get that ∪{{y}} ∈ T .
That is Y ∈ T and thus T is discrete.

Definition 1.1.7. Indiscrete Topology


Let X be any set. Then T = {φ , X} is called the indiscrete topology.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 7


0
Definition 1.1.8. Suppose that T and T are two topologies on a given set X. If
0 0 0 0
T ⊂ T , then we say that T is finer than T . If T ) T , then T is said to be
0
strictly finer than T . We also say that T is coarser(weaker) than T . We say that
0 0 0
T and T are comparable if either T ⊃ T or T ⊂ T .

Remark 1.1.9. We can understand the above definition better by thinking of a


topological space as a truckload with full of pebble gravel and all unions of col-
lections of pebbles being the open sets. Now by smashing the pebbles into smaller
ones, the collection of open sets has been enlarged, and the topology, like the
gravel, is said to have been made finer by the operation. We learn more about
comparing topologies in the next unit.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: Let X be a set and T f = {U ⊂ X|X − U is either finite or is all
of X}. Then T f is a topology, called the finite complement topology.
Solution: Given T f = {U ⊂ X | X −U is finite or U = 0}
/
Since X − X = 0/ is Finite, X ∈ T f .
Also X − 0/ = X implies 0/ ∈ T f .
Let {Uα } be the indexed collection of elements of T f .
If each Uα is empty, then their union is empty and hence belongs to T f .
So assume that there is at least one Uβ which is non empty. Then X −Uβ is finite.
Now X − ∪Uα = ∩(X −Uα ) ⊂ X −Uβ
Since X −Uβ is finite, X − ∪Uα is also finite.
Therefore ∪Uα ∈ T f .
Let U1 ,U2 , ...,Un ∈ T f . If one of Ui is empty, then their intersection is empty.
So assume that Ui 6= 0/ for all i. Then X −U1 , X −U2 , ..., X −Un are finite.
Then X − ∩ni=1Ui = ∪ni=1 (X −Ui ) is finite and so ∩ni=1Ui ∈ T f .
Hence T f is a topology.
Problem 01-02: Let X be a set and Tc = {U ⊂ X|X −U is countable or U c = X}.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 8


Then Tc is a topology, called the countable complement topology.
Solution: Given Tc = {U ⊂ X|X −U is countable or U = φ }.
/ X ∈ Tc .
Since X − 0/ = X and X − X = 0/ is countable, 0,
Let Uα ∈ Tc , α ∈ Λ. If each Uα is empty, then their union is empty and hence
belongs to T f .
So assume that there is at least one Uβ which is non empty. Then X − Uβ is
countable.
X − ∪Uα = ∩(X −Uα ) ⊂ X −Uβ
Since X −Uβ is countable, X − ∪Uα is also countable.
Thus ∪Uα ∈ Tc .
Let U1 ,U2 , ...,Un ∈ Tc . If one of Ui is empty, then their intersection is empty. So
assume that Ui 6= 0/ for all i. Then X −U1 , X −U2 , ..., X −Un are countable.
Then X − ∩ni=1Ui = ∪ni=1 (X −Ui ) is countable implies ∩ni=1Ui ∈ Tc .
Hence Tc is a topology.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 01-01-01: Which of the following is not a topology?

(A) The collection of all subsets U of X such that X \ U either is finite or


is all of X.

(B) The collection of all subsets U of X such that X \U either is countable


or is all of X

(C) The collection of all subsets U of X such that X \U either is infinite or


is empty or is all of X

(D) None of the above

MCQ 01-01-02: Let X = {a, b, c}. Which of the following is not a topology?

(A) {0,
/ X}.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 9


(B) {0,
/ X, {a}}.

(C) {0,
/ X, {a}, {b, c}}.

(D) P(X), power set of X.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 01-01-01: If {Tα } is a family of topologies on X, show that ∩Tα is a topol-
ogy on X. Is ∪Tα is a topology on X? Justify.
/ X ∈ Tα for each α, we have 0,
Solution: Since 0, / X ∈ ∩Tα .
Similarly, The union of elements of ∩Tα belongs to ∩Tα and the finite intersec-
tion of elements of ∩Tα belongs to ∩Tα .
Therefore, ∩Tα is a topology on X.
Where as union of topologies need not be a topology. For example, the union of
topologies {0,
/ {a, b, c}, {a}} and {0,
/ {a, b, c}, {b}} on {a, b, c} is not a topology
as {a} and {b} are in the union but {a, b} is not the union.
SAQ 01-01-02: Let {Tα } be a family of topologies on X. Show that there is
a unique smallest topology on X containing all the collections Tα and a unique
largest topology contained in all Tα .
Solution: Consider all the topologies containing each Tα , and take their inter-
section. Then the resulting collection of sets is the smallest topology containing
every Tα .
Also ∩Tα is the largest topology contained in all Tα .
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned the concept of topology with examples. We have
constructed interesting topologies which will be used in the due course.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Let X = {a, b, c} and T = φ , X, {a, b}, {b, c} . Is T a topology? Justify.




2. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e, f } and T = φ , X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e, f } .




S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 10


Show that T is a topology.

3. Let X = N and T = {φ , X} ∪ {all finite subsets}. Is T a topology? Justify.

4. If X = {a, b, c} let T1 = {0,


/ X, {a}, {a, b}} and T2 = {0,
/ X, {a}, {b, c}}.
Find the smallest topology containing T1 and T2 , and the largest topology
contained in T1 and T2 .

5. Let X = N and T = {φ , X} ∪ {A ⊂ N : 5 ∈ A}. Is T a topology? Justify.

6. Let X = N and T = {φ , X} ∪ {A ⊂ N : 5 ∈
/ A}. Is T a topology? Justify.

KEY WORDS
Topology, discrete topology, finite complement topology, countable complement
topology .
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 11


UNIT 01-02: BASIS AND SUB BASIS FOR A TOPOLOGY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Define and understand the concept of basis for a topology

 Provide equivalent definition of Open sets in terms of basis elements

 Compare topologies with the help of their bases.

 Understand subbasis and order topology

INTRODUCTION
Specifying the topology by means of all its open sets is too difficult, in general.
To overcome this difficulty, we consider a smaller collection of open subsets of
X and define the topology in terms of that. That particular collection satisfying
some properties is called a basis, which we define explicitly in this unit.

Definition 1.2.1. Basis


Let X be any set and B be a collection of subsets of X then B is called a basis for
a topology on X if

1. For each x ∈ X, ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.

2. For each x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , ∃ B3 ∈ B such that x ∈ B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2 .

Example 1.2.2. Let C be the collection of all circular regions (interior of circles)
in the plane. Then B is the base as given any x ∈ X, we can find a circular region
around x and the second condition is explained in the Figure 1.1.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 12


Figure 1.1:

Example 1.2.3. Let B be the collection of all rectangular regions (interior of


rectangles) in the plane then B is a base as shown in the following figure

Figure 1.2:

Example 1.2.4. If X is any set, then the collection B of all singletons of X is a


base for the discrete topology on X.

Proof. Let x ∈ X. Then {x} ∈ B and x ∈ {x}.


Suppose x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 . Then B1 = B2 = {x}.
Therefore x ∈ B3 = B1 ∩ B2 .

Theorem 1.2.5. Let B be a base for X. Then the collection T = {U ⊂ X|∀ x ∈


U, ∃ Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊂ U} is a topology and is called the topology gen-
erated by the base B.

Proof. 1. Clearly φ ∈ T .

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 13


Let x ∈ X. Since B is a base ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ X
Hence X ∈ T .

2. Let Uα ∈ T , α ∈ Λ and x ∈
S

α∈Λ
Implies x ∈ U j for some j ∈ Λ.
Since U j ∈ T there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U j
Implies x ∈ B ⊂
S

α∈Λ
Uα ∈ T .
S
Implies
α∈Λ

3. Let U1 and U2 ∈ T and x ∈ U1 ∩U2


Implies x ∈ U1 and x ∈ U2
⇒ ∃ B1 , B2 ∈ B such that x ∈ B1 ⊂ U1 and x ∈ B2 ⊂ U2
Therefore x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 .
Since B is base ∃ B3 such that x ∈ B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2
Implies x ∈ B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2 ⊂ U1 ∩U2
Implies U1 ∩U2 ∈ T
Hence the result is true for n = 2.
Now assume that the result is true for n = k.
k
That is if U1 ,U2 , ...,Uk ∈ T , then Ui ∈ T
T
i=1 !
k k
∈ T and Uk+1 ∈ T , we get that Ui ∩Uk+1 ∈ T
T T
Since Ui
i=1 i=1
k+1 k
Ui ∩Uk+1 ∈ T
T T
Implies Ui =
i=1 i=1
Thus T is a topology.

Lemma 1.2.6. Let X be a set and B be a base for a topology T on X then T


equals the collection of all unions of elements of B.

Proof. Given that T = {U ⊂ X|∀ x ∈ U ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U}.


Let U ∈ T . Then for each x ∈ U ∃ Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊂ U.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 14


S
So we can write U = Bx .
x∈U
Therefore, T ⊂ {all unions of elements of B}.
Since every Bα ∈ B is in T , and T is a topology, we get ∪Bα ∈ T .
Hence T is equal to the collection of all unions of elements of B.

Remark 1.2.7. If B is a base for a topology T on X then

T ={U ⊂ X|∀ x ∈ U, ∃ Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊂ U}

={all union of elements of B}

i.e. every element U of T (or every open sets U of X) can be expressed as a union
of basis elements.

Lemma 1.2.8. Let X be a topological space. Suppose that C is a collection of


open subsets of X such that for each open set U of X and each x ∈ U, there exists
C ∈ C such that x ∈ C ⊂ U. Then C is a basis for the topology on X.

Proof. Let x ∈ X. Since X is open ∃C ∈ C such that x ∈ C ⊂ X


Let C1 ,C2 ∈ T and x ∈ C1 ∩C2 .
Since C1 and C2 are open, C1 ∩C2 is open.
Therefore ∃C3 ∈ C such that x ∈ C3 ⊂ C1 ∩C2
Implies T is a basis for X.
0
Let T be the collection of open sets of X and T is the topology generated by C .
0
We will show T = T .
Let U ∈ T and x ∈ U.
Then by given hypothesis ∃C ∈ T such that x ∈ C ⊂ U
0
Implies U ∈ T
0
So T ⊂ T .
0
Let U ∈ T . Then U is the union of elements of C .
Since every element of C is open, union of these elements is also open.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 15


Therefore U = ∪α Cα ∈ T
0
Implies T ⊂ T
0
Therefore T = T

0 0
Theorem 1.2.9. Let B and B be bases for the topologies T and T on X then
the following are equivalent.

0 0
1. T is finer than T (i.e., T ⊃ T ).

0
2. For each x ∈ X and for each B ∈ B such that x ∈ B, ∃ B ∈ B such that
0
x ∈ B ⊂ B.

Proof. 1 ⇒ 2.
0
Suppose T ⊃ T .
Let x ∈ X and B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.
0
Since B ∈ T Implies B ∈ T .
0 0 0 0 0
As T is the topology generated by B , ∃B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ B.
2 ⇒ 1.
Let U ∈ T and x ∈ U. Then ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U.
0 0
Then by assumption, ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ B
0
Implies x ∈ B ⊂ B ⊂ U
0
Implies x ∈ B ⊂ U
0
Implies U ∈ T
0
Hence T is finer than T

Definition 1.2.10. Let B = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ R}


0
B = {[a, b)|a, b ∈ R} and
B ” = {(a, b) − K|a, b ∈ R} ∪ {(a, b)|a, b ∈ R}.
0
Then B, B , B ” are bases where K = {1, 12 , 13 , ...}.
The topology generated by B is called the standard topology R.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 16


0
The topology generated by B is called the lower limit topology Rl .
The topology generated by B ” is called the K−topology on R and is denoted by
RK .

Definition 1.2.11. Subspace


A subspace S for a topology on X is a collection of subsets of X whose union is
X i.e. ∀ x ∈ X, ∃ S ∈ S such that x ∈ S.

Theorem 1.2.12. Let S be a subspace for a topology on X, and T be the collec-


tion of all the unions of finite intersection of elements of S . Then T is a topology
generated by S .

Proof. Let S ∗ be the collection of all finite intersection of elements of S .


Now we show that S ∗ is a base.
Let x ∈ X. Since S is a subbase ∃ S ∈ S such that x ∈ S
As S ⊂ S ∗ , we have x ∈ S ∈ S ∗ .
n m
Let B1 , B2 ∈ S ∗ . Then B1 =
T T
Si and B2 = Si .
i=1 i=1
Then B1 ∩ B2 ∈ S ∗ as B1 ∩ B2 is the intersection of finite number of sets of S ∗ .
Hence S ∗ is a base.

T = { all unions of all finite intersection of elements of S }

= {all unions of elements of S ∗ }

Since S ∗ is a base, T is a topology.

Definition 1.2.13. Let X be a set with order relation ’<’. Let a, b ∈ X with a < b
then

(a, b) ={x|a < x < b}

(a, b] ={x|a < x ≤ b}

[a, b) ={x|a ≤ x ≤ b}

[a, b] ={x|a ≤ x ≤ b}.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 17


These four subsets of X are called intervals determined by a and b.

Example 1.2.14. Let X = N with order ’<’. Then (1, 5) = {2, 3, 4} and
[1, 5) = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Lemma 1.2.15. Let X be a set with simple order relation and assume that X has
more than one element. Let B be the collection of all sets of the following:

1. All open intervals (a, b) in X.

2. All intervals of form [a0 , b) where a0 is the smallest element of X, if exists.

3. All intervals of the form (a, b0 ] where b0 is the largest element of X, if exists.

Then the collection B is a basis for the topology on X

Proof. Let x ∈ X.
Suppose x is the smallest element of X.
Since X contains more than one element, there exists b such that x < b.
Then x ∈ [x, b) ∈ B.
Similarly, if x is the largest element of X, there exists a such that a < x implies
x ∈ (a, x] ∈ B.
If x is neither smallest nor largest, then there exist a and b such that a < x < b and
hence x ∈ (a, b) ∈ B.
In any case, there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.
Also if B1 and B2 ∈ B then B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B because the intersection of B1 and B2 is
any one of the form (a, b), [a, b) or (a, b].

Definition 1.2.16. Order Topology


Let X be a set with simple order relation and assume that X has more than one
element. Then the collection B consisting of all the sets of the form:

1. All open intervals (a, b) in X.

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2. All intervals of form [a0 , b) where a0 is the smallest element of X, if exists.

3. All intervals of the form (a, b0 ] where b0 is the largest element of X, if


exists.

is a basis for the topology on X, called the order topology.

Example 1.2.17. The standard topology on X = R is an order topology.

Proof. Since R has neither smallest element nor largest element, we have B =
{(a, b)|a, b ∈ R}.
This topology generated by B is same as the standard topology.

Example 1.2.18. Let X = R × R with dictionary order.


Then B = {(a × b, c × d)|a < c and if a = c then b < d}
is a basis and the topology generated by B is called the ordered topology on
R × R.

Definition 1.2.19. If X is an ordered set and a ∈ X, then the rays determined by a


are given by

(a, ∞) = {x|x > a}

[a, ∞) = {x|x ≥ a}

(−∞, a) = {x|x < a}

(−∞, a] = {x|x ≤ a}

Sets of the first two type are called open rays.

Lemma 1.2.20. The open rays form a sub basis for the order topology on X. Also
the topology generated by this sub basis is same as the order topology.

Proof. Let x ∈ X.
If x is the smallest element, then there exists a such that x < a and

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x ∈ [x, a) = (−∞, a).
Similarly, if x is the largest element, then there exists a such that a < x and
x ∈ (a, x) = (−∞, a).
Clearly, for any x ∈ X, we have x ∈ (x − ε, ∞).
Hence the collection of open rays forms a sub basis.
0
Let T be the topology generated by the subbasis and T be the order topology
on X.
0
Since each open ray is an open set, we have T ⊂ T .
Let (a, b) ∈ B. Then (a, b) = (−∞, b) ∩ (a, ∞).
If a0 and b0 are the smallest and largest elements, then [a0 , b) = (−∞, b) and
0 0
(a, b0 ] = (a, ∞). This implies T ⊂ T and hence T = T .

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: The topologies Rl and RK are strictly finer than the standard
topology R but are not comparable with one another.
0 00
Solution: Let T , T and T be the topologies of R, Rl and RK respectively.
0
Let x ∈ (a, b) ∈ B. Then [x, b) ∈ B and x ∈ [x, b) ⊂ (a, b).
0
Which means T ⊃ T .
0
On the other hand, 0 ∈ [0, 1) ∈ B but there is no (a, b) ∈ B such that
0 ∈ (a, b) ⊂ [0, 1)(if there is, then a < 0and as(a, b) ⊂ [0, 1), then a ≥ 0)
0
Therefore T is strictly finer than T .
00
Clearly, T ⊃ T as B ” ⊃ B.
We know that 0 ∈ (−1, 1) − K ∈ B ” but there is no open interval (a, b) containing
’0’ such that (a, b) ⊂ (−1, 1) − K.
Because if 0 ∈ (a, b), then b > 0. So by Archimedean property there exists n ∈ N
such that nb > 1
1 1 1
Implies a < n < b and thus n ∈ (a, b) but n ∈
/ (−1, 1) − K
00
Therefore T ) T

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i.e. T ” is strictly finer than T .
0 00
Now we will show that T and T are not comparable.
0
As 0 ∈ (−1, 1) − K ∈ B ” and no interval [a, b) ∈ B containing ’0’ such that
00 0
[a, b) ⊂ (−1, 1) − K, we get T is not contained in T .
0
Similarly 0 ∈ [0, 1) ∈ B but no interval (a, b) or (a, b) − K containing ’0’ will be
0 00
contained in [0, 1) implies T is not contained in T .
0 00
Hence T and T are not comparable.
Problem 02-02: For X = R, the collection B = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ R} is a basis for X.
Solution:

1. Let x ∈ R. Then for any ε > 0, we have x ∈ (x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ B.

2. Let x ∈ (a, b) ∩ (c, d).


Without loss of generality, we can assume that a < c and b < d.
Then x ∈ (c, b) and (c, b) ⊂ (a, b) ∩ (c, d).
Therefore, B is a base for X.

SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 01-02-01: Consider the following

(I) The collection B1 = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ Q} is a base for R.

(II) The collection B2 = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ Z} is a base for R. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 01-02-02: Consider the following

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(I) Every basis element is an open set in X.

(II) Every open set is a union of basis elements for X. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 01-02-03: Consider the following

(I) τ 0 ⊃ τ if for each x ∈ X and for each B ∈ B with x ∈ B, there exists


B0 ∈ B 0 such that x ∈ B0 ⊂ B

(II) τ ⊃ τ 0 if for each x ∈ X and for each B ∈ B with x ∈ B, there exists


B0 ∈ B 0 such that x ∈ B0 ⊂ B. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 01-02-04: Which of the following is true

(A) The topology of Rl is finer than the standard topology on R

(B) The standard topology on R is finer than the topology of Rl

(C) The topology of Rl is finer than the topology of RK

(D) All of the above

MCQ 01-02-05: Consider the following

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(I) The order topology with usual order on R is the standard topology on
R.

(II) The order topology on the positive integers Z+ is the discrete topology.
Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 01-02-01: The open ray (a, ∞) is an open set.
Solution: If X has largest element b0 , then (a, ∞) = (a, b0 ] ∈ T .
S
If X has no largest element, then (a, ∞) = (a, x)
x>a
In any case, we get that (a, ∞) is open.
0
SAQ 01-02-02: Let B be the collection of all circular regions and B be the col-
0
lection of all rectangular regions in the plane. Let T and T be the corresponding
0
topologies then T = T .
Solution: Clearly, given any circular region, we can find a rectangular region
which is contained in the given circular region.
0
That is T ⊃ T .
Similarly, given any rectangular region we can find a circular region which is con-
tained in the given rectangular region.
0 0
Implies T ⊃ T and hence T = T .
SAQ 01-02-03: Let X = Z+ , be the set of positive integers. Then the order topol-
ogy on X is the discrete topology.
Solution: Here B = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ Z+ } ∪ {[1, c)|c ∈ Z+ }

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For any n > 1, {n} = (n − 1, n + 1) ∈ B
Therefore, every singleton is open and hence the ordered topology on Z+ is the
discrete topology.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned the concepts of basis, sub basis, comparing the
topologies, and some important types of topologies like ordered topology, etc.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
Consider the following topologies on R
T1 = the standard topology
T2 = the topology of RK
T3 = the finite complement topology
T4 = the upper limit topology, having all sets (a, b] as basis
T5 = the topology having all sets (−∞, a) as basis.

1. Determine all the topologies containing T3 and the relation among them.

2. Determine all the topologies containing T5 and the relation among them.

3. Determine the topologies which are not comparable.

4. Let X be a topological space, A be a subset of X. Suppose that for each


x ∈ A, there is an open set U containing x such that U ⊂ A. Is A open in X?
Justify.

5. Show that if A is a basis for a topology on X, then the topology generated


by A equals the intersection of all topologies on X that contain A.

6. Show that the collection C = {[a, b) | a < b, a and b rational} is a basis that
generated a topology different from the lower limit topology on R.

KEY WORDS

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Basis, subbasis, Standard topology, order topology.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 25


UNIT 01-03: PRODUCT AND SUBSPACE TOPOLOGIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Define and understand the concept of product topology and construct exam-
ples

 Identify Sub basis for the product topology

 Explain subspace topology with examples

 Relate open sets of a subspace with the open sets of the topological space.

INTRODUCTION
The definition of the topological product of an infinite collection of topological
spaces was given by A.N. Tikhonov (1930). The construction of a topological
product is one of the main tools in the formation of new topological objects from
ones already existing. Using topological products one can construct a number of
fundamental standard objects of general topology. Another important topology is
the subspace topology, which is also constructed from the existing one. In this
unit, we focus on product topology and subspace topology and relate them using
open sets.
Before defining the product topology, we prove the following lemma.

Lemma 1.3.1. B = {U × V |U is open in X and V is open in Y } is a basis for a


topology on X ×Y .

Proof. Let x × y ∈ X ×Y .
Since X is open in X and Y is open in Y , X ×Y ∈ B and x × y ∈ X ×Y ∈ B.

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Let U1 ×V1 ,U2 ×V2 ∈ B.

Then x × y ∈ (U1 ×V1 ) ∩ (U2 ×V2 ) ⇔ x ∈ U1 ∩U2 , y ∈ V1 ∩V2

⇔ x × y ∈ (U1 ∩U2 ) × (V1 ∩V2 ).

Figure 1.3:

Since U1 ∩U2 is open in X and V1 ∩V2 is open in Y (refer the Figure 1.3)
we get (U1 ∩U2 ) × (V1 ∩V2 ) ∈ B
That is (U1 ×V1 ) ∩ (U2 ×V2 ) ∈ B
Implies B is a basis for X ×Y .

Definition 1.3.2. [The product topology]


Let X and Y be topological spaces, the product topology on X ×Y is the topology
having basis as the collection of all sets of the form U ×V where U is open in X
and V is open in Y .

The next theorem characterizes the base for the product topology X ×Y using
the bases for X and Y .

Theorem 1.3.3. If B is a basis for a topology on X and C is a basis for a topology


on Y then D = {B ×C|B ∈ B,C ∈ C } is a basis for a topology on X ×Y .

Proof. Let W be an open set of X ×Y such that x × y ∈ W .


0 0
Then ∃U ×V ∈ B , such that x × y ∈ U ×V ⊂ W , where B is a basis for product

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 27


topology X ×Y . So we have x ∈ U and y ∈ V .
Since U is open in X and x ∈ U, ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U.
Similarly, ∃C ∈ C such that y ∈ C ⊂ V
Implies x × y ∈ B ×C ⊂ U ×V ⊂ W
That is x × y ∈ B ×C ⊂ W where B ×C ∈ D.
Therefore D is a basis for the product topology of X ×Y .

Example 1.3.4. The product of standard topology on R with itself is called the
standard topology on R2 . A basis for this product topology is given by
B = {(a, b) × (c, d)|a, b, c, d ∈ R}.

Definition 1.3.5. Let π1 : X ×Y → X defined by π1 (x, y) = x.


and π2 : X ×Y → Y defined by π2 (x, y) = y.
Then π1 is called a projection of X × Y onto X and π2 is called a projection of
X ×Y onto Y .

Remark 1.3.6. If U ⊂ X is open, then

π1−1 (U) = {(x, y)|π1−1 (x, y) ∈ U}

= {(x, y)|x ∈ U}

= U ×Y

Since U ×Y is open in X ×Y , π1−1 (U) is open in X ×Y .


Similarly, if V ⊂ Y is open, then π2−1 (V ) = X ×V is open in X ×Y .
Also π1−1 (U) ∩ π2−1 (V ) = U ×V
As U ×V open in X ×Y , π1−1 (U) ∩ π2−1 (V ) is open in X ×Y .

Theorem 1.3.7. The collection


S = {π1−1 (U)|U is open in X} ∪ {π1−1 (V )|V is open in Y }
is a subbasis for the product topology on X ×Y .

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 28


Proof. Let x × y ∈ X ×Y . Since X ×Y is open in the product topology, ∃U ×V ∈
B such that x × y ∈ U ×V ⊂ X ×Y .
Since x ∈ U, {x} ×Y ⊂ U ×Y = π1−1 (U)
Implies x × y ∈ {x} ×Y ⊂ π1−1 (U)
Therefore x × y ∈ π1−1 (U).
0
Let T be the product topology on X ×Y and T be the topology generated by S .
0
Since each element of S is open in the product topology, T ⊂ T .
Now let U ×V be a basis element for the product topology.

Figure 1.4:

As explained in the Remark 1.3.6, we have U ×V = π1−1 (U) ∩ π2−1 (V )


0 0
That is U ×V ∈ T implies T ⊂ T
0
Thus T = T .

Definition 1.3.8 (The subspace topology). Let T be a topology on X and Y be


a subset of X. Then the topology TY = {Y ∩ U|U is open in X} on Y is called a
subspace topology and with this TY we say that Y is a subspace of X.

We can construct the basis for the subspace topology Y using the base for the
topology X as shown in the next lemma.

Lemma 1.3.9. If B is a basis for a topology on X, then the collection


BY = {Y ∩ B|B ∈ B} is a basis for the topology TY on Y .

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Proof. Let U be an open set in Y such that x ∈ U.
Since U ∈ TY , we have U = Y ∩V for some open subset V of X.
This implies x ∈ V .
Since B is a basis for a topology on X there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ V
Then x ∈ B ∩Y ⊂ V ∩Y = U where B ∩Y ∈ BY
Hence BY is a basis for TY .

Remark 1.3.10. Every open set in a subspace topology need not be open in its
parent topology, for example if X = R with usual topology, then Y = [0, 1) is open
in the subspace topology Y , but not open in X. How ever there is a special case,
where every open set of Y is also open in X, which we prove in the following
lemma.

Lemma 1.3.11. Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in X,


then U is open in X.

Proof. Since U is open in Y, U = Y ∩V for some V open in X.


As Y is open in X, we get that U = Y ∩V is also open in X.

In the next theorem, we relate the subspace topology and the product topology.

Theorem 1.3.12. If A is a subspace of X and B is subspace of Y then the product


topology on A × B is the same as the topology on A × B inherits as a subspace of
X ×Y .

Proof. Let T be the product topology on A × B. Let (A × B) ∩ (U ×V ) be a basis


element in the subspace topology on A × B, where U is open in X and V is open
in Y .
But (A × B) ∩ (U ×V ) = (A ∩U) × (B ∩V ).
Since A ∩U is open in A and B ∩V is open in B, we get that
(A ∩U) × (B ∩V ) is open in the product topology on A × B.

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Implies TA×B ⊂ T
Let U ×V be a basis element in the product topology T on A × B.
Implies U is open in A and V is open in B.
0 0 0 0
Implies U = A ∩U and V = B ∩V where U is open in X and V is open in Y .
0 0 0 0
Therefore U ×V = (A ∩U ) × (B ∩V ) = (A × B) ∩ (U ×V ).
0 0
Since U ×V is open in X ×Y , we get U ×V is open in TA×B
Implies T ⊂ TA×B and hence T = TA×B .

Definition 1.3.13. Convex set


Let X be an order set and Y be a subset of X then Y is called convex subset of
X if given a, b ∈ Y with a < b the entire interval (a, b) of points of X should be
contained in Y .

Example 1.3.14. If X = R, then all the interval are convex.

Example 1.3.15. If X = R, then N is not convex as no interval is a subset of N.

Example 1.3.16. If X = R, then Y = [0, 1) ∪ {2} is not convex, because 0, 2 ∈ Y ,


but (0, 2) * Y .

The importance of convex sets is that, if a subset is convex, then the order
topology is same as the subspace topology. We prove this interesting result in the
following theorem.

Theorem 1.3.17. Let X be an ordered set in the order topology and Y be a convex
subset of X. Then the order topology on Y is same as the topology Y inherits as a
subspace of X.

Proof. Consider the ray (a, ∞) in X.


If a ∈ Y , then (a, ∞) ∩Y = {x|x ∈ Y and x > a}
which is an open ray in the order topology on Y .
If a ∈
/ Y , then a is either lower bound for Y or upper bound for Y as Y is a convex

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 31


subset of X.
(since, if ∃, x, y ∈ Y such that x < a < y, then as Y is convex, a ∈ (x, y) ⊂ Y )
If a is a lower bound then (a, ∞) ∩Y = Y .
If a is a upper bound then (−∞, a) ∩Y = 0.
/
Therefore (a, ∞) ∩Y is open in the order topology on Y .
Similarly, (−∞, a) ∩Y is also open in the order topology on Y .
As these sets (a, ∞) ∩Y and (−∞, a) ∩Y form a subbasis for the subspace topology
on Y , we get that subspace topology is contained in the order topology on Y .
Since any open ray of Y is equal to the intersection of the open ray of X with Y ,
so it is open in subspace topology.
As open rays of Y form a subbasis for the order topology on Y , the order topology
on Y is contained in the subspace topology.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Let T be a topology on X and Y ⊂ X. Then
TY = {Y ∩U|U is open in X} is a topology on Y .
/ X ∈ T , 0/ = Y ∩ 0/ ∈ TY and Y = Y ∩ X ∈ TY
Solution: Since 0,
Let Y ∩Uα ∈ TY , α ∈ Λ. Then
(Y ∩Uα ) = Y ∩ (
S S
Uα )
α∈Λ α∈ΛS
Since Uα ∈ T Implies Uα ∈ T
α∈Λ
Implies Y ∩ ( Uα ) ∈ TY
S

Sα∈Λ
Therefore (Y ∩Uα ) ∈ TY .
α∈Λ
Let Y ∩Ui ∈ TY , i = 1, 2, , ...n. Then
n n
(Y ∩Ui ) = Y ∩ ( Ui ) ∈ TY
T T
i=1 i=1
Hence TY is a topology on Y .
Problem 03-02: Let Y = [0, 1] be a subset of X = R. Then the subspace topology
is same as ordered topology.
Solution: The basis for subspace topology TY contains elements of the form

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 32


Y ∩ (a, b) where (a, b) is a basis element for the topology on X then

(a, b), if a, b ∈ Y ;






 [0,b), if a ∈

/ Y, b ∈ Y ;
Y ∩ (a, b) =


 (a,1], a ∈ Y, b ∈ / Y;


 0/ orY, if a ∈ / Y, b ∈

 / Y.

By definition of TY , each of these sets are open in Y .( Note that the sets [0, b) and
(a, 1] are not open in X)
Since the collection of these sets form a basis for order topology in the case of
Y = [0, 1] its subspace topology and order topology are same.
SELF TEST 01

MCQ 01-03-01: Let Y be a subspace of X.

(I) If U is open in Y , then U is open in X.

(II) If U is open in X, then U is open in Y . Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 01-03-02: Consider the set B = {U × V |U is open in X and V is open in


Y }.

(I) B is a basis for X ×Y .

(II) B is a topology on X ×Y . Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 33


(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 01-03-01: Let X be an ordered set. If Y is a proper subset of X that is convex
in X , does it follow that Y is an interval or a ray in X?
√ √
Solution: Not necessarily. For example, (− 2, 2) ∩ Q is a convex subset of
(Q, <) but it is not an interval in Q.
SAQ 01-03-02: Let X = R and Y = [0, 1) ∪ {2} ⊂ R. Then Y is a subspace topol-
ogy but not an order topology.
Solution: The set {2} is open in the subspace topology on Y as {2} = ( 23 , 52 ) ∩Y
and ( 32 , 52 ) is open in X.
But in the order topology on Y , {2} is not open, because any basis element con-
taining 2 is of the form {x|x ∈ Y a < x ≤ 2} for some a ∈ Y .
Clearly,(a, 2] is not a subset of {2}.
Thus Sub space topology on Y is different from the order topology on Y .
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learned the concepts of basis and sub basis for product and
sub space toplogies. We also learned open sets in the sub space topology.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that if Y is a subspace of X, and A is a subset of Y , then the topology


A inherits as a subspace of Y is the same as the topology it inherits as a
subspace of X.

2. Consider the set Y = [−1, 1] as a subspace of R. Which of the following

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 34


sets are open in Y ? Which are open in R?

1
A = {x | < |x| < 1}
2
1
B = {x | < |x| ≤ 1}
2
1
C = {x | ≤ |x| < 1}
2
1
D = {x | ≤ |x| ≤ 1}
2

3. Show that the countable collection


{(a, b) × (c, d) | a < b and c < d, a, b, c, d ∈ Q} is a basis for R2 .

0 0
4. If T and T are topologies on X and T is strictly fine than T , then what
can you say about the corresponding subspace topologies on the subset Y of
X?

5. Let f : X → Y be such that f (U) is open in Y for all open U in X. Show that
the projection map π1 : X ×Y → X is one such f .

6. Let X be an ordered set. if Y is a proper subset of X that is convex in X,


does it follow that Y is an interval or a ray in X?

KEY WORDS
Product topology, projections, subspace topology, convex.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 35


MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 36


UNIT 01-04: LIMIT POINTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Understand the concept of closed set and provide examples

 Calculate limit points of a given set

 Construct examples of Hausdorff space

INTRODUCTION
With the help of open sets, we can introduce some of the basic concepts of a
topological space. In this unit we discuss the notion of closed set, closure of a set
and limit point. We also introduce the Hausdorff space and discuss the closed sets
of the Hausdorff space.

Definition 1.4.1. Closed Set


A subset A of a topological space X is said to be closed if X − A (i.e., Ac ) is open
in X.

Example 1.4.2. The subset [a, b] of R is closed as [a, b]c = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞) is
open in R.

Example 1.4.3. In the plane R2 the set A = {x × y|x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0} is closed.

Proof. The complement of A is given by

R2 \ A = {x × y|x < 0 or y < 0}


[
= {x × y|x < 0 y ∈ R} {x × y|x ∈ R, y < 0}
[
= ((−∞, 0) × R) (R × (−∞, 0))

Since (−∞, 0) × R and R × (−∞, 0) are open in R2 , we get R2 \ A is open.


Implies A is closed.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 37


Example 1.4.4. In the finite complement topology on X, the closed sets are finite
subsets and X itself.

Proof. Let A be a closed set.


Implies Ac is open in X.
Implies X − Ac is finite or Ac = 0.
/
Implies A is finite or A = X.

Example 1.4.5. In the discrete topology on X, each set A is closed because every
subset of X is open implies X − A is open.

Example 1.4.6. Let X = R, Y = [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3]. Then [0, 1] is both open and closed
in Y .

Proof. we can write [0, 1] as [0, 1] = (− 21 , 32 ) ∩Y .


(− 12 , 32 ) is open X implies [0, 1] is open in Y .
Also Y − [0, 1] = [2, 3] and [2, 3] is open implies that [0, 1] is closed.
Therefore, [0, 1] is both open and closed in Y .

Remark 1.4.7. From the above examples, we can observe that sets are not doors
as a door must be either open or closed, where as a set can be open, or closed, or
both, or neither.

The collection of closed sets have the properties similar to open sets as we
discuss in the next result.

Theorem 1.4.8. Let X be a topological space then following holds:

1. 0,
/ X are closed.

2. Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.

3. Finite union of closed sets is closed.

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Proof. 0/ and X are closed because they are complements of open sets X and 0/
respectively.
Given a collection of closed sets {Aα }α∈J , by Demorgan laws, we have
X− (X − Aα ).
T S
Aα =
α∈J α∈J
Since the sets X − Aα are open, their arbitrary union (X − Aα ) is open.
S
α∈J
Implies X −
T
Aα is open.
T α∈J
Thus Aα is closed.
α∈J
If Ai is a closed for i = 1, 2, ..n, then
n n
X− (X − Ai )
S T
Ai =
i=1 i=1
n
(X − Ai ) is open.
T
As the finite intersection of open sets is open, we have
i=1
n
T
Hence Ai is closed.
i=1

Definition 1.4.9. Let Y be subspace of X. A subspace A of Y is said to be closed


if Y − A is open in Y .

Theorem 1.4.10. Let Y be a subspace of X. Then a set A is closed in Y if and only


if it equals the intersection of a closed set of X with Y .

Proof. Suppose A is closed in Y.


Implies Y − A is open in Y.
So Y − A = U ∩Y for some open subset U of X.
Then A = U c ∩Y (See the Figure 1.5)
Hence A = C ∩Y where C = U c is closed in X

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Figure 1.5:

Conversely, suppose A = C ∩Y for some closed set C in X.


Implies X −C is open in X.
So Y ∩ (X −C) is open in Y .
But Y − A = Y ∩ (X −C) (refer the Figure 1.5)
Implies Y − A is open in Y and thus A is closed in Y .

Remark 1.4.11. A closed subset of Y need not be closed in X.


For example, consider Y = [0, 12 ) and X = R then [0, 21 ) is closed in Y but not
closed in R. However, we have the following.

Theorem 1.4.12. Let Y be a subspace of X. If A is closed in Y and Y is closed in


X, then A is closed in X.

Proof. Given that A is closed in Y.


Implies A = C ∩Y,C is closed in X.
As Y is closed in X, we get C ∩Y is closed in X.
Implies A is closed in X.

Definition 1.4.13. Interior of a set


Let X be a topological space and A ⊂ X. Then the interior of A is the union of all
open sets contained in A and is denoted by IntA( or A◦ )
i.e. Int A = {U is open in X|U ⊂ A}.
S

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Remark 1.4.14. 1. Int A ⊂ A as each U ⊂ A

2. Int A is the largest open set contained in A as Int A is the union of all such
sets.

3. If A is open then Int A = A as A is the largest set such that A ⊂ A.

Definition 1.4.15. Closure of a Set


Let X be a topological space and A ⊂ X. Then closure of A is the intersection of
all closed sets containing A and is denoted by Ā.
i.e. Ā = ∩{F is closed in X|F ⊃ A}.

Remark 1.4.16. 1. Since each F ⊃ A, we have Ā ⊃ A.

2. Also Ā is the smallest closed set containing A.

3. If A is closed, then Ā = A.

Theorem 1.4.17. Let Y be a subspace of X and A be a subset of Y . Let Ā denote


the closure of A in X. Then the closure of A in Y is Ā ∩Y .

Proof. Let B be the closure of A in Y .


Since Ā is closed in X, we have Ā ∩Y is closed in Y .
Also A ⊂ Ā∩Y . Since B is the smallest closed sets containing A. We get B ⊂ Ā∩Y .
As B is closed in Y , we have B = C ∩Y for some closed set C in X.
Since A ⊂ B, we get A ⊂ C.
As Ā is the smallest closed set in X containing A, we get Ā ⊂ C
Implies Ā ∩Y ⊂ C ∩Y = Band hence B = Ā ∩Y .

Theorem 1.4.18. Let A be a subset of the topological space X. Then

(i) x ∈ Ā if and only if every open set U containing x intersects A

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(ii) Suppose the topology X is given by a basis B, then x ∈ Ā if and only if every
basis element B ∈ B containing x intersects A.

Proof. (i): We prove x ∈


/ Ā iff ∃ open set U containing x such that U ∩ A = 0.
/
Let x ∈
/ Ā. Then x ∈ X − Ā and X − Ā is open.
By taking U = X − Ā, we get x ∈ U and U ∩ A = 0.
/
Conversely, suppose U is an open set containing x such that U ∩ A = 0/
Then A ⊂ X −U.
Since X −U is a closed set containing A and Ā is the smallest closed set containing
A, we get Ā ⊂ X −U. Thus x ∈
/ Ā.
(ii): Suppose x ∈ Ā and B is a basis element with x ∈ B.
As B is open, by (i), we get B ∩ A 6= 0.
/
Conversely, suppose that B ∩ A 6= 0/ with x ∈ B.
Let U be an open set such that x ∈ U. Then there exists a basis element B such
that x ∈ B ⊂ U
Implies A ∩U 6= 0and
/ hencex ∈ Ā.

Remark 1.4.19. An open set U of X containing x is called a neighbourhood of x.


With this terminology, the first part of the above theorem can be stated as x ∈ Ā iff
A intersects every neighbourhood of X.

Example 1.4.20. If X = R A = (0, 1], then Ā = [0, 1].

Proof. Since every neighborhood of 0 intersects A, we get 0 ∈ Ā


If x < 0, then (−∞, 0) is a neighborhood of x which doesn’t intersect A.
Similarly, x > 1, then (1, ∞) is a neighborhood of x which doesn’t intersect A.
Hence Ā = [0, 1].

Example 1.4.21. X = R and C = {0} ∪ (1, 2). Then C̄ = {0} ∪ [1, 2].

Example 1.4.22. Consider the subspace Y = (0, 1] of R and A = (0, 12 ). Then


Ā = (0, 12 ] in Y .

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Definition 1.4.23. Limit Point
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then a point x ∈ X is called a limit
point of A if U ∩ (A \ {x}) 6= 0/ for all open sets U containing x.
(i.e. every neighborhood of x intersects some point of A other than x itself.)
The set of all limit points of A is denoted by A0 .

Example 1.4.24. 1. If A = (0, 1], then 0 is a limit point of A and also every
0
element of A is a limit point. Thus A = [0, 1].

0
2. If B = { n1 |n ∈ Z+ }, then B = {0} as zero is the only limit point of B.

0
3. If C = {0} ∪ (1, 2), then C = [1, 2].

We give the relationship between the closure of a set and limit points of that
set in the following theorem.

0
Theorem 1.4.25. Let A be subset of the topological space X and A be the set of
0
all limit points of A. Then Ā = A ∪ A .

Proof. Let x ∈ Ā.


0
If x ∈ A then x ∈ A ∪ A .
Suppose x ∈
/ A. Then A \ {x} = A.
As x ∈ A, we get U ∩ A 6= 0/ for all open sets U containing x.
That is U ∩ A \ {x} 6= 0/ for all open sets U containing x.
0
Thus, x is a limit point of A and thus x ∈ A ∪ A
0
Therefore Ā ⊂ A ∪ A .
0
Now conversely, let x ∈ A .
Then U ∩ A \ {x} 6= 0/ for all open sets U containing x
Implies U ∩ A 6= 0/ for all open sets U containing x.
Thus x ∈ A

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0 0
Therefore A ⊂ A implies A ∪ A ⊂ A
0
Hence A = A ∪ A .

Corollary 1.4.26. A subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it con-


tains all its limit points.

Proof.

A is closed if and only A=A


0
if and only A ∪ A = A

if and only A0 ⊂ A

if and only A contains all its limit points.

Definition 1.4.27. Hausdorff Space


A topological space X is called a Hausdorff space if for each pair x1 , x2 of distinct
points of X, there exist neighborhoods U1 and U2 of x1 and x2 respectively that are
disjoint.

Example 1.4.28. R with standard topology is Hausdorff.

Proof. Let a, b ∈ R with a < b.


Then there exists a rational number r ∈ Q such that a < r < b.
By taking U1 = (−∞, r) and U2 = (r, ∞), we get that a ∈ U1 and b ∈ U2 such that
U1 ∩U2 = 0.
/

Example 1.4.29. Any non empty space X with indiscrete topology is not Haus-
dorff.

Proof. Let T = {0,


/ X} be the topology.
Let x, y ∈ X with x 6= y.

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As there is only one non empty set X, we cannot separate these two points with
two disjoint open sets. Hence X is not Hausdorff.

Example 1.4.30. Let X = R with given topology T = {(−n, n) | n ∈ Z}. Then X


is not Hausdorff.

Proof. Consider 0, 21 ∈ R.
As 0, 12 ∈ (−n, n) for each n, we can’t have two disjoint open sets U and V such
1
that 0 ∈ U and 2 ∈ V.
Hence X is not Hausdorff.

Theorem 1.4.31. Let X be a space in which every finite set is closed and A ⊂ X.
Then the point x is a limit point of A if and only if every neighbourhood of x
contains infinitely many points of A.

Proof. Clearly, if every neighbourhood U of x contains infinitely many points of


A, then U ∩ A \ {x} 6= 0/
Implies x is a limit point of A.
Suppose there exists a neighbourhood U of x which contains only finitely many
points of A.
Then U also intersects A \ {x} at finitely many points say at x1 , x2 , ..., xm .
i.e, U ∩ (A \ {x}) = {x1 , x2 , ..., xm }.
As finite set is closed, we get V = X \ {x1 , x2 , ..., xm } is open.
Then W = U ∩V is also open containing x.
But W ∩ (A \ {x}) = 0,
/ which is a contradiction to x is a limit point.
Thus every neighbourhood of x contains infinitely many points of A.

Definition 1.4.32. Let X be a topological space then a sequence (xn ) in X is said


to be convergence to x ∈ X if for every neighbourhood U of x ∃ N ∈ N such that
xn ∈ U ∀ n ≥ N.

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Remark 1.4.33. 1. In a topological space, a sequence may converge to more
than one point.

2. In (N,finite complement topology,) the sequence 1, 2, , 3, ... converges to ev-


ery n ∈ N as if U is open with n ∈ U, then U contains all but finitely many
elements of the sequence because X −U is finite.

Theorem 1.4.34. If X is a Hausdorff space, then a sequence (xn ) of points of X


converges to at most one point of X.

Proof. Suppose xn is a sequence which converges to x ∈ X and y ∈ X where y 6= x.


Since X is Hausdorff and x 6= y ∃U and V open sets such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V and
U ∩V = 0.
/ Since xn converges to x and U is a neighbourhood of x.. xn ∈ U for all
but finitely many.
⇒ only finitely many elements of (xn ) are outside U.
Also xn converges to y implies V contains all xn ’s but finitely many which is a
contradiction.
Thus, xn converges to at most one point.

Remark 1.4.35. If a sequence xn converges in a Hausdorff space, then it converges


to only one point, say x, and this x is called the limit of xn , denoted by xn → x.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: If X = R, then Q̄ = R.
Solution: Let x ∈ R and B = (a, b) be a basis element with x ∈ (a, b).
Since a, b ∈ R, there exists c ∈ Q such that a < c < b.
Thus B ∩ Q 6= 0.
/
Therefore Q̄ = R.
Problem 04-02: Every finite set in Hausdorff space is closed.
Solution: Since every finite set is the finite union of singletons, it is enough to

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 46


prove that each singleton set is closed.
Let A = {x0 } and x ∈ X with x 6= x0 .
Since X is Hausdorff, there exists disjoint open sets U and V containing x and x0
respectively.
In particular, U ∩ {x0 } = 0/
Then U ∩ A = 0/ and x ∈ U implies x ∈
/ Ā
Therefore, Ā = {x0 } = A which means A is closed.
SELF TEST 01

MCQ 01-04-01: Consider the following statements

(I) In the finite complement topology on a set X, every finite set is closed.

(II) In the discrete topology on a set X, every finite set is closed. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 01-04-02: Let X be a topological space.

(I) Arbitrary intersection of open sets is open.

(II) Arbitrary union of closed sets is closed. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

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MCQ 01-04-03: Consider the following

(I) If X is Hausdorff space, then every singleton set is closed.

(II) If every singleton set in X is closed, then X is Hausdorff. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 01-04-01: R with finite complement topology is not Hausdorff.
Solution: Let x, y ∈ R with x 6= y.
Suppose there exist open sets U and V such that x ∈ U; y ∈ V such that U ∩V = 0/
Then U ⊂ V c .
As V is open, V c is finite and so U is finite.
Also as U is open, U c is finite, then U ∪U c = R is finite, which is a contradiction.
Therefore, R with finite complement topology is not Hausdorff.
SAQ 01-04-02: If X = R A = { 1n , n ∈ Z+ }, then Ā = A ∪ {0}.
Solution: Let B = (a, b) be a basis element with 0 ∈ (a, b).
1
Then by Archimedean property, there exists n such that a < n <b
Implies B intersects A.
Also if a > 1, then (1, ∞) is a neighborhood of a which doesn’t intersect A.
And if 0 < a < 1, then a ∈ (1/m, 1/n) for some m, n ∈ N.
Then (a − α, a + α) is a neighborhood of a which doesn’t intersect A,
where α = 12 min{1/m, 1/n}. Hence Ā = A ∪ {0}.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned the concepts of closed sets and their properties.

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We discussed the relation of closed sets among the space and its subspace. We
have also defined limit points and Hausdorff spaces.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that every order topology is Hausdorff.

2. In the finite complement topology on R, to what point or points does the


sequence xn = 1/n converge?

3. Show the T 1 axiom is equivalent to the condition that for each pair of points
of X, each has a neighborhood not containing the other.

4. Show that if A is closed in X and B is closed in Y , then A × B is closed in


X ×Y .

5. Show that if U is open in X and A is closed in X, then U \ A is open in X


and A \U is closed in X.

6. Find the closure of the set A = {(1/n) × 0 | nZ+ }.

KEY WORDS
Closed sets, limit points, convergence, Hausdorff spaces.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA

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OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 50


CREDIT 02

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UNIT 02-01: CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Define continuity of a function on a set X in terms of open sets of X and


give different examples

 Identify which topological spaces are homeomorphic

 Apply pasting lemma to show continuity of functions

INTRODUCTION
We have seen the concept of continuity on real line and in the plane. In this
section, we define the continuous function which generalizes all these existing
definitions. We also learn homeomorphism between two topological spaces.

Definition 2.1.1. Continuity


Let X and Y be topological spaces. Then f : X → Y is continuous if for each open
set V in Y , f −1 (V ) is open in X.

Example 2.1.2. If X is discrete topology, then every function f : X → Y is con-


tinuous, because every subset of X is open and hence is f −1 (V ).

Example 2.1.3. If Y is indiscrete topology, then any function f : X → Y is con-


tinuous.

Proof. Since Y is indiscrete, the only open sets are 0/ and Y .


Also f −1 (0)
/ = 0/ and f −1 (Y ) = X, which are open in X.
Hence f : X → Y is continuous.

Theorem 2.1.4. Let X and Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y . Then the


following are equivalent

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1. f is continuous.

2. For every subset A of X, f (A) ⊂ f (A).

3. For every closed set B in Y, f −1 (B) is closed in X.

4. For every x ∈ X and every neighbourhood V of f (x), there exists a neigh-


bourhood U of x such that f (U) ⊂ V .

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2) Suppose f is continuous.


Let A ⊂ X and x ∈ Ā.
To show that f (x) ∈ f (A), let V be a neighbourhood of f (x).
Since f is continuous, f −1 (V ) is open in X.
Also x ∈ f −1 (V ) implies f −1 (V ) ∩ A 6= 0.
/
Let y ∈ f −1 (V ) ∩ A. Then f (y) ∈ V and f (y) ∈ f (A)
Implies f (y) ∈ V ∩ f (A) and thus V ∩ f (A) 6= 0/
Therefore f (x) ∈ f (A) and hence f (Ā) ⊂ f (A).

(2) ⇒ (3) Let A = f −1 (B). Then f (A) = f ( f −1 (B)) ⊂ B


This implies f (A) ⊂ B = B.
Since A ⊂ X, we have f (Ā) ⊂ f (A) = B
Implies Ā ⊂ f −1 f (Ā) ⊂ f −1 (B) = A
Implies Ā ⊂ A and thus A = f −1 (B) is closed.

(3) ⇒ (4) Let x ∈ X and V be an open set in Y such that f (x) ∈ V .


Then Y −V is closed in Y and hence f −1 (Y −V ) is closed in X.
Implies X − f −1 (V ) is closed in X.
⇒ f −1 (V ) is open in X.
So, by letting U = f −1 (V ), we have
x ∈ f −1 (V ) = U and f (U) = f ◦ f −1 (V ) ⊂ V implies f (U) ⊂ V .

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(4) ⇒ (1) Let V be an open set in Y and A = f −1 (V ).
To show A is open in X, let x ∈ A. Then f (x) ∈ V .
So there exists an open set U containing x such that f (U) ⊂ V
Which implies U ⊂ f −1 (V ) = A and x ∈ U ⊂ A
Therefore A = f −1 (V ) is open in X and hence f is continuous.

As discussed in the introduction, we now show that continuity in real case is a


special case of our definition.

Theorem 2.1.5. If f : R → R is continuous by means of topological spaces i.e.


f −1 (U) is open for all open set U then f is continuous by ε − δ definition i.e.
given x0 ∈ R and ε > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that |x − x0 | < δ implies | f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε.

Proof. Let x0 ∈ R and ε > 0. Then V = ( f (x0 ) − ε, f (x0 ) + ε) is open in R.


As f is continuous, f −1 (V ) is open.
Since x0 ∈ f −1 (V ), for two real numbers a and b, we have x0 ∈ (a, b) ⊂ f −1 (V )
Now take δ = min{x0 − a, b − x0 }.
Let x ∈ R be such that |x − x0 | ∈ δ .
Then x ∈ (x0 − δ , x0 + δ ) ⊂ (a, b)
Implies x ∈ (a, b) ⊂ f −1 (V )
⇒ f (x) ∈ V = ( f (x0 ) − ε, f (x0 ) + ε)
⇒ | f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε
Therefore f continuous by ε − δ definition.

Definition 2.1.6. Homeomorphism


Let X and Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y be a bijective map. Then f is
called a homeomorphism if f and f −1 are continuous and in this case X and Y are
said to be homeomorphic.

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Lemma 2.1.7. f : X → Y is a homeomorphism ⇔ f (U) is open in Y if and only
if U is open in X.

Proof. To show f : X → Y is continuous, let U be open in Y .


Implies U = f ( f −1 (U)) is open in Y
Implies f −1 (U) is open in X.
Therefore f is continuous.
To show f −1 : Y → X is continuous, let U be open in X.
Implies f (U) is open in Y.
⇒ ( f −1 )−1 (U) = f (U) is open in Y .
Thus f −1 is continuous.
On the other hand assume that f is a homeomorphism. Then f and f −1 are con-
tinuous.
Suppose f (U) is open in Y . As f : X → Y is continuous, we get f −1 ( f (U)) is
open in X. Implies U is open in X.
Now if U is open in X, as f −1 : Y → X is continuous, we have ( f −1 )−1 (U) is open
in Y which implies f (U) is open in Y .

Example 2.1.8. The map f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 1 is a homeomor-


phism.

Proof. Clearly f is bijective and continuous.


y−1
Also f −1 (x) = 3 is continuous.
Hence f is a homeomorphism.

The next few results are about construction of continuous from one topological
space to another.

Theorem 2.1.9. If f : X → Y maps all of X into single point y0 ∈ Y , then f is


continuous.

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/ if y0 ∈

−1
 0, / U;
Proof. Let U be an open set in Y . Then f (U) =
 X, if y0 ∈ U.

As 0/ and X are open in X, we get that f −1 (U) is open in X.


Therefore, f is continuous.

Theorem 2.1.10. If A is a subspace of X then the inclusion function i : A → X is


continuous.

Proof. If U is open in X, then i−1 (U) = A ∩U.


Since A ∩U is open in A we have i−1 (U) is open in A.
Therefore i is continuous.

Theorem 2.1.11. If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are continuous, then g ◦ f : X → Z


is continuous.

Proof. Let g ◦ f : X → Z and U is open in Z.


Implies g−1 (U) is open in Y.
⇒ f −1 (g−1 (U)) = (g ◦ f )−1 (U) is open in X.
Thus g ◦ f is continuous.

Theorem 2.1.12. If f : X → Y is continuous and A is a subspace of X, then the


restriction map f |A : A → Y is continuous.

Proof. We can observe that f |A = f ◦ i where i is the inclusion map.


As f and i are continuous, there composition f |A = f ◦ i is also continuous.

We now prove interesting result of continuity, called pasting lemma, which


roughly states that under some conditions, two continuous functions pasted(glued)
together gives another continuous function.

Lemma 2.1.13. The pasting Lemma


Let X = A ∪ B where A and B are closed in X. Let f : A → Y and g : B → Y be

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continuous. If f (x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ A ∩ B,then f and g combine to give a continuous

 f (x) x ∈ A

function h : X → Y defined by h(x) =
g(x) x ∈ B.

Proof. Since f (x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ A ∩ B, h is well defined.


To show h : X → Y is continuous, let C be closed in Y .
Then h−1 (C) = f −1 (C) ∪ g−1 (C) is closed as f −1 (C) is closed in A and hence in
X; similarly g−1 (C) is closed in X.
Therefore, h : X → Y is continuous.

Remark 2.1.14. This result is also true if A and B are open sets such that X =
A ∪ B.

 x, x ≤ 0;

Example 2.1.15. The function h : R → R defined by h(x) =
 2x , x ≥ 0.

is continuous.

Proof. Take A = (−∞, 0] and B = [0, ∞).


Define f : A → R by f (x) = x and
g : B → R by g(x) = 2x .
Then f and g are continuous.
Here A ∩ B
= {0} and f (0) = 0 = g(0).
 f (x), x ∈ A;

As h(x) =
 g(x), x ∈ B.

by pasting lemma, h is continuous.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: A function f : X → Y is continuous if f −1 (B) is open for every
basis element B ∈ B.
Solution: Let V be open in Y .

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Since B is a basis for Y , we can write V = ∪α∈I Bα
Implies f −1 (V ) = f −1 (∪α∈I Bα ) = ∪α∈I f −1 (Bα ).
If f −1 (Bα ) is open ∀ Bα ∈ B then ∪α∈I f −1 (Bα ) is also open in X
Implies f −1 (V ) is open in X.
Therefore f is continuous.
x
Problem 01-02: The function f : (−1, 1) → R defined by f (x) = 1−x2
is a home-
omorphism.
Solution: Clearly f is continuous.
To show f is one one, let f (x) = f (y)
Then x − y = xy(y − x)
As xy 6= −1, we get x = y.
To show f onto, let 06= y ∈ R.

−1+ 1+4y2
Then f 2y =y
Also f (0) = 0.
Hence f is onto.

2
 −1+ 1+4y

y 6= 0

2y
Also f −1 (y) = .
0 y=0

Then f −1 (y) is continuous and hence f is a homeomorphism.


SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 02-01-01 Let X and Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y .

(I) If f is continuous, then f (A) ⊂ f (A), for every subset A of X.

(II) If for every subset A of X, f (A) ⊂ f (A), then f is continuous. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

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(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 02-01-02 Let X and Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y .

(I) If X has discrete topology, then f is continuous.

(II) If Y has indiscrete topology, then f is continuous. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 02-01-03 Let R denotes the set of all real numbers in its usual topology
and Rl denotes same set in the topology generated by all intervals of the
form [a, b). Let f : R → Rl be defined by f (x) = x for every real number x.
Then which of the following statements is true?

A. f is not continuous

B. f is continuous

C. f is a homeomorphism

D. f −1 is not continuous

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 02-01-01: Prove that for function f : R → R, the ε − δ definition of conti-
nuity implies the open set definition.
Solution: Let V ⊂ R be open and f be continuous according to the ε − δ defini-
tion.
To show, f −1 (V ) open, let x ∈ f −1 (V ).
Then f (x) = y ∈ V and hence there exists δ > 0 such that (y − δ , y + δ ) ⊂ V .

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Further, there is ε > 0 such that f ((xε, x + ε)) ⊂ (y − δ , y + δ ).
Implies (xε, x + ε) ⊂ f −1 (V ).
Therefore, f −1 (V ) is open.
SAQ 02-01-02: The function f : Rl → R given by f (x) = x is not a homeomor-
phism.
Solution: Here f −1 : R → Rl is not continuous, because [1, 2) is open in Rl , where
as the inverse image of [1, 2) is [1, 2) which is not open in R.
Hence f is not a homeomorphism.
SAQ 02-01-03: Let Y be an ordered set in the order topology. Let f , g : X → Y be
continuous. Then show that the set {x | f (x) ≤ g(x)} is closed in X.
Solution: Recall that Y under the order topology is Hausdorff.
Ac = {x | g(x) < f (x)}.
It is possible that there exists y such that g(x) < y < f (x) or there is no y between
f (x) and g(x). Hence we can write Ac as
   
Ac = ∪y∈Y {x | g(x) < y < f (x)} ∪ ∪y<y0 {x | g(x) < y0 and y < f (x)}
where there is no element between y and y0 .
The set {x | g(x) < y < f (x)} = f −1 (y, ∞) ∩ g−1 (−∞, y) is open.
Similarly the other sets are open.
Hence Ac is open as it is the union of all such sets.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned the concepts of continuity with examples. We have
discussed several equivalent versions of continuity. We also studied the homeo-
morphism concept and the pasting lemma.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Suppose that f : X → Y is continuous. If x is a limit point of the subset of A


of X, is it necessary true that f (x) is a limit point of f (A)?

2. Show that the subspace (a, b) of R is homeomorphic with (0, 1) and the

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subspace [a, b] of R is homeomorphic with [0, 1]

3. Find a function f : R → R that is continuous at precisely one point.

4. Show that f : X → Y is a homeomorphism whenever U is open in X ⇔ f (U)


is open in Y .

5. Suppose that f : R → R is right continuous for each a ∈ R. Show that f is


continuous when considered as a function from Rl to R.

6. Let Y be an ordered set in the order topology. Let f , g : X → Y be continu-


ous. Let h(x) = min{ f (x), g(x)}. Show that h is continuous.

KEY WORDS
Open set, Continuity, homeomorphism, Pasting lemma.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 61


UNIT 02-02: QUOTIENT SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Identify which maps are quotient maps

 Construct quotient topology

 Establish continuous functions on quotient space

INTRODUCTION
Quotient topology does not come naturally from analysis as a generalization. Quo-
tient topology can be understood some times by cut and paste techniques, for ex-
ample, torus can be constructed by considering a rectangle and pasting its edges
together. In this section, we will learn quotient map, open and closed maps, con-
struction of quotient topology.

Definition 2.2.1. Let X and Y be topological spaces; let p : X → Y be a surjective


map. The map p is said to be a quotient map if a subset U of Y is open in Y if
and only if p−1 (U) is open in X.

Remark 2.2.2. We can observe that quotient map is stronger than continuity; and
some times it is called as strong continuity. The definition can also be stated
interms of closed sets because B is closed iff Y \ B is open iff f −1 (Y \ B) is open
in X iff X \ f −1 (B) is open iff f −1 (B) is closed.

Definition 2.2.3. A subset C of X is saturated with respect to the surjective map


p : X → Y , if C contains every set p−1 ({y}) that it intersects. Thus C is saturated
if it equals the complete inverse image of a subset of Y .

Remark 2.2.4. A map p is quotient is equivalent to saying that p is continuous


and p maps saturated open sets of X to open sets of Y .

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We now define two special kinds of quotients maps: open maps and closed
maps.

Definition 2.2.5 (Open map). A map f : X → Y is said to be an open map if for


each open set U of X, the set f (U) is open in Y .

Definition 2.2.6 (Closed map). A map f : X → Y is said to be closed map if for


each closed set A of X, the set f (A) is closed in Y .

Example 2.2.7. Let p : X → Y be surjective, continuous and an open map. Then


p is a quotient map.

Proof. If U is open in X, then p(U) is open in Y as p is a open map.


Suppose U ⊂ X such that V = p(U) is open in Y .
As p is continuous, we get p−1 (V ) is open in X.
But p is surjective,implies p−1 (V ) = p−1 (p(U)) = U.
Hence U is open in X implies p is a quotient map.

We will now see that not every quotient map is open map.

Example 2.2.8. Let X be the subspace [0, 1]∪[2, 3] of R, and let Y be the subspace
p : X → Y defined by
[0, 2] of R. Consider the map 
x ∈ [0, 1];

 x,
p(x) =
 x − 1, x ∈ [2, 3].

Then p is surjective, continuous and closed and hence it is a quotient map.
Where as it is not an open map, because [0, 1] is open in X, but p([0, 1]) = [0, 1] is
not open in Y .

Lemma 2.2.9. Let X be a space and A be a set. Suppose p : X → A is a surjective


map. Then the collection T = {U ⊂ A | p−1 (U) is open in X} is a topology on A.

/ and X = p−1 (A), we get that 0/ and A belongs to T


Proof. Since 0/ = p−1 (0)

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!
Also p−1 p−1 (Uα ) is open,
S S
Uα =
α∈J α∈J
!
n n
and p−1 p−1 (Ui ) is open.
T T
Ui =
i=1 i=1
Hence T is topology on A.
In addition, if p is a quotient map, then T is unique, because addition or deletion
of subsets of A makes p non quotient map.

The above defined topology is called the quotient topology as we define:

Definition 2.2.10. If X is a space and A is a set and if p : X → A is a surjective map,


then there exists exactly one topology T on A relative to which p is a quotient
map; it is called the quotient topology induced by p.

Example 2.2.11. Let p be the map of the real line R onto the three-point set
A = {a,
b, c} defined by
a, if x > 0;





p(x) = b, if x < 0;



 c, if x = 0.

Then the quotient topology on A induced by p is given by
T = {0,
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.

Proof. Since p−1 (0) / p−1 (A) = R, p−1 ({a}) = (0, ∞), p−1 ({b}) = (−∞, 0)
/ = 0,
and p−1 ({a, b}) = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) are open in R, we get that
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} ⊂ T
{0,
Also as p−1 ({c}) = {0}, p−1 ({a, c}) = [0, ∞) , p−1 ({b, c}) = (−∞, b] are not
open in R, these sets doesn’t belongs to T
Therefore, T = {0,
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} is the quotient topology on A = {a, b, c}.

Definition 2.2.12. Let X be a topological space, and let X ∗ be a partition of X


into disjoint subsets whose union is X. Let p : X → X ∗ be the surjective map that

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carries each point of X to the element of X ∗ containing it. In the quotient topology
induced by p, the space X ∗ is called a quotient space of X.

Theorem 2.2.13. Let p : X → Y be a quotient map. Let Z be a space and let


g : X → Z be a map that is constant on each set p−1 ({y}), for y ∈ Y . Then g
induces a map f : Y → Z such that f ◦ p = g. The induced map f is continuous if
and only if g is continuous; f is a quotient map if and only if g is a quotient map.

Proof. For each y ∈ Y, the set g(p−1 ({y})) is constant in Z, say g(p−1 ({y})) =
f (y)
That is we have defined a map f : Y → Z such that for each x ∈ X, f (p(x)) = g(x).
If f is continuous, then g = f ◦ p is continuous.
Conversely, suppose g is continuous and V be an open set in Z
Then g−1 (V ) is open in X.
As g−1 (V ) = ( f ◦ p)−1 (V ) = p−1 ( f −1 (V )) and p is a quotient map, we get f −1 (V )
is open in Y . Hence f is continuous.
If f is a quotient map, then g being the composite of two quotient maps is a
quotient map.
Conversely, suppose that g is a quotient map.
As g is surjective, so is f .
Let V be a subset of Z; we show that V is open in Z if f −1 (V ) is open in Y .
Now the set p−1 ( f −1 (V )) is open in X because p is continuous.
That is g−1 (V ) is open in X.
Since g is a quotient map, V is open in Z.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: Let π1 : R × R → R be projection onto the first coordinate. Then
π1 is an open map but not a closed map.
Solution: Clearly π1 is continuous and surjective.

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To show π1 open, let U ×V be a nonempty basis element for R × R.
Then π1 (U ×V ) = U is open in R and hence π1 is an open map.
But π1 is not a closed map, as the set C = {x × y | xy = 1} is closed in R × R, where
as π1 (C) = R − {0} is not closed in R.
Problem 02-02: Let g : X → Z be a surjective continuous map. Let X ∗ be the
following collection of subsets of X:
X ∗ = {g−1 ({z}) | z ∈ Z}. Give X ∗ the quotient topology. Then
(a) The map g induces a bijective continuous map f : X ∗ → Z such that f ◦ p = g,
is a homeomorphism if and only if g is a quotient map.
(b) If Z is Hausdorff, so is X ∗ .
Solution: By Theorem 2.2.13, g induces a continuous map f : X ∗ → Z; it is clear
that f is bijective.
Suppose that f is a homeomorphism.
Then both f and the projection map p : X → X ∗ are quotient maps, so that their
composite q is a quotient map.
Conversely, suppose that g is a quotient map. Then, by the preceding theorem, f
is a quotient map and thus f is a homeomorphism.
Now suppose Z is Hausdorff and let x, y ∈ X ∗ such that x 6= y.
As f is bijective, f (x) 6= f (y).
As Z is Hausdorff, there exists disjoint neighborhoods U and V of f (x) and f (y),
respectively.
Then f −1 (U) and f −1 (V ) are disjoint neighborhoods of x and y, respectively.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 02-02-01 Let X and Y be topological spaces and P : X → Y be a surjective


map. Which of the following statements is true?

A. If P is quotient map then P is an open map.

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B. If P is an open map then P is quotient map.

C. If P is quotient map then P is a closed map.

D. If P is continuous then P is quotient map.

MCQ 02-02-02 Consider the statements

(I) Restriction of a quotient map to each subspace is again a quotient map

(II) Restriction of a quotient map to each open subspace is again a quotient


map. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 02-02-01: Let p : X → Y be a continuous map. If there is a continuous map
f : Y → X such that p ◦ f equals the identity map of Y , then p is a quotient map.
Solution: It is same as proving : if a continuous function has a continuous right
inverse, then it is a quotient map.
Suppose p has a right inverse, then it is surjective.
Also p is continuous, it is enough to show that it maps open saturated sets to open
sets.
Let A = p−1 (B) be open in X.
Then, f 1 (A) = f 1 (p1 (B)) = (p ◦ f )−1 (B) = B is open in Y as f is continuous.
SAQ 02-02-02: Let p : X → Y be an open map. Show that if A is open in X , then
the map q : A → p(A) obtained by restricting p is an open map.
Solution: Let U ⊂ A be an open set.

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Then, as A is open in X , we get U is open in X.
Implies q(U) = p(U).
Hence q(U) = p(U) ⊂ p(A) is open in X implies open in p(A).
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned the concepts of closed map, open map, quotient
topology, projection. We have studied the relation among the closed maps, open
maps and quotient maps.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Let p : X → Y be a surjective continuous and closed map. Show that p is a


quotient map.

2. Give an example of an open map which is not a closed map.

3. Give an example of a quotient map that is neither open nor closed.

4. Show that every projection defined on product space is a quotient map.

5. Is every projection map open? Justify.

6. Is every projection map closed? Justify.

KEY WORDS
Open map, closed map, quotient map, quotient topology.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

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MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 69


UNIT 02-03: CONNECTED SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Explain the concept of connectedness with examples.

 Construct topological spaces which are connected.

INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we define a connected topological space and construct new connected
spaces from the existing ones. We also show that a finite Cartesian product of
connected spaces is connected, but arbitrary product of connected spaces need not
be connected.

Definition 2.3.1. Let X be a topological space. A separation of X is a pair U,V


of disjoint non-empty open sets of X whose union is X. If there is no separation
of X, then X is called connected. If a separation exists for X, then X is called
disconnected.

We characterize connectedness in terms of open and closed sets as:

Lemma 2.3.2. A space X is connected if and if the only subsets of X that are both
open and closed in X are the empty set and X itself.

Proof. Suppose X is connected.


Let A ⊂ X be closed and open in X such that A 6= 0/ and A 6= X
Then U = A and V = Ac forms a separation of X, which is a contradiction to that
X is connected.
Conversely, suppose X is not connected.
Then there exist disjoint nonempty open sets U and V such that U ∪V = X.
As U = V c , U is both open and closed and U 6= 0/ and U 6= X, which is a contra-
diction. Hence X is connected.

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Theorem 2.3.3. If Y is a subspace of X, a separation of Y is a pair of disjoint
nonempty sets A and B whose union is Y , neither of which contains a limit point
of the other. The space Y is connected if there exists no separation of Y .

Proof. Suppose A and B form a separation of Y i.e. Y = A ∪ B, A and B are


open, A ∩ B = 0.
/
This implies A is both open and closed in Y .
Then the closure of A in Y = Ā ∩Y .
Since A is closed in Y , closure of A is A.
That is Ā ∩Y = A and so Ā ∩ B = φ
Similarly, A ∩ B̄ = 0.
/
Therefore, no limit point of A is in B and vice-versa.
Conversely, suppose there exist A and B such that A∪B = Y, Ā∩B = 0,
/ A∩ B̄ = 0/
Ā ∩Y = Ā ∩ (A ∪ B) = (Ā ∩ A) ∪ (Ā ∩ B) = A.
Implies A is closed in Y and so B is open in Y .
Similarly, A is open in Y .

Example 2.3.4. Let X denote a two point space in the indiscrete topology. Then
X is connected as there is no separation for X.

Example 2.3.5. Let X = R and Y = [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1]. Then Y is disconnected as


A = [−1, 0) and B = (0, 1] forms a separation of Y .

Lemma 2.3.6. If the sets C and D form a separation of X and if Y is connected


subspace of X then Y lies entirely within either C or D.

Proof. Since X = C ∪ D; C and D are open in X, we have C ∩ Y and D ∩ Y are


open in Y .
Also (C ∩Y ) ∪ (D ∪Y ) = Y .
Since Y is connected, C ∩Y = 0/ or D ∩Y = 0/

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Implies Y ⊂ Cc = D or Y ⊂ Dc = C
i.e.,Y ⊂ D or Y ⊂ C.

As we have seen in the example 2.3.5, union of connected spaces need not be
connected, but with some extra conditions we can prove that union of connected
spaces is connected.

Theorem 2.3.7. The union of a collection of connected sub spaces of X that have
a point in common is connected.

Proof. Let {Aα } be a collection of connected subspaces and p ∈ ∩Aα .


We prove that the space Y = ∪Aα is connected.
Suppose that Y = C ∪ D is a separation of Y .
Since p ∈ Y , we have p ∈ C or p ∈ D; suppose p ∈ C.
As {Aα } ⊂ Y is connected and Y is not connected, we get either Aα ⊂ C or Aα ⊂ D.
As p ∈ Aα for each α and p ∈ C we get that {Aα } ⊂ C for every α
Hence ∪{Aα } ⊂ C, contradicting the fact that D is nonempty.

Theorem 2.3.8. Let {Aα } be a collection of connected subspaces of X, let A be a


S 
connected subspace of X. If A ∩ Aα 6= 0/ for all α, then A ∪ Aα is connected.
S 
Proof. Suppose A ∪ Aα is disconnected.
S 
Then there is a separation (U,V ) of A ∪ Aα .
Since A is connected , we get either A ⊂ U or A ⊂ V .
Suppose that A ⊂ U. Since A ∩ Aα 6= 0/ for all α, Aα ⊂ U.
Aα ⊂ U and V is empty, which is a contradiction.
S
Hence
S 
Therefore, A ∪ Aα is connected.

Theorem 2.3.9. The image of a connected space under a continuous map is con-
nected.

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Proof. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map and X be connected.
Since f is continuous, we know that g : X → f (X) is also continuous.
Now suppose that f (X) is disconnected with separation f (X) = A ∪ B.
Then g−1 (A) and g−1 (B) are disjoint open sets such that X = g−1 (A) ∪ g−1 (B)
This is a contradiction to X is connected.

Theorem 2.3.10. A finite Cartesian product of connected spaces is connected.

Proof. We prove that the product of two connected spaces X and Y is connected.
Let a × b ∈ X ×Y be a base point. Then the ”horizontal slice” X × b is connected,
being homeomorphic with X.
Also each ”vertical slice” x ×Y is connected, being homeomorphic with Y .
Since x × b ∈ (X × b) ∩ (x ×Y ), each ”T-shaped” space

Figure 2.1:

Tx = (X × b) ∪ (x ×Y ) is connected.
Since a × b ∈
T S
x Tx and each Tx is connected, therefore the union x Tx is con-
nected. As this union equals X ×Y , the space X ×Y is connected.
Now suppose that the product space X1 × ... × Xn−1 is connected.
Since the space X1 × ... × Xn is homeomorphic with (X1 × ... × Xn−1 ) × Xn ,
we get that X1 × ... × Xn is connected.

We now discuss the arbitrary product of connected spaces. To start with, we


first define the arbitrary product of topological spaces.

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Definition 2.3.11. Let {Aα }α∈J be an indexed family of sets and X = ∪α∈J Aα .
The cartesian product of this indexed family is denoted by ∏α∈J Aα and is defined
as ∏α∈J Aα = {x = (xα )α∈J |xα ∈ Aα for each α ∈ J}

Lemma 2.3.12. Let {Xα }α∈J be an indexed family of topological spaces and let
B = {∏α∈J Uα |Uα be open in Xα }. Then B is a basis for the topology ∏α∈J Xα .

Proof. Let x = (xα ) ∈ ∏α∈J Xα . since each xα is open in Xα ,


B = ∏α∈J Xα ∈ B
Implies x ∈ B ∈ B.
Let B1 , B2 ∈ B. Then B1 = ∏α∈J Uα B2 = ∏α∈J Vα
! !
B1 ∩ B2 = ∏ Uα ∩ ∏ Vα
α∈J α∈J

= ∏ (Uα ∩Vα ), Uα ∩Vα is open in X


α∈J

Implies B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B.
Therefore B is a basis for ∏α∈J Xα .

Definition 2.3.13. Box Topology


Let {Xα }α∈J be an indexed family of topological spaces. Then the collection
B = {∏α∈J Uα |Uα is open in Xα for each α ∈ J} is a basis for ∏α∈J Xα and the
topology generated by this basis is called the box topology.

Definition 2.3.14. Product Topology on ∏α∈J Xα


For each β ∈ J, define ∏B : ∏α∈J Xα → Xβ by ∏β (x) = xβ then ∏B ’s are con-
tinuous.
Let SB = {∏−1
B (UB )|UB is open in XB } and S = ∪B∈J SB . Then S is a sub basis
for ∏ Xα and topology generated by S is called the product topology.

Theorem 2.3.15. The product topology on ∏ Xα has a basis element in which,


elements are of the form ∏ Uα where Uα is open in Xα for each α ∈ J such that

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Uα is open in Xα for each α ∈ J such that Uα equals Xα except for finitely many
α’s.

Proof. Let B be the basis generated by the sub basis S then B consist of finite
intersection of elements of S . If we intersect element belonging to the same SB
we don’t get any thing new because
∏−1 −1 −1
B (UB ) ∩ ∏B (VB ) = ∏B (UB ∩VB ) ∈ SB is again an element of SB .
Therefore Assume that basis element is the finite intersection of differentSB ’s.
B = ∏−1 −1 −1
B1 (UB1 ) ∩ ∏B2 (UB1 ) ∩ ... ∩ ∏Bn (UB1 ) then
x ∈ B if and only if x ∈ ∏−1
Bi (UBi ) ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
if and only if ∏Bi (x) ∈ UBi ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
if and only if xBi ∈ UBi ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
There is no condition on xα if α 6= Bi i = 1, 2, ...n
Implies B = ∏ Uα where Uα = Xα if α 6= Bi
Therefore B = ∏ Uα where Uα = Xα except for finitely many α’s.

Remark 2.3.16. 1. In a finite product space ∏ni=1 Xi the box topology is same
as the product topology.

2. Since every basis element in the product topology belongs to the basis for
the box topology. We have box topology is finer than product topology.

Theorem 2.3.17. The product space Rw is connected in the product topology.

Proof. Now consider Rw in the product topology.

Let R̃n = {x = (xl , x2 , ...) | xi = 0 for i > n}.


The space R̃n is clearly homeomorphic to Rn so that it is connected.
S n
Let R∞ = R̃ . Since each R̃n is connected and 0 = (0, 0, ...) ∈ R̃n , it follows
T

that the space R∞ is connected.


To show that Rw is connected, it is enough to prove that the closure of R∞ equals

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all of Rw .
Let a = (a1 , a2 , ...) ∈ Rw and U = ∏ Ui be a basis element for the product topology
that contains a. We show that U intersects R∞ .
Since U is open in the product topology, there exists an integer N such that Ui = R
for i > N.
Then the point x = (a1 , ...an , 0, 0, ...) of R∞ belongs to U, since ai ∈ Ui for all i,
and 0 ∈ Ui for i > N.

Definition 2.3.18. Linear Continuum


A simply ordered set L having more than one element is called a Linear Contin-
uum if the following hold:

1. L ha the least upper bound property.

2. If x < y, there exists z such that x < z < y.

Theorem 2.3.19. If L is a linear Continuum in the order topology, L is connected,


and so are intervals and rays in L.

Proof. We know that a subspace Y of L is said to be convex, if for every pair of


points a, b of Y with a < b, the entire interval [a, b] of points of L lies in Y .
We first prove that if Y is a convex subspace of L, then Y is connected.
To contrary, assume that Y is the union of the disjoint nonempty sets A and B, each
of which is open in Y .
Choose a ∈ A and b ∈ B such that a < b.
Then the interval [a, b] of points of L is contained in Y .
Hence [a, b] is the union of the disjoint sets A0 = A ∩ [a, b] and B0 = B ∩ [a.b],
each of which is open in [a, b] in the subspace topology, which is the same as the
order topology.
The sets A0 and B0 are nonempty because a ∈ A0 and b ∈ B0 . Thus, A0 and B0

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forms a separation for [a, b].
Let c = sup A0 . We show that c ∈
/ A0 and c ∈
/ B0 , which contradicts the fact that
[a, b] is the union of A0 and B0 .
Case 1:Suppose that c ∈ B0 . Then c 6= a, so either c = b or a < c < b.
In either case, it follows from the fact that is open in [a, b] that there is some in-
terval of the form (d, c] contained in B0 . If c = b, we have a contradiction at once,
for d is a smaller upper bound on A0 than c. If c < b, we note that (c, b] does not
intersect A0 (because c is an upper bound on A0 ).
Then (d, b] = (d, c] ∪ (c, b] does not intersect A0 .
Again, d is a smaller upper bound on A0 than c, contrary to construction.
Case 2: Suppose that c ∈ A0 . Then c 6= b, so either c = a or a < c < b.
Because A0 is open in [a, b], there must be some interval of the form [c, e) con-
tained in A0 .
Because of order property (2) of the linear continuum L, we can choose a point z
of L such that c < z < e.
Then z ∈ A0 , contrary to the fact that c is an upper bound for A0 .

We now prove that the intermediate value theorem of calculus is the special
case of the following theorem that occurs when we take X to be a closed interval
in R and Y to be R.

Theorem 2.3.20. Intermediate value theorem


Let f : X → Y be a continuous map, where X is a connected space and Y is an
ordered set in the order topology. If a and b are two points of X and if r is a
point of Y lying between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a point c of X such that
f (c) = r.

Proof. The sets A = f (X) ∩ (−∞, r) and B = f (X) ∩ (r, +∞) are disjoint, and
f (a) ∈ A and f (b) ∈ B.

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Also each is open in f (X).
Suppose that there does not exist c ∈ X such that f (c) = r.
Then f (X) = A ∪ B and hence A and B forms a separation of f (X), which is a
contradiction to the continuous image of a connected space is connected.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Let {An } be a sequence of connected subspaces of X, such that
An ∩ An+1 6= 0/ for all n. Then
S
An is connected.
S
Solution: Suppose An is disconnected.
S
Then there is a separation (U,V ) of An .
Since each An is connected , we get either An ⊂ U or An ⊂ V .
Suppose that An ⊂ U. Since An ∩ An+1 6= 0,
/ we get that An+1 ⊂ U.
Then by induction each An ⊂ U.
An ⊂ U and V is empty, which is a contradiction.
S
Hence
S
Therefore, An is connected.
Problem 03-02: The product space Rw is not connected in the box topology.
Solution: Consider the cartesian product Rw in the box topology.
We can write Rw = A ∪ B, where A is the set consisting of all bounded sequences
of real numbers, and the set B of all unbounded sequences.
Then the sets A and B are disjoint and open in the box topology For if a is a point
of Rw , the open set

U = (a1 − 1, a1 + 1) × (a2 − 1, a2 + 1) × ...

consists entirely of bounded sequences if a is bounded, and of unbounded se-


quences if a if unbounded.
Thus, even though R is connected, the product space Rw is not connected in the
box topology.
SELF-TEST 01

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MCQ 02-03-01 Consider the following statements

(I) Rl is connected

(II) R is connected. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 02-03-02 Consider the following

(I) If f is continuous and E is connected, then f (E) is connected.

(II) If f is continuous and E is connected, then f −1 (E) is connected. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 02-03-01: The set of rational numbers Q is not connected.
Solution: Let Y be a subspace of Q containing two points p and q.
Then there exists an irrational number r such that p < r < q.
Also the sets Y ∩ (−∞, r) and Y ∩ (r, ∞) open sets in Y and
   
Y = Y ∩ (−∞, r) ∪ Y ∩ (r, ∞)
Hence Y is disconnected, in particular Q is.
So the only connected sets in Q are singletons.

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SAQ 02-03-02: Let A be a connected subspace of X. If A ⊂ B ⊂ Ā, then B is also
connected.
Solution: Suppose that B is disconnected.
Then there is a separation B = C ∪ D for B.
Since A is connected and A ⊂ B = C ∪ D, we get that either A ⊂ C or A ⊂ D.
Suppose A ⊂ C. Then Ā ⊂ C̄.
Thus, B ⊂ Ā ⊂ C̄.
Since (C, D) is a separation for B, we get C̄ ∩ D = 0/
Therefore, B ⊂ C̄ ⊂ Dc and so B ∩ D = 0,
/ which is a contradiction.
Hence B is connected.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned the concepts of connected space with several ex-
amples. We have also studied the different characterizations of connected spaces.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

0 0
1. Let T and T be two topologies on X. If T ⊃ T , what does connected-
ness of X in one topology imply about connectedness in the other?

2. Show that if X is an infinite set, it is connected in the finite complement


topology.

3. Show that no two of the spaces (0, 1), (0, 1], and [0, 1] are homeomorphic.

4. Show Rn and R are not homeomorphic if n > 1.

5. Is the space Rl connected? Justify your answer.

6. Is [0, 1) × Z+ a linear continuum?Justify.

KEY WORDS
Separation, Connected, Connectedness of box and product topology, Linear con-

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tinuum.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 81


UNIT 02-04: LOCALLY CONNECTED SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Differentiate between connected, path connected and locally connected spaces.

 Provide examples of locally path connected spaces.

INTRODUCTION
In this section, we discuss path connectedness, components, locally path connect-
edness and try to relate these concepts.

Definition 2.4.1. Given points x and y of the space X, a path in X from x to y is a


continuous map f : [a, b] → X of some closed interval in the real line into X, such
that f (a) = x and f (b) = y. A space X is said to be path connected if every pair
of points of X can be joined by a path in X.

Theorem 2.4.2. Every path connected space X is connected.

Proof. Suppose X = A ∪ B. Let a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Then, since X is path connected,


there exists a path f : [c, d] → X between a and b.
Since f is continuous and A and B are open, f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are open and are
disjoint. Therefore [c, d] = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B) is disconnected, which is a contra-
diction. Hence X is connected.

Remark 2.4.3. The converse of the above theorem is not true. For example, let S
denote the following subset of the plane.

S = {x × sin(l/x)|0 < x ≤ l}

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Figure 2.2:

Because S is the image of the connected set (0, 1] under a continuous map, S
is connected. Therefore, its closure S̄, called the topologist’s sine curve, in R2 is
also connected. But S̄ is not path connected.

Definition 2.4.4. Given X, define an equivalence relation on X by setting x ∼ y


if there is a connected subspace of X containing both x and y. The equivalence
classes are called the components (or the ”connected components”) of X.

Theorem 2.4.5. The components of X are connected disjoint subspaces of X


whose union is X, such that each nonempty connected subspace of X intersects
only one of them.

Proof. Being equivalence classes, the components of X are disjoint and their
union is X. Each connected subspace A of X intersects only one of them. For
if A intersects the components C1 and C2 of X, say in points x1 and x2 , respec-
tively, then x1 ∼ x2 by definition; this cannot happen unless C1 = C2 .
To show the component C is connected, choose a point xo of C. For each point x
of C, we know that x0 ∼ x, so there is a connected subspace Ax containing xo and
x. By the result just proved, Ax ⊂ C. Therefore C =
S
x∈C Ax .

Since the subspaces Ax are connected and have the point x0 in common, their
union is connected.

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Definition 2.4.6. A space X is said to be locally connected at x if for every neigh-
borhood U of x, there is a connected neighborhood V of x contained in U. If X is
locally connected at each of its points, it is said simply to be locally connected.

Theorem 2.4.7. A space X is locally connected if and only if for every open set U
of X, each component of U is open in X.

Proof. Suppose that X is locally connected; let U be an open set in X; let C be a


component of U. To show C open, let x ∈ C. Since X is locally connected,there
exists a connected neighborhood V of x such that V ⊂ U. Since V is connected
and V ∩C 6= 0,
/ we get x ∈ V ⊂ C. Therefore, C is open in X.
Conversely, suppose that components of open sets in X are open.
Given a point x ∈ X and a neighborhood U of x, let C be the component of U
containing x. Since each component is conneceted, C is connected; since it is
open in X by hypothesis, and x ∈ C ⊂ U. Hence X is locally connected at x.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: Let X be locally path connected. Show that every connected
open set in X is path connected.
Solution: Let X be locally path connected space and U be a connected open subset
of X.
Then each path component and their unions are open in X.
Hence they are open and closed in U.
As U is connected, there is only one path component and thus U is path connected.
Problem 04-02: If {Aα } is collection of path connected subspaces of X and if
∩Aα 6= 0,
/ then ∪Aα is path connected.
Solution: Let x ∈ ∪Aα . If x, y ∈ Aα for some α, then there is a path between
them. Suppose x and y are in two different spaces. As ∩Aα is non empty, say z is
a common point, then there is a path from x to z and a path from z to y. Thus by

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considering the composition map, we get a path from x to y.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 02-04-01 Consider the two statements

(I) Every path connected space is connected.

(II) Every connected space is path connected.

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 02-04-02 Let X be a locally path connected topological space. Then:

A. every connected open set in X is path connected

B. every connected closed set in X is path connected

C. every open set in X is path connected

D. every connected set in X is path connected

MCQ 02-04-03 Consider the following statements:

1. A connected set is path connected

2. A path connected set is connected

3. Union of connected sets is connected.

Which of them are correct?

A. 1

B. 2

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C. 1, 3

D. 2, 4

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 02-04-01: Find the components and path components of Rl .
Solution: Let A ⊂ Rl be connected and x ∈ A.
Then [x, x + ε) ∩ A 6= 0/ is both open and closed in A.
Therefore, by Lemma4.4.8, we get A = A ∩ [x, x + ε) for any ε.
As ε is arbitrary, we get A = {x}.
Thus the components of Rl are singleton sets.
Similarly, path components are also singletons.
SAQ 02-04-02: The ordered square is locally connected but not locally path con-
nected.
Solution: Since each open interval in the ordered square is a linear continuum,
we get, it is connected.
Also if U is an open set such that (x, 0) ∈ U for x > 0, then (y, 0) ∈ U for some
y < x.
But there is no path between these two points and hence it is not locally path con-
nected.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about path connected spaces, local connected
spaces, components, local connected spaces.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Is a product of path connected spaces necessarily path connected?

2. If A ⊂ X and A is path connected, is Ā necessarily path connected?

3. If f : X → Y is continuous and X is path connected, is f (X) necessarily path


connected?

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4. Let p : X → Y be a quotient map. If X is locally connected, then show that
Y is locally connected.

5. Is every component is open? Justify.

6. Show that components are closed sets.

KEY WORDS
Connected spaces, local connected, components, path connected spaces.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 87


CREDIT 03

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 88


UNIT 03-01: COMPACT SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Provide examples of topological spaces which are compact and examples


of non compact spaces.

 Construct new compact topological spaces from the existing ones.

 Outline the proof of product of finitely many compact spaces is compact

INTRODUCTION
Fréchet was the first to use the term compact. Compactness was introduced
into topology with the intention of generalizing the properties of the closed and
bounded subsets of Rn . In this unit, we discuss the properties of compact topo-
logical space and construct new spaces from old ones. We also see under what
conditions, compactness can be passed on to subspaces and products.

Definition 3.1.1. A collection A of subsets of a space X is said to be a cover for


X, if the union of the elements of A is equal to X. It is called an open covering
of X, if its elements are open subsets of X.

Definition 3.1.2. A topological space X is said to be compact, if every open


covering A of X contains a finite sub collection that also covers X.

Example 3.1.3. Any topological space X with finite number of elements is com-
pact, as each open cover for X is itself a finite collection.

Example 3.1.4. The real line R is not compact.

Proof. Consider the set A = {(n − 1, n + 1) | n ∈ Z}


Then for any x ∈ R, x ∈ ([x] − 1, [x] + 1), where [x] is the greatest integer less than

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or equal to x. Implies A is an open cover for R.
But no finite sub collection of A covers R.
Hence R is not compact.

Lemma 3.1.5. Let Y be a subspace of X. Then Y is compact if and only if every


covering of Y by sets open in X contains a finite sub collection covering Y .

Proof. Suppose that Y is compact and A = {Aα }α∈J is a covering of Y where Aα


is open in X.
Then the collection {Aα ∩Y |α ∈ J} is a covering of Y by sets open in Y .
Hence, a finite sub collection {Aα1 ∩Y, ...Aαn ∩Y } covers Y .
Implies {Aα1 , ...Aαn } is a sub collection of A that covers Y .
0 0
To prove converse, let A = {Aα } be a covering of Y by sets open in Y .
0
For each α, choose a set Aα open in X such that Aα = Aα ∩Y .
Then the collection A = {Aα } is a covering of Y by sets open in X.
By hypothesis, some finite sub collection {Aα1 , ...Aαn } covers Y .
0 0 0
Then {Aα1 , ...Aαn } is a sub collection of A that covers Y .
Therefore, Y is compact.

Theorem 3.1.6. Every closed subspace of a compact space is compact.

Proof. Let Y be a closed subspace of the compact space X.


Let A be an open covering for Y by sets open in X.
Since Y is closed, X −Y is open in X.
Therefore, B = A ∪ {X −Y } is an open covering for X.
Since X is compact, some finite sub collection of B covers X.
After discarding the set X −Y from this finite sub collection, the resulting collec-
tion is a finite sub collection of A that covers Y .
Hence Y is compact.

Theorem 3.1.7. Every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed.

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Proof. Let Y be a compact subspace of the Hausdorff space X.
To show Y is closed i.e. X −Y is open let x0 be a point of X −Y .
Since X is Hausdorff, for each point y ∈ Y and x0 , there exist disjoint open sets Uy
and Vy containing x0 and y, respectively.
Then the collection {Vy |y ∈ Y } is a covering of Y by sets open in X.
As Y is compact, there exists a finite sub cover Vy1 , ...,Vyn for Y .

Figure 3.1:

Let V = Vy1 ∪ ... ∪Vyn and U = Uy1 ∩ ... ∩Uyn .


Then V ⊃ Y , and V ∩U = 0,
/ for if z ∈ V , then z ∈ Vyi for some i, hence z ∈
/ Uyi and
so z ∈
/ U.
Therefore x0 ∈ U ⊂ X −V ⊂ X −Y and hence X −Y is open.

Theorem 3.1.8. Let f : X → Y be a bijective continuous function. If X is compact


and Y is Hausdorff, then f is a homeomorphism.

Proof. To prove f −1 : Y → X is continuous, let A be a closed subset of X.


Then A is compact. Since f : X → Y is continuous, f (A) is compact.
Given that Y is Hausdorff, so f (A) is closed in Y .
Therefore ( f −1 )−1 (A) = f (A) is closed in Y .

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Remark 3.1.9. According to above result, if a continuous bijective map f : X → Y
is not a homeomorphism, then we can conclude that either X is not compact or
Y is not Hausdorff, for example, The function f : Rl → R given by f (x) = x is a
bijective continuous function but not a homeomorphism. As R is Hausdorff, we
can conclude that Rl is not compact.

We now prove tube lemma, which will be useful in proving that product of
finitely many compact spaces is compact.

Lemma 3.1.10. (The tube lemma). Consider the product space X × Y , where Y
is compact. If N is an open set of X ×Y containing the slice x0 ×Y of X ×Y , then
N contains some tube W ×Y about x0 ×Y , where W is a neighborhood of x0 in X.

Proof. Since Y is compact and x0 × Y is homeomorphic to Y , we get that x0 × Y


is also compact. Let x0 × y ∈ x0 × Y . Since x0 × Y ⊂ N and N is open subset of
X ×Y , there exists open set Uy ×Vy such that x0 × y ∈ Uy ×Vy ⊂ N.
Implies the collection {Uy ×Vy | y ∈ Y } is an open cover for x0 ×Y .
Therefore, there exists a finite sub cover U1 ×V1 , ...,Un ×Vn for x0 ×Y .
Without loss of generality, we can assume that (Ui ×Vi ) ∩ (xo ×Y ) 6= 0.
/
(as if some basis element is not intersecting x0 × Y , discard that from the collec-
tion.)
Let W = U1 ∩ ... ∩Un . Then W is open and x0 ∈ W . (∵ x0 ∈ Ui ∀i.)
We will prove that the sets Ui ×Vi covers the tube W ×Y .
Let x × y ∈ W ×Y . Then x0 × y ∈ x0 ×Y .
Implies x0 × y ∈ Ui ×Vi for some i,so that y ∈ Vi .
But x ∈ U j for every j (because x ∈ W ).
Therefore, we have x × y ∈ Ui ×Vi , as desired.

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Figure 3.2:

Since Ui × Vi ⊂ N for each i and (W × Y ) ⊂ ∪(Ui × Vi ), we get that the tube


W ×Y ⊂ N.

Theorem 3.1.11. The product of finitely many compact spaces is compact.

Proof. We prove the result by mathematical induction.


First we prove that the product X ×Y of two compact spaces X and Y is compact.
Let A be an open covering of X ×Y .
Given x0 ∈ X, the slice x0 ×Y is compact and may therefore be covered by finitely
many elements A1 , ...Am of A .(∵ A covers x0 ×Y ).
Their union N = A1 ∪ .. ∪ Am is an open set containing x0 ×Y .
Then by the tube lemma, the open set N contains a tube W ×Y about xo ×Y , where
W is open in X. Then W × Y is covered by finitely many elements A1 , ..., Am of
A.
Thus, for each x in X, we can choose a neighborhood Wx of x such that the tube
Wx ×Y can be covered by finitely many elements of A .
Since X is compact and the collection of all the neighborhoods Wx is an open
covering of X, there exists a finite sub collection {W1 , ...Wk } covering X.
Now as each Wi ×Y is covered by finitely many elements of A and X is covered
by these Wi , we get that the union of the tubes W1 ×Y, ...,Wk ×Y covers X ×Y .

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Thus, X ×Y is compact.
Now assume that X1 × ... × Xn−1 is compact.
Then X1 × ... × Xn ≡ (X1 × ... × Xn−1 ) × Xn is compact as it is the product of two
compact spaces.

We now give an equivalent definition of compact space in terms of closed sets.


We start with the following definition.

Definition 3.1.12. A collection C of subsets of X is said to have the finite inter-


n
/ for every finite sub collection {C1 , ...Cn } of C .
Ci 6= 0,
T
section property if
i=1

Theorem 3.1.13. Let X be a topological space. Then X is compact if and only if


for every collection C of closed sets in X having the finite intersection property,
C 6= 0.
T
the intersection /
C∈C

Proof. Suppose X is compact and C be the collection of closed sets in X having


finite intersection property.
T
Suppose C∈C C = 0.
/
−C) = X.
S
Implies C∈C (X

Since X is compact, there exists a finite sub cover X − C1 , ..., X − Cn such that
Sn
X⊂ i=1 (X −Ci ).
Tn
Implies 0/ ⊃ i=1 Ci , which is a contradiction.
C 6= 0.
T
Therefore, C∈C /
To prove converse, let A be an open cover for X.
For contrary, assume that there is no finite sub collection of A which covers X.
Sn
Then i=1 Ai 6= X for any n ∈ N.
Tn
Implies i=1 (X − Ai ) 6= 0.
/
So the collection C = {X − Aα | Aα ∈ A } satisfies the finite intersection property.
− A) 6= 0/
T
Therefore, A∈A (X

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A 6= X, which is a contradiction.
S
Implies A∈A

Therefore, there exists a finite subcover for X and hence X is compact.

We end this unit by proving that R is uncountable without using algebraic


properties. We start with a definition.

Definition 3.1.14. For a topological space X, a point x ∈ X is said to be an isolated


point, if the one-point set {x} is open in X.

Theorem 3.1.15. Let X be a nonempty compact Hausdorff space. If X has no


isolated points, then X is uncountable.

Proof. Step 1. We first show that given any nonempty open set U of X and x ∈ X,
there exists a nonempty open set V contained in U such that x ∈
/ V̄ .
If x ∈ U, since X has no isolated points, U 6= {x}.
So there exists y ∈ U such that y 6= x.
If x ∈
/ U, since U is non empty, ∃y ∈ U.
So in any case, there exists y ∈ U such that y 6= x.
As X is Hausdorff, there exists two disjoint open sets W1 and W2 containing x and
y, respectively.
Let V = W2 ∩U.
Since y ∈ W2 ∩U, we get V 6= 0/ and V ⊂ U.
As x ∈ W1 and V ∩W1 = 0,
/ we get x ∈
/ V̄ .
Step 2. We show that given f : Z+ → X, the function f is not surjective.
Let xn = f (n). Since X is non empty open set and x1 ∈ X, by Step 1, there exists
/ V¯1 .
a nonempty open set V1 ⊂ X such that x1 ∈
As V1 is non empty open subset of X and x2 ∈ X, ∃ a nonempty open set V2 ⊂ V1
/ V¯2 .
such that x2 ∈
By induction, given a non empty open set Vn−1 , there exists a nonempty open set
/ V¯n .
Vn ⊂ Vn−1 such that xn ∈

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Then the collection C = {V̄i | i = 1, 2, 3, ...} of nonempty closed sets of X satisfies
finite intersection property.
Because X is compact, ∩V¯n 6= 0,
/ say x ∈ ∩V¯n .
Since x ∈ V¯n but xn ∈
/ V¯n for all n, we get that x 6= xn for all n.
Therefore, f is not surjective and hence X is uncountable.

Corollary 3.1.16. Every closed interval in R is uncountable.

Corollary 3.1.17. R is uncountable.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: The subspace X = {0} ∪ { 1n |n ∈ Z+ } of R is compact.
Solution: Let A be an open covering of X.
Then there is an element U of A containing 0.
Since U is open and 0 ∈ U, there exists δ > 0 such that (−δ , δ ) ⊂ U.
1
As δ > 0, by Archimedean property, there exists N, such that N < δ.
Hence the set { 1n | n ≥ N} ⊂ U.
So at most 1, 12 , ..., N−1
1
are the elements of X, which are outside U, and these ele-
covered by finitely many open sets, say U1 ,...,Um of A .
ments can be !
m
Ui ∪U is a finite sub collection of A which covers X.
S
Then
i=1
Hence X is compact.
Problem 01-02: The image of a compact space under a continuous map is com-
pact.
Solution: Let f : X → Y be continuous and X be compact.
Let A be a covering for f (X) by sets open in Y .
As f is continuous, the collection { f −1 (A)|A ∈ A } is an open cover for X.
Since X is compact, there exists a finite sub cover f −1 (A1 ), ..., f −1 (An ) for X.
Then {A1 , ..., An } is a finite sub cover for f (X) and hence f (X) is compact.
SELF-TEST 01

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MCQ 03-01-01 Which of the following is true?

(A) {0} ∪ {1/n | n ∈ Z+ } is compact

(B) The real line R is compact

(C) The interval (0, 1] is compact

(D) All of the above are true.

MCQ 03-01-02 Consider the following

(I) If Y is a subspace of a compact space X, then Y is compact.

(II) If Y is a compact subspace of X, then Y is closed.

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 03-01-03 Consider the following two statements

(I) If X is nonempty compact Hausdorff space with no isolated points,


then X is uncountable.

(II) Every closed interval in R is uncountable.

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01
SAQ 03-01-01: Is every subspace of a compact space compact? Justify.
Solution: Every subspace of a compact space need not be compact, for example,
cosnider X = [0, 1]. Then X is compact. But the subspace (0, 1) is not compact as
A = {( 1n , 1)|n ∈ Z+ } is an open cover for (0, 1), which doesn’t have a finite sub
cover.
0
SAQ 03-01-02: If X is compact Hausdorff under both T and T , then either T
0
and T are equal or they are not comparable.
0
Solution: Suppose T is finer than T .
0
Then the identity map f : (X, T ) → (X, T ) is continuous and bijective.
As X is compact space and Hausdorff space, by Theorem3.1.8, it is a homeomor-
phism and hence the topologies are equal.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about compact spaces, product of compact spaces,
tube lemma and finite intersection property.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that R with the finite complement topology is compact.

2. Prove that an infinite set X with the discrete topology is not compact.

3. Show that the union of a finitely many compact subsets of X is compact.

4. In R with co-countable topology, is [0, 1] a compact subspace? Justify.

5. In R with discrete topology, show that an infinite set is not compact.

6. Show that in R with co-finite topology, every set is compact.

KEY WORDS
Open cover, Compact spaces, tube lemma, finite intersection property.
REFERENCES

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1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 99


UNIT 03-02: FORMS OF COMPACT SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Differentiate between limit point compact, sequentially compact and com-


pact spaces

 Provide examples of spaces which are locally compact but not compact

 Understand the One point compactification.

INTRODUCTION
In early days of topology, a space is called compact if every infinite subspace of
it has a limit point, whereas the open covering formulation was called bicompact-
ness. Later, the standard definition of compact is interms of open covering, the
above compactness is renamed to limit point compactness. There is also another
version of compactness called sequential compactness. In this unit we will com-
pare these three versions of compactness and see when they all be same. We also
study local compactness and one point compactification.

Definition 3.2.1. A space X is said to be limit point compact if every infinite


subset of X has a limit point.

Definition 3.2.2. A space X is said to be sequentially compact if every sequence


of points of X has a convergent subsequence.

The next few results emphasize the relation among these three versions of
compactness.

Theorem 3.2.3. Every compact space is limit point compact.

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Proof. Let X be a compact space and A ⊂ X be infinite.
Suppose A has no limit point.
Then Ā = A ∪ {limit points of A} = A, so that A is closed.
Since A has no limit point, for each a ∈ A, ∃ a neighborhood Ua of a such that
Ua ∩ A = {a}.
Then X is covered by the open set X − A and the open sets Ua .
As X is compact, it can be covered by finitely many of these sets
n
Say X ⊂ Ui ∪ (X − A)
S
i=1
n
Since X − A does not intersect A, we have A ⊂
S
Ui
i=1
As each set Ui contains only one point of A, the set A must be finite, which is a
contradiction. Hence A has a limit point.

Theorem 3.2.4. Let X be a metrizable space. If X is limit point compact, then X


is sequentially compact.

Proof. Let X be a limit point compact space and (xn ) be a sequence in X.


Let A = {xn | n ∈ Z+ }.
If the set A is finite, then there is a point x such that x = xn for infinitely many
values of n. In this case, the sequence xn has a constant subsequence and therefore
converges.
Suppose A is infinite. Since X is limit point compact, A has a limit point x.
Then A intersects every neighborhood of x at infinitely many points.
Now We define a subsequence (xn ) converging to x as follows:
Since A intersects B(x, 1), choose n1 such that xn1 ∈ B(x, 1).
Again as A intersects B(x, 1/2) at infinitely many points, choose n2 > n1 such that
xn2 ∈ B(x, 1/2).
In this way, we choose nk > nk−1 such that xnk ∈ B(x, 1/k).
Then the subsequence xn1 , xn2 , ... converges to x.

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Theorem 3.2.5. Let X be a metrizable space. If X is sequentially compact, then
X is compact.

Proof. We prove the result in 3 steps:


Step 1. We show that if A is an open cover for X, ∃ δ > 0(called Lebesgue num-
ber) such that if A ⊂ X with diam(A) < δ , then ∃U ∈ A such that A ⊂ U.
Let A be an open covering of X. Suppose that there is no δ > 0.
1
Then for each positive integer n, ∃Cn ⊂ X with diam(Cn ) < n but Cn * U for all
U ∈A.
Choose a point xn ∈ Cn for each n.
Since X is sequentially compact, there exists a subsequence (xnk ) of the sequence
(xn ) that converges, say to the point a.
Since A is an open cover for X, ∃U ∈ A such that a ∈ U.
Because X is metriazble and U is open, there exists ε > 0 such that B(a, ε) ⊂ U.
1
Since xnk converges to x, choose nk large enough so that xnk ∈ B(a, ε2 ) and nk < ε2 .
Then Cnk ⊂ B(a, ε) ⊂ UImplies Cnk ⊂ U, which is a contradiction.
So for every open cover for X, there exists a δ > 0 satisfying the condition men-
tioned in Step 1.
Step 2. Given ε > 0, there exists a finite covering of X by open ε-balls.
Suppose assume that there exists an ε > 0 such that X cannot be covered by finitely
many ε-balls.
We Construct a sequence of points xn of X as follows:
For any x1 ∈ X, X 6= B(x1 , ε) (otherwise X could be covered by a single ε-ball).
choose x2 ∈ X − B(x1 , ε). Then d(x1 , x2 ) > ε.
Again X 6= B(x1 , ε) ∪ B(x2 , ε).
 
choose x3 ∈ X − B(x1 , ε) ∪ B(x2 , ε) .
Then d(x1 , x3 ) > ε and d(x2 , x3 ) > ε.
n h n i
By continuing this way, we get X 6= B(xi , ε) and xn+1 ∈ X − B(xi , ε)
S S
i=1 i=1

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such that d(xn+1 , xi ) > ε for all i = 1, 2, ..., n.
Therefore, the sequence xn does not have any convergent subsequence as d(xn , xm ) >
ε for all n > m.
Step 3. Now we prove that X is compact.
Let A be an open covering of X.
By Step 1, the open cover A has a Lebesgue number δ .
Let ε = δ3 . Then by Step 2, there exists a finite covering {B(x j , ε)} of X by open
ε−balls.
 
3 < δ , there exists U j ∈ A such that B(x j , ε) ⊂ U j
Since diam B(x j , ε) = 2ε = 2δ
for all j = 1, 2, ..., n.
n n
B(x j , ε) ⊂
S S
Then X = U j.
i=1 i=1
Hence there is a finite sub collection of A that covers X.

Theorem 3.2.6. Let X be a metrizable space. Then the following are equivalent:

1. X is compact.

2. X is limit point compact.

3. X is sequentially compact.

Proof. (1) ⇒ (2): Proof of theorem 3.2.3


(2) ⇒ (3): Proof of theorem 3.2.4
(3) ⇒ (1): Proof of theorem 3.2.5

Definition 3.2.7. A space X is said to be locally compact at x if there is some


compact subspace C of X that contains a neighborhood of x. If X is locally com-
pact at each of its points, X is said simply to be locally compact.

Example 3.2.8. The real line R is locally compact,


because x ∈ (x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ [x − ε, x + ε].

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Example 3.2.9. The space Rn is locally compact,
because x ∈ (a1 , b1 ) × ... × (an , bn ) ⊂ [a1 , b1 ] × ... × [an , bn ]

Example 3.2.10. Every simply ordered set X having the least upper bound prop-
erty is locally compact: Given a basis element for X, it is contained in a closed
interval in X, which is compact.

Definition 3.2.11. If Y is a compact Hausdorff space and X is a proper subspace


of Y whose closure equals Y , then Y is said to be a compactification of X. If
Y − X equals a single point, then Y is called the one-point compactification of X.

Theorem 3.2.12. Let X be a Hausdorff space Then X is locally compact if and


only if given x in X, and given a neighborhood U of x, there is a neighborhood V
of x such that V̄ is compact and V̄ ⊂ U (i.e. x ∈ V ⊂ V̄ ⊂ U).

Proof. Suppose X is locally compact.


Let x ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of x.
Since X is locally compact, ∃ a one-point compactification Y of X.
let C = Y −U. Then C is closed in Y implies C is a compact subspace of Y .
Since X is Hausdorff, there exist two open sets V and W such that x ∈ V and
C ⊂ W.
V ∩W = 0/ ⇒ V ⊂ W c ⇒ V̄ ⊂ W c ⊂ Cc = U.
Since W c is closed, V̄ is closed and hence compact.
Hence V̄ ⊂ U, and V̄ is compact.
Suppose assume the converse part.
Let x ∈ X. Since X is open, by assumption, there is a neighborhood V of x such
that V̄ is compact.

Corollary 3.2.13. Let X be locally compact Hausdorff, let A be a subspace of X.


If A is closed in X or open in X, then A is locally compact.

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Proof. Suppose that A is closed in X. Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ X.
Since X is locally compact, there exists a compact subspace C of X containing
the neighborhood U of x in X. Then C ∩ A is closed in C and thus compact, and
U ∩ A ⊂ C ∩ A.
Suppose now that A is open in X. Given x ∈ A, by the preceding theorem there
exists a neighborhood V of x in X such that V̄ is compact and V̄ ⊂ A. Then C = V̄
is a compact subspace of A containing the neighborhood V of x in A.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: Limit point compactness need not imply compactness.
Solution: Let Y = {a, b} be given with indiscrete topology,i.e. Y and 0/ are the
only open sets in Y .
We show that the space X = Z+ × Y = {(n, a), (m, b) | n, m ∈ Z+ } is limit point
compact.
Let S be a non empty set of X, say (n, a) ∈ S.
Then (n, b) is a limit point of S as if A × Y is a neighborhood of (n, b), then
(n, a) ∈ (A ×Y ) ∩ S.
We can observe that singleton {n} is open in Z+ as {n} = (n − 1, n + 1) ∩ Z+ .
Thus the collection Un = {n} ×Y is an open cover for X but has no finite subcover
for X. Therefore, X is not compact.
Problem 02-02: The space Rω is not locally compact.
Solution: If a basis element B = (a1 , b1 ) × ... × (an , bn ) × R × ... × R × .... con-
tained in a compact subspace, then its closure B = [a1 , b1 ] × ... × [an , bn ] × R ×
... × R × .... is compact, which is a contradiction.
Hence Rω is not locally compact.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 03-02-01 Consider the following

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 105


(I) Every compact space is limit point compact.

(II) Every limit point compact space is compact. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 03-02-02 Consider the two statements

(I) Every sequentially compact space is compact.

(II) Every limit point compact space is sequentially compact. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 03-02-01: Show that [0, 1] is not limit point compact as a subspace of Rl .
Solution: Consider the subset Y = {11/n | n ∈ N} of X = [0, 1].
Clearly Y is an infinite subset of X.
We will show that Y does not have a limit point.
Suppose Y has a limit point. Then it is also a limit point in the standard topology
which is equal to 1.
But 1 is not a limit point in Rl as Y doesn’t intersect the open set {1} = [1, ∞] in
X.
SAQ 03-02-02: Show that the rationals Q are not locally compact.

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Solution: First we show that [a, b] ∩ Q is not compact.
We can take a sequence converging to an irrational number in R and no subse-
quence converges to a point in Q.
Therefore it is not sequential compactness and hence not compact.
Now Suppose some compact subset Y of Q contains an open subset of Q.
Then it contains an interval [a, b] ∩ Q.
This interval is closed in Y and, therefore, compact, which is a Contradiction.
Therefore, there are no compact subsets of Q that contain any open subset.
Hence, Q is not locally compact.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about limit point compact, sequentially compact
spaces and their relation with compact spaces. We also discussed local compact-
ness.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that R with discrete topology is locally compact.

2. Continuous image of a locally compact space is locally compact. True or


False? Justify.

3. Let X be limit point compact. If A is closed subset of X, does it follow that


A is limit point compact?

4. Continuous image of a limit point compact is limit point compact. True or


False? Justify.

5. If X is sequentially compact, then the Lebesgue number lemma holds. True


or false?

6. If f is a contraction and X is compact, show that f has a unique fixed point.

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KEY WORDS
Limit point compact, Sequentially compact, locally compact, One point compact-
ification.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 108


UNIT 03-03: COUNTABILITY AXIOMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Understand the two versions of countable axioms

 Provide examples of spaces which are first countable but not second

INTRODUCTION
The countable axioms do not arise naturally from the study of analysis. Problems
like embedding a given space in a metric space or in a compact Hausdorff are
purely from topology and these problems can be solved with the help of countable
and separable axioms. In this section, we study the two countable axioms: first
countable and second countable; relation among them.

Definition 3.3.1. A space X is said to have a countable basis at x if there is a


countable collection B of neighborhoods of x such that each neighborhood of x
contains at least one of the elements of B. A space that has a countable basis
at each of its points is said to satisfy the first countability axiom, or to be first-
countable.

Example 3.3.2. (R, usual topology) is first countable.

Proof. For each x ∈ R, consider Bx = {(x − n1 , x + 1n ) | n ∈ N}.


Let U be a neighborhood of x.
Then there exists ε > 0 such that x ∈ (x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ U.
1
By Archimedean property, ∃ n ∈ N such that n < ε.
Then, x ∈ (x − 1n , x + 1n ) ⊂ (x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ U.
Therefore Bx is a countable base at x and hence (R, usual topology) is first count-
able.

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Example 3.3.3. The real line R with countable complement topology( co-countable)
is not first countable.

Proof. Let x ∈ R.
Suppose B = {Bn | n ∈ N} is a countable base at x.
Here each Bcn is countable and so
S c
Bn = ( Bn )c is countable
T
n n
Bn is open and x ∈ V .
T
Therefore V =
n
Now take y ∈ V \ {x} and U = V \ {y}.
Then x ∈ U and U is open as U c = V c ∪ {y} is countable.
As y ∈ Bn for each n and y ∈
/ U, we get that Bn * U for all n.
Which is a contradiction to the fact that B is countable base at x.
Therefore, R with countable complement topology is not first countable.

Theorem 3.3.4. Let X be a topological space.

1. Let A be a subset of X. If there is a sequence of points of A converging to x,


then x ∈ Ā; the converse holds if X is first-countable.

2. Let f : X → Y . If f is continuous, then for every convergent sequence xn → x


in X, the sequence f (xn ) converges to f (x). The converse holds if X is first-
countable.

Proof. (1). Let (xn ) ⊂ A be a sequence such that xn → x, for some x ∈ X.


To show x ∈ Ā, let U be an open set of X with x ∈ U.
Since xn → x, and x ∈ U, infinitely many xn0 s are in U.
Therefore, U ∩ A 6= 0/ and hence x ∈ Ā.
Conversely, suppose that X is first countable and x ∈ Ā.
Let B = {Bn | n ∈ N} be a countable basis at x.
We may assume that x ∈ Bn for all n.
Let Un = B1 ∩ ... ∩ Bn .

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Then Un is open containing x and Un ⊂ Bn .
If V is open set containing x, then there exists n such that x ∈ Bn ⊂ V .
Since Un ⊂ Bn , we get that x ∈ Un ⊂ V .
Therefore, U = {Un | n ∈ N} is a countable basis for x.
Now, if x ∈ A, then (x, x, x, ...) is the required sequence that converges to x.
If x ∈
/ A, then x is a limit point of X and hence A intersects every neighbourhood
of x.
As each Un is open contains x, we get Un ∩ A 6= 0/ for all n.
Let xn ∈ Un ∩ A. Then (xn ) is a sequence in A.
To show xn → x, let x ∈ U be an open set of X.
Since U is a countable bais for x, ∃Um such that x ∈ Um ⊂ U.
Then xn ∈ Un ⊂ Um ⊂ U for all n ≥ m. (∵ Un ⊂ Um ∀ n ≥ m.)
Therefore xn → x.
(2). Suppose f is continuous and xn → x.
Let V be an open set of Y such that f (x) ∈ V .
Then f −1 (V ) is open in X and x ∈ f −1 (V ).
Therefore, xn ∈ f −1 (V ) for infinitely many n0 s.
Implies f (xn ) ∈ V for infinitely many n0 s and hence f (xn ) → f (x).
Conversely, assume that X is first countable and whenever xn → x,
then f (xn ) → f (x).
To show f is continuous, we prove that f (Ā) ⊂ f (A) for any subset A of X.
Let y ∈ f (Ā). Then y = f (x), for some x ∈ Ā.
Since X is first countable and x ∈ Ā, there exists a sequence (xn ) ⊂ A
such that xn → x.
Then by assumption, f (xn ) → f (x) and f (xn ) ⊂ f (A).
Therefore, f (x) ∈ f (A). ( by first result)
Implies y ∈ f (A) and hence f (Ā) ⊂ f (A).

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Now we will go the second countable spaces which have more impact than the
first countable spaces.

Definition 3.3.5. A topological space X is said to satisfy the second countability


axiom, or to be second-countable, if it has a countable basis for its topology.

Theorem 3.3.6. Every second countable space is first countable, but not the con-
verse.

Proof. Let B = {Bn | n ∈ N} be a countable basis for X and x ∈ X.


Then we prove that Bx = {Bn ∈ B | x ∈ Bn } is a countable basis at x.
Let U be a neighborhood of x. Then ∃ Bn ∈ B such that x ∈ Bn ⊂ U.
As Bn ∈ Bx we get that Bx is a basis at x.
Therefore X is first countable.
Converse is not true in general: Consider (R, discrete topology).
Let x ∈ X. Then B = {{x}} is a countable basis at x ∈ X. Thus (R, discrete topology)
is first countable.
Now suppose B is a basis for (R, discrete topology).
Since each {x} is open, ∃ Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊂ {x} Implies Bx = {x}.
As R is uncountable, {Bx | x ∈ R} is uncountable.
Therefore, B is uncountable and hence (R, discrete topology) is not second count-
able.

We now show that the spaces satisfying countable axioms are nice in the sense
that they can be passed onto subspaces and products.

Theorem 3.3.7. A subspace of a first-countable space is first-countable, and a


countable product of first-countable spaces is first-countable. A subspace of a
second countable space is second-countable, and a countable product of second-
countable spaces is second-countable.

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Proof. It is enough to prove for second countable spaces.
Let B be a countable basis for X and A ⊂ X.
Now consider BA = {B ∩ A|B ∈ B}.
Then clearly BA is countable.
To show BA is a basis for A, let U be a neighborhood of a ∈ A.
Then U = A ∩V for some V open in X.
Since B is a basis for X, ∃ B ∈ B such that a ∈ B ⊂ V .
As A ∩ B ⊂ A ∩V , we get a ∈ A ∩ B ⊂ U.
Therefore BA is a countable basis for A.
If Bi is a countable basis for the space Xi , then the collection of all products ∏ Ui ,
where Ui ∈ Bi for finitely many values of i and Ui = Xi for all other values of i, is
a countable basis for ∏ Xi .

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Every metrizable space is first countable.
Solution: For each x ∈ X, let Bx = {B(x, n1 ) | n ∈ N}.
Let U be a neighborhood of x.
Then there is an ε > 0 such that x ∈ B(x, ε) ⊂ U.
1
By Archimedean property, ∃ n ∈ N such that n < ε.
Then, x ∈ B(x, 1n ) ⊂ B(x, ε) ⊂ U.
Therefore Bx is a countable base at x and hence X is first countable.
Problem 03-02: R with lower limit topology is first countable but not second
countable.
Solution: Let x ∈ R. Then Clearly the collection {[x, x + 1n ) | n ∈ N} is a countable
base at x.
Hence R with lower limit topology is first countable.
Now suppose R with lower limit topology has a countable base, say B = {B1 , B2 , ...}.
Let bn = inf Bn . Then J = {bn | n ∈ N} is countable.

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Consider a ∈ R \ J and u = [a, ∞).
But there is no Bn such that a ∈ Bn ⊂ u
Hence R with lower limit topology is not second countable.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 03-03-01 Consider the following

(I) Every first countable space is second countable.

(II) The discrete topology on R is second countable. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 03-03-02 Consider the two statements

(I) R with usual topology is second countable.

(II) R with usual topology is first countable. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 03-03-01: Show that the real line R with finite complement topology( co-
finite) is not first countable.
Solution: Let x ∈ R. Suppose B = {B1 , B2 , ...} is a countable base at x.

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Then each Bcn is finite and hence C = ∪n Bcn is countable.
Let y ∈ R \C = ∩n Bn and y 6= x.
And consider u = R \ {y}. Then u is open with x ∈ u but Bn * u for all n.
Hence R with finite complement topology is not first countable.
SAQ 03-03-02: The Uniform topology Rω is not second countable.
Solution: Consider a subspace A of Rω consisting of all sequences of 00 s and 10 s.
Then A is uncountable and the topology on A is discrete as ρ̄(a, b) = 1 for a 6= b
and ρ̄(a, b) = 0 for all a = b.
Hence, in the uniform topology Rω , subspace A doesnot have a countable basis.
Therefore, Rω is not second countable.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about first countable and second countable spaces
and relation among them. We have illustrated these concepts with several exam-
ples.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that if X is second countable, then every basis C for X contains a


countable basis for X.

2. Continuous image of a first countable space is first countable. True or False?


Justify.

3. Is (R, co − countable) is second countable? Justify.

4. Show that Rn is second countable.

5. Is continuous image of a second countable space, second countable?

6. Any base for a second-countable space has a countable subfamily which is


still a base. True or false?

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KEY WORDS
First countable, second countable, metric space, cofinite topology, cocountable
topology.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 116


UNIT 03-04: LINDELÖF SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Differentiate between countable spaces: first, second, separable and Lin-


delöf

 Illustrate these spaces with examples

INTRODUCTION
We have seen the first countable and second countable axioms. Other than the
these two countable axioms, there are other two alternative countable axioms,
namely separable and Lindelöf. Even though these two axioms are weaker than
the second countable, they have their own importance.

Definition 3.4.1. A subset A of a space X is said to be dense in X if Ā = X.

Definition 3.4.2. A space X is said to be Lindelöf space, if every open covering


of X contains a countable sub covering.

Definition 3.4.3. A space X is said to be separable, if it has a countable dense


subset.

We now prove that every second countable space is Lindelöf as well as sepa-
rable.

Theorem 3.4.4. Every second countable space is a Lindelöf space.

Proof. Let B = {Bn | n ∈ N} be a countable basis for X.


Let A be an open covering of X.
Consider B 0 = {B ∈ B | ∃Uα ∈ A such that B ⊂ Uα }.
S
We show that B = X.
B∈B 0

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Let x ∈ X. Then ∃Uα ∈ A such that x ∈ Uα .
Since B is basis for X, ∃B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ Uα .
Then B ∈ B 0 and x ∈ B.
Now for each B ∈ B 0 , choose UB = Uα such that B ⊂ Uα .
B⊂
S S
Then X = UB .
B∈B 0 B∈B 0
Therefore,{UB | B ∈ B 0 } is a countable subcover for X.

Theorem 3.4.5. Every second countable space is a separable space.

Proof. Let B = {Bn | n ∈ N} be a countable basis for X.


For each n ∈ N, let xn ∈ Bn .
Let D = {xn | xn ∈ Bn , n ∈ N}.
To show D is dense in X, let x ∈ X and x ∈ U be an open set.
Since B is a basis for X, ∃n ∈ N such that Bn ⊂ U.
xn ∈ Bn implies xn ∈ U and hence D ∩U 6= 0.
/

Lindelöf spaces are not as nice as first and second countable spaces in the
sense that they are not passed on to subspaces and products.

Example 3.4.6. A subspace of a Lindelöf space need not be Lindelöf.

Proof. The ordered square I02 = [0, 1] × [0, 1] is compact; therefore it is Lindelf.
Now consider the subspace A = I × (0, 1).
Then A is the union of the disjoint sets Ux = {x} × (0, 1), each of which is open
in A. This collection of sets is uncountable, and no proper subcollection covers A.
Therefore A is not Lindelöf.

However, Lindelöf spaces can be passed on to closed subspaces as we prove.

Theorem 3.4.7. A closed subspace of a Lindelöf space is Lindelöf.

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Proof. Let Y be a closed subspace of a Lindelöf space X.
To show Y is Lindelöf, let A = {Uα | α ∈ J} be an open cover for Y .
Then Uα = Uα0 ∩Y where Uα0 is open in X.
Let A 0 = {Uα0 | α ∈ J}. Then A 0 ∪ (X −Y ) is an open cover for X.
Since X is Lindelöf, this cover has a countbale sub cover, say U10 ,U20 , ....
If some Ui0 contains (X −Y ), drop that Ui0 .
Then the collection U1 ,U2 , ... is a countable subcover for Y .

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: The space Rl (lower limit topology) is separable.
Solution: Let A be an open covering for Rl .
Then for any U ∈ A , there exists a basis element [aα , bα ) contained in U. So if
open cover of basis elements has a countable sub cover then A will have countable
sub cover.
So without loss of generality, let A = {[aα , bα ) | α ∈ J} be an covering of Rl .
S
Let C be the set C = α∈J (aα , bα ) which is a subset of R.
We show the set R −C is countable.
Let x be a point of R −C.
Since x ∈
/ C, x belongs to no open interval (aα , bα ), therefore x = aβ for some
index β .
Choose such a β and then choose qx to be a rational number belonging to the
interval (aβ , bβ ).
Define f : R −C → Q by f (x) = qx .
To show f is injective, let x, y ∈ R −C with x < y.
Then f (x) = qx ∈ (aβ , bβ ) Implies qx < bβ
Since x < y and y ∈
/ (aβ , bβ ), we get y > bβ .
Therefore, f (x) = qx < bβ < y < f (y), hence f is injective.
(∵ y = aγ and f (y) ∈ (aγ , bγ ) Implies y = aγ < f (y))

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Therefore R −C is countable.
0
Choose a countable sub collection A of A that covers R −C.
Since C is a subset of R, C is a subspace of (R, usual topology) and hence second
countable. Now C is covered by the sets (aα , bα ), which are open in R and hence
open in C.
Then there exists a countable subcollection (aα , bα ) for α = α1 , α2 , .. covering C.
00
Then the collection A = {[aα , bα )|α = α1 , α2 , ..} is a countable subcollection
of A that covers the set C.
0
Now A ∪ A ” is a countable sub collection of A that covers Rl .
Therefore Rl is Lindelöf.
Problem 04-02: The product of two Lindelöf spaces need not be Lindelöf.
Solution: Even though the space Rl is Lindelöf, we prove that the product space
Rl × Rl = R2l is not Lindelöf.
Basis for R2l consists of the sets of the form [a, b) × [c, d).
To show it is not Lindelöf, consider the subspace L = {x × (−x)|x ∈ Rl }.
Then L is closed in R2l and R2l \ L is open.
Now we can cover R2l by the open set R2l − L and by all basis elements of the form
[a, b) × [−a, d).
Each of these open sets intersects L in at most one point.
Since L is uncountable, no countable subcollection covers R2l .
Therefore R2l is not Lindelöf.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 03-04-01 Consider the following

(I) Every second countable space is Lindelöf.

(II) Every second countable space is separable. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

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(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 03-04-02 Consider the following

(I) Every separable space is first countable.

(II) Every first countable space is separable. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 03-04-03 Which of the following is false?

(A) The space Rl is first countable

(B) The space Rl is second countable

(C) The space Rl is Lindelöf

(D) The space Rl is separable.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 03-04-01: Show that continuous image of a separable space is separable.
Solution: let X be a separable space and f be continuous.
Then f (Ā) ⊂ f (A).
Which implies f (X) ⊂ f (A).
Thus f (A) = f (X).
Therefore, f (A) is dense in f (X) implies f (X) is separable.

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SAQ 03-04-02: Is a subspace of a separable space, separable? Justify.
Solution: No. For example, consider X = R with the topology T = {U | 0 ∈
U} ∪ {0}.
/
Then (X, T ) is separable
Where as Y = X − {0} is not separable as the topology on it is discrete.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about separable spaces and Lindelöf spaces. We
have discussed several examples to understand these spaces.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that (R, co f inite) is separable.

2. Is (R, discrete) separable? Justify.

3. Show that R with finite complement topology is Lindelöf.

4. Give example of first countable, but not separable.

5. Give an example of a space which is separable but not second countable.

6. Is continuous image of a Lindelöf space is Lindelöf?

KEY WORDS
Countable, dense, separable and Lindelöf spaces.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 122


MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 123


CREDIT 04

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 124


UNIT 04-01: SEPARATION AXIOMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Differentiate between the separation axioms: T0 , T1 and T2

 Illustrate these spaces with examples

INTRODUCTION
The separation axioms are about the use of topological means to distinguish dis-
joint sets and distinct points. Separation axioms depends on how rich is the topo-
logical space interms of open sets. More the open sets in a space, it separates
more points and sets. The separation axioms are denoted with the letter ”T”, as
the word for separation in German is Trennung. In this section, we discuss three
separation axioms: T0 , T1 and T2 .

Definition 4.1.1 (T0 axiom). A topological space X is said to satisfy T0 axiom, if


given two distinct points x and y from X, there exists an open set U containing
exactly one of these points, i.e. x ∈ U and y ∈
/ U or x ∈
/ U and y ∈ U. A space is
called T0 if it satisfies T0 axiom. T0 space is also called Kolmogorov space.

Definition 4.1.2 (T1 axiom). A topological space X satisfies T1 axiom, if for given
two distinct points x, y ∈ X, there exist two open sets U and V such that x ∈ U,y ∈
/U
and y ∈ V ,x ∈
/ U.

Definition 4.1.3 (T2 axiom). A topological space X satisfies T2 axiom, if for given
two distinct points x, y ∈ X, there exist two disjoint open sets U and V such that
x ∈ U and y ∈ V . T2 space is also called Hausdorff space, which we have seen
already.

Remark 4.1.4. The following observations justify why the above axioms are
called separation axioms:

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1. In a T0 space, any two distinct points are separated( or distinguishable) by
an open set.

2. In a T1 space, any two distinct points are separated( or distinguishable) by


two open sets ( need not be disjoint).

3. In a T2 space, any two distinct points are separated( or distinguishable) by


two disjoint open sets.

4. We can understand these spaces through the following diagram:

Figure 4.1:

5. We can also observe that T2 =⇒ T1 =⇒ T0 .

Example 4.1.5. Let X = {a, b, c} with topology T = {0,


/ X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
Then X is a T0 space.

Proof. The open set {a} separates a and b; a and c.


Similarly the open set {b} separates b and c.
Therefore, X is a T0 space.

Example 4.1.6. The discrete topology with atleast two points is a T0 space, as
every singleton is open.

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Example 4.1.7. The indiscrete topology with atleast two points is not a T0 space,
as X is the only non empty open set.

Example 4.1.8. Let X = {a, b, c} with topology T = {0,


/ X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
Then X is a T0 space but not T1 .

Proof. If we take a and c, then the only open set containing c is X, which also
contains a. Thus we cannot separate these two elements by two open sets.
Hence X is not T1 .

Theorem 4.1.9. A space X is T1 space if and only if each singleton set is closed
in X.

Proof. Suppose X is T1 space and x ∈ X.


To show X \ {x} open, let y ∈ X \ {x}.
As x 6= y, there exists two open sets U and V such that x ∈ U but y ∈
/ V and y ∈ V
but x ∈
/ V.
Implies y ∈ V ⊂ X \ {x}.
Hence X \ {x} open is open i.e. {x} is closed.
Conversely, suppose each singleton is closed in X.
Let x, y ∈ X with x 6= y.
Then U = X \ {y} and V = X \ {x} are open such that x ∈ U but y ∈
/ V and y ∈ V
but x ∈
/ V.
Therefore, X is T1 space.

Theorem 4.1.10. The space X is a Hausdorff space if and only if ∆ = {a × a|a ∈


X} is closed in X × X.

Proof. Let X be a Hausdorff space and a × b ∈ ∆c


Then a 6= b. As X is Hausdorff, there exists two open sets Ua and Ub with a ∈ Ua
and b ∈ Vb such that Ua ∩Vb = 0/

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/ we get Ua ×Vb ⊂ ∆c
As Ua ∩Vb = 0,
Thus a × b ∈ Ua ×Vb ⊂ ∆c
Therefore, ∆c is open in X × X implies ∆ is closed in X × X.
Conversely, suppose ∆ is closed in X × X.
Let x, y ∈ X such that x 6= y then x × y ∈
/∆
Implies x × y ∈ ∆c .
Since ∆c is open, ∃ open set U ×V in X × X such that x × y ∈ U ×V ⊂ ∆c
Implies x ∈ U and y ∈ V and U ∩V = 0/
Thus X is Hausdorff.

Theorem 4.1.11. 1. Every simple order set is a Hausdorff space in the order
topology.

2. A subspace of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff .

3. Product of two Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff.

Proof. 1. Let A be a simply ordered subset of X and x, y ∈ A with x 6= y, say


x < y.
Consider the set S = {z|x < z < y}
If S = 0,
/ then U = (−∞, y) and V = (x, ∞) are neighbourhoods of x and y
such that U ∩V = 0.
/
If S 6= 0,
/ say z ∈ S, then U = (−∞, z) and V = (z, ∞) are neighbourhoods of
x and y such that U ∩V = 0.
/
Implies A is Hausdorff.

2. Let Y be a subspace of X and x, y ∈ Y with x 6= y.


Since X is Hausdorff, there exists open sets U and V such that x ∈ U, y ∈
V, U ∩V = 0/
Then x ∈ U ∩Y and y ∈ V ∩Y and (U ∩Y ) ∩ (V ∩Y ) = 0.
/
Hence Y is Hausdorff.

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3. Suppose X and Y are Hausdorff spaces.
Let x1 × y1 , x2 × y2 ∈ X ×Y such that x1 × y1 6= x2 × y2
Implies x1 6= x2 or y1 6= y2 .
If x1 6= x2 then ∃U,V such that x1 ∈ U then x2 ∈ V, U ∩V = 0.
/
Implies x1 ×y1 ∈ U ×Y and x2 ×y2 ∈ V ×Y such that (U ×Y )∩(V ×Y ) = 0.
/
Therefore X ×Y is a Hausdorff space.

Theorem 4.1.12. Let f : X → Y, g : X → Y be continuous functions from a space


X to a Hausdorff space Y and suppose that f (x) = g(x) for all x in a dense subset
D of X. Then f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ X.

Proof. Suppose f (x) 6= g(x) for some x ∈ X.


As Y is Hausdorff, there exist two disjoint open sets U and V of Y such that
f (x) ∈ U and g(x) ∈ V .
Since f and g are continuous, f −1 (U) and g−1 (V ) are open in X.
Implies f −1 (U) ∩ g−1 (V ) is open in X containing x.
As D is dense in X, we get that D ∩ ( f −1 (U) ∩ g−1 (V )) 6= 0.
/
Let z ∈ D ∩ ( f −1 (U) ∩ g−1 (V )).
Then f (z) ∈ U and g(z) ∈ V .
As U ∩V = 0,
/ we get f (z) 6= g(z), which is a contradiction.
Thus f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ X.

Remark 4.1.13. The above theorem is not true if Y is not T2 .


To see this, consider X = (R,
 usual), Y = (R, indiscrete) and D = Q.

1 x ∈ D

Define f : R → by f (x) =
2 x ∈/D

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1 x∈D

and g : R → by g(x) =
3 x∈
/D


Then f and g are continuous as Y is indiscrete.
Also f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ D.
But f 6= g as f (x) 6= g(x) for x ∈
/ D.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: A finite T1 space is discrete.
Solution: Let X = {x1 , ..., xn }.
We have to show that each {xi } is open
But {xi }c = {x1 , ..., xi−1 , xi+1 , ..., xn } is finite and hence closed in X.
Thus X is discrete.
Problem 01-02: R together with finite complement topology is T1 but not T2 .
Solution: Let x, y ∈ R with x 6= y.
Then U = R \ {y} and V = R \ {x} are open such that
x ∈ U but y ∈
/ V and y ∈ V but x ∈
/ V.
Therefore, R is T1 space.
Suppose that R is T2 .
Then for 0, 1 ∈ R , there exists two open sets 0 ∈ U ; 1 ∈ V and U ∩V = 0.
/
As U and V are open, U c and V c are finite.
Also U ∩V = 0/ implies U ⊂ V c and so U is finite.
Then R = U ∪U c is finite, which is absurd.
Hence R together with finite complement topology is not T2 .
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 04-01-01 Consider the statements

(I) Subspace of a T1 space is T1

(II) Subspace of a T2 space is T2 . Then

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(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 04-01-02 Which of the following is true?

(I) A space is T1 if and only every singleton is closed.

(II) A space is T2 if and only every singleton is closed. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 04-01-01: The real line R with usual topology is a T1 space.
Solution: Let x, y ∈ R with x 6= y, say x < y.
Then U = (−∞, y) and V = (x, ∞) are two open sets such that x ∈ U, y ∈
/ U and
y ∈ V, x ∈
/ V.
Therefore, R with usual topology is a T1 space.
SAQ 04-01-02: Let X be a topological space and Y a Hausdorff space. Let f and g
be a continuous function from X to Y . Show that the set C = {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)}
is a closed set.
Solution: Let A = {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)}, and x ∈ A.
As Y is Hausdorff and f (x) 6= g(x), there exists two disjoint open sets U and V
such that f (x) ∈ U and g(x) ∈ V .
As f and g are continuous, we get f −1 (U) and g−1 (V ) are open in X.

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Let W = f −1 (U) ∩ g−1 (V ). Then W is open in X and x ∈ W .
Also W ⊂ A. Therefore, we have x ∈ W ⊂ A.
Hence A is open implies C = Ac is closed.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about T0 , T1 , T2 spaces and the relation among
them with several examples.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that R with the topology T = {A ⊂ R | 0 ∈ A} ∪ {0}


/ is not T1 space.

2. Give an example of a space which is not T2 , but in which any sequence has
at most one limit.

3. Is R with usual topology a T2 space? Justify.

4. Is product of T2 spaces, a T2 space? Justify.

5. Show that a subspace of a T1 space is T1 .

6. Is a metric space T2 space? Justify.

KEY WORDS
T0 , T1 , T2 spaces, Hausdorff space.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 132


WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 133


UNIT 04-02: REGULAR AND NORMAL SPACES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Examine the relationship between regular and normal spaces

 Illustrate these spaces with examples

INTRODUCTION
In the previous section, we have seen three separation axioms. In this section
we discuss two more important separation axioms: regular and normal. We also
exhibit whether these can be passed on to subspaces and products.

Definition 4.2.1. Let X be a topological space which is T1 . Then X is called


regular if for every closed subset B ⊂ X and for every x ∈ X \ B, there exist disjoint
open sets U and V of X such that x ∈ U and A ⊂ V .

Definition 4.2.2. Let X be a topological space which is T1 . Then X is called


normal if given two disjoint closed subsets A and B of X, there exist disjoint open
sets U and V of X such that A ⊂ U and B ⊂ V .

These two spaces are represented in the following diagram:

Figure 4.2:

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In the following lemmas, we give an equivalent definitions for regular and
normal spaces.

Lemma 4.2.3. Let X be a topological space and one-point sets in X be closed.


Then X is regular if and only if given a point x of X and a neighborhood U of x,
there is a neighborhood V of x such that V̄ ⊂ U.

Proof. Suppose that X is regular.


Let x ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of x.
Then B = X −U is a closed set and x ∈
/ B.
By hypothesis, there exist disjoint open sets V and W such that
x ∈ V and B ⊂ W
Therefore B = X −U ⊂ W Implies U ⊃ X −W .
Since V ∩W = 0,
/ V ⊂ X −W
Since X −W is closed, we get V̄ ⊂ X −W ⊂ U. Therefore, V̄ ⊂ U.
To prove the converse, suppose the point x and the closed set B such that x ∈
/ B are
given.
Then U = X − B is open and x ∈ U.
By hypothesis, there is a neighborhood V of x such that V̄ ⊂ U.
Then the open sets V and X − V̄ are disjoint such that x ∈ V and B ⊂ X − V̄ . Thus
X is regular.

Lemma 4.2.4. Let X be a topological space and one-point sets in X be closed.


Then X is normal if and only if given a closed set A and an open set U containing
A, there is an open set V containing A such that V̄ ⊂ U.

Proof. Suppose that X is normal.


Let A ⊂ X be closed and U be open such that A ⊂ U.
Then B = X −U is a closed set and A ∩ B = 0.
/
By hypothesis, there exist disjoint open sets V and W such that

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A ⊂ V and B ⊂ W
Therefore B = X −U ⊂ W Implies U ⊃ X −W .
Since V ∩W = 0,
/ V ⊂ X −W
Since X −W is closed, we get V̄ ⊂ X −W ⊂ U. Therefore, V̄ ⊂ U.
To prove the converse, suppose that A and B are disjoint closed sets.
Then U = X − B is open and A ⊂ U.
By hypothesis, there is an open set V containing A such that V̄ ⊂ U.
Then the open sets V and X − V̄ are disjoint open sets containing A and B, respec-
tively. Thus X is normal.

Example 4.2.5. The space Rl is normal.

Proof. Since Rl is finer than R and one-point sets are closed in R, we get that
one-point sets are closed in Rl .
To check normality, suppose that A and B are disjoint closed sets in Rl .
Let a ∈ A. Since Rl − B is open and a ∈ Rl − B, there exists a basis element [a, xa )
such that [a, xa ) ⊂ Rl − B. i.e. for each a ∈ A, [a, xa ) ∩ B = 0.
/
Similarly, for b ∈ B, choose a basis element [b, xb ) such that [b, xb ) ∩ A = 0.
/
S S
Now let U = [a, xa ) and V = [b, xb ).
a∈A b∈B
suppose z ∈ U ∩ V , then ∃a ∈ A and b ∈ B such that z ∈ [a, xa ) and z ∈ [b, xb ).
Suppose a < b. Then a < b ≤ z < xa implies b ∈ [a, xa ), which is a contradiction.
([a, xa ) ∩ B = 0)
/
Therefore U and V are disjoint open sets containing A and B respectively.
Hence Rl is normal.

Remark 4.2.6. 1. As Rl is normal, it is also regular, and hence Rl × Rl is


regular.

2. The space Rl is normal, but Rl × Rl is not normal. Thus product of normal


spaces need not be normal.

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3. Also Rl ×Rl is regular but not normal. So not every regular space is normal,
but regular space with countable basis is normal as we prove in next result.

Theorem 4.2.7. Every regular space with a countable basis is normal.

Proof. Let X be a regular space with a countable basis B.


Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X.
As X is regular and X −B is open, for each point a ∈ A, there exists a neighborhood
Va ∈ B such that V¯a ⊂ X − B.
Since B is countable, the collection {Va | a ∈ A} is countable and hence we can
relabel them by Vi , i ∈ N.

Therefore, A ⊂ Vi and V̄i ∩ B = 0/ for all i ∈ N.
S
i=1

Similarly ∃Ui in B, i ∈ N, such that B ⊂ Ui and Ūi ∩ A = 0/ for all i ∈ N.
S
i=1
Now let U10 = U1 − V¯1 and V10 = V1 − U¯1 .
Then U10 and V10 are open such that U10 ∩V10 = 0,
/ U10 ∩B = U1 ∩B and V10 ∩A = V1 ∩A.

Figure 4.3:

By inductively we define,
n n
Un0 = Un \ and Vn0 = Vn \
[ [
V̄i Ūi
i=1 i=1

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0 0
so that Un and Vn are open such that Un0 ∩ Vn0 = 0,
/ Un0 ∩ B = Un ∩ B and Vn0 ∩ A =
Vn ∩ A.
∞ ∞
Now let U 0 = Un0 and V 0 = Vn0 .
S S
i=1 i=1
Then A ⊂ V 0 and B ⊂ U 0 ; U 0 and V 0 are open.
Suppose U 0 ∩V 0 6= 0,
/ say x ∈ U 0 ∩V 0 .
Then x ∈ Ui0 and x ∈ V j0 . Supose i ≤ j.
Since x ∈ V j0 implies, x ∈
/ Ūk for all k = 1, 2, ..., j
/ Ūi , which is a contradiction. (∵ x ∈ Ui0 )
In particular, x ∈
Therefore U 0 and V 0 are disjoint open sets containing A and B.
Hence X is normal.

Theorem 4.2.8. Every metrizable space is normal.

Proof. Let X be a metrizable space with metric d.


Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X.
Let a ∈ A. Then a ∈ X − B and X − B is open.
So ∃εa > 0 such that B(a, εa ) ⊂ X − B.
i.e., for each a ∈ A, ∃εa > 0 such that B(a, εa ) ∩ B = 0.
/
Similarly for each b ∈ B, ∃εb > 0 such that B(b, εb ) ∩ A = 0.
/
B(a, ε3a ) and V = B(b, ε3b )
S S
Now let U =
a∈A b∈B
Then U and V are open sets containing A and B, respectively.
we prove that U and V are disjoint. For if z ∈ U ∩ V , then z ∈ B(a, ε3a ) ∩ B(b, ε3b )
for some a ∈ A and some b ∈ B.
By triangle inequality, we get d(a, b) < ( ε3a + ε3b ).
2εb
If εa ≤ εb , then d(a, b) < 3 so that a ∈ B(b, εb ).
2εa
If εb ≤ εa , then d(a, b) < 3 so that b ∈ B(a, εa ), which is a contradiction in either
case. Therefore U and V are disjoint containing A and B.
Hence X is normal.

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Theorem 4.2.9. Every well-ordered set X is normal in the order topology.

Proof. Let X be a well-ordered set.


We prove that every interval of the form (x, y] is open in X.
If y is the largest element of X, then (x, y] is a basis element in the order topology.
0 0
If y is not the largest element of X, then (x, y] = (x, y ) where y is the immediate
successor of y.
Now let A and B be disjoint closed sets in X.
Suppose assume that neither A nor B contains the smallest element a0 of X.
Let a ∈ A. Since X − B is open and a ∈ X − B, there exists a basis element C such
that a ∈ C ⊂ X − B.
Since a is not the smallest element of X, C contains some interval of the form
(xa , a], i.e. for each a ∈ A, choose an interval (xa , a] such that (xa , a] ∩ B = 0.
/
Similarly, for each b ∈ B, choose an interval (yb , b] such that (yb , b] ∩ A = 0.
/
S S
Then the sets U = (xa , a] and V = (yb , b] are open sets containing A and B,
a∈A b∈B
respectively;
We prove that they are disjoint. For suppose that z ∈ U ∩V .
Then z ∈ (xa , a] ∩ (yb , b] for some a ∈ A and some b ∈ B. Assume that a < b.
Then if a ≤ yb the two intervals are disjoint, while if a > yb , we have a ∈ (yb , b],
contrary to the fact that (yb , b] ∩ A = 0.
/
A similar contradiction occurs if b < a.
Now suppose assume that A contains the smallest element ao of X.
The set {a0 } is both open and closed in X.
Then A − {a0 } and B are disjoint closed sets not containing the minimal element
of X.
By the result of the preceding paragraph, there exist disjoint open sets U and V
containing the closed sets A − a0 and B, respectively.
Then U ∪ {a0 } and V are disjoint open sets containing A and B, respectively.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: A subspace of a regular space is regular; a product of regular
spaces is regular.
Solution: Let Y be a subspace of the regular space X.
Then one-point sets are closed in Y .
(∵ {x} = {x} ∩Y and {x} is closed in X).
Let x ∈ Y and B be a closed subset of Y such that x ∈
/ B.
Now B̄ ∩Y = B, where B̄ denotes the closure of B in X.
Therefore, x ∈
/ B̄. Since X is regular, there exist disjoint open sets U and V of X
such that x ∈ U and B̄ ⊂ V .
Then U ∩Y and V ∩Y are disjoint open sets in Y such that
x ∈ U ∩Y and B̄ ∩Y = B ⊂ V ∩Y . Therefore, Y is regular.
Let {Xα } be a family of regular spaces and X = ∏ Xα .
Since each Xα is Hausdorff, X = ∏ Xα is Hausdorff.
Hence one-point sets are closed in X.
To prove X regular, let x = (Xα ) ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of x in X.
Since U is open, ∃ a basis element ∏ Uα about x such that ∏ Uα ⊂ U.
Since Xα is regular and xα ∈ Uα , there exists a neighborhood Vα of xα in Xα such
that V̄α ⊂ Uα .
If Uα = Xα , then take Vα = Xα .
Then V = ∏ Vα is a neighborhood of x in X.

Since V̄ = ∏ Vα = ∏ V̄α , we get that V̄ = ∏ V̄α ⊂ ∏ Uα ⊂ U.

Therefore V̄ ⊂ U and hence X is regular.


Problem 02-02: Every compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Solution: Let X be a compact Hausdorif space.
Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X.
Then A and B are compact.

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Let a ∈ A. Then since X is Hausdorff and B is compact, there exists disjoint open
sets Ua and Va containing a and B, respectively.
The collection {Ua } covers A; because A is compact, A may be covered by finitely
many sets Ua1 , ...,Uam .
Take U = Ua1 ∪ ... ∪Uam and V = Va1 ∩ ... ∩Vam
Suppose x ∈ U ∩ V , then there exists j such that x ∈ Ua j . As x ∈ V , x ∈ Va j , so
x ∈ Ua j ∩Va j , which is a contradiction.
Therefore, U and V are disjoint open sets containing A and B, respectively.
Hence every compact Hausdorff space is normal.
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 04-02-01 Which of the statements are true?

(I) Every regular space is Hausdorff.

(II) Every normal space is regular.

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 04-02-02 Which of the following is false?

(A) The space Rl is regular

(B) The space Rl is normal

(C) The space Rl × Rl is regular

(D) The space Rl × Rl is normal

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01
SAQ 04-02-01: The space RK is not regular.
Solution: The set K is closed in RK , because K c = R \ {1, 21 , ...} can be written as
union of the basis elements: K c = (−∞, −4) ∪ [(−5, 5) \ K] ∪ (4, ∞) and thus K c
is open.
Also 0 ∈
/ K.
Suppose that there exist disjoint open sets U and V with 0 ∈ U and K ⊂ V .
Choose a basis element containing 0 and lying in U.
It must be a basis element of the form (a, b) − K, since each basis element of the
form (a, b) containing 0 intersects K.
Choose n large enough that 1/n ∈ (a, b).
Then choose a basis element about 1/n contained in V ; it must be a basis element
of the form (c, d).
Finally, choose z so that z < 1/n and z > max(c, 1/(n + 1)).
Then z belongs to both U and V , so they are not disjoint.
SAQ 04-02-02: Show that a closed subspace of a normal space is normal.
Solution: Let X be a normal space and Y be a closed subspace of X.
To show Y normal, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of Y .
As Y is closed in X, the sets A and B are also closed X.
Since X is normal, there exists two disjoint open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U
and B ⊂ V .
Then U ∩Y and V ∩Y are disjoint open sets of Y containing A and B.
Hence Y is normal.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about regular and normal spaces and the relation
among them with several examples.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

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1. Show that every order topology is regular.

2. If X is regular, show that every pair of points of X have neighborhoods


whose closures are disjoint.

3. Is Rω normal in the product topology?

4. If ∏ Xα is regular, then Xα is regular. True or false?

5. Is compact space normal? Justify.

6. Is every metric space is normal?

KEY WORDS
Regular space, Normal space, Metric space, Hausdorff space.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji, Topology, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and O. L. Spencer, Elementary Topology, John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 143


UNIT 04-03: THE URYSOHN’s LEMMA
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Outline the proof of Urysohn’s lemma

 Apply Urysohn’s lemma to prove Tietze extension theorem

INTRODUCTION
In this section, we learn one of the deeper results, called Urysohn’s lemma, which
guarantees the existence of continuous real valued function on a normal space. We
also see one of the consequence of Urysohn’s lemma, namely, Tietze extension
theorem which is an important result that asserts the extension of a continuous
function defined on a subspace to the whole space.

Theorem 4.3.1. (Urysohn’s Lemma) Let X be a normal space; let A and B be


disjoint closed subsets of X. Let [a, b] be a closed interval in the real line. Then
there exists a continuous function f : X → [a, b] such that f (x) = a for all x ∈ A,
and f (x) = b for all x ∈ B.

Proof. It is enough to prove for f : X → [0, 1] as [a, b] is homeomorphic to [0, 1].


Let D = { 2kn : k = 1, ..., 2n , n ∈ N} be the set of dyadic numbers in [0, 1].
We first prove that for each p ∈ D, there exists an open set U p of X such that,
whenever p < q, we have A ⊂ U p ⊂ Ū p ⊂ Uq ⊂ Ūq ⊂ X − B.
Since A and B are disjoint closed sets, we get A ⊂ X − B and X − B is open.
As X is normal, there exists an open set U 1 such that A ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ X − B.
2 2 2

Again as A ⊂ U 1 and Ū 1 ⊂ X − B, there exist open sets U 1 and U 3 such that


2 2 4 4

A ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 1 and Ū 1 ⊂ U 3 ⊂ Ū 3 ⊂ X − B. So we have,
4 4 2 2 4 4

A ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 3 ⊂ Ū 3 ⊂ X − B.
4 4 2 2 4 4

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Continuing by induction we obtain open sets of X such that

A ⊆ U2−n ⊆ Ū2−n ⊆ U2.2−n ⊆ Ū2.2−n ⊆ ...U(2−n −1)2−n ⊆ Ū(2−n −1)2−n ⊆ X − B

Since for any p ∈ D, p = k.2−n for some 0 < k < 2n , there exists a open set U p
and if p < q, then UP ⊂ Uq .

 inf{d : x ∈ U }, i f x ∈ S

d d∈D Ud
Now we define, f : X → [0, 1] by f (x) =
if x ∈
S
 1,
 / d∈D Ud
Then f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ A because, A ⊆ Ud , for all d ∈ D and D is dense in [0, 1].
As B ∩Ud = 0/ for all d ∈ D, we get f (b) = 1 for all b ∈ B.
If x ∈ Ūr , then x ∈ Us for every s > r.
Therefore, s ∈ {p | x ∈ U p }, so f (x) = inf{p | x ∈ U p } ≤ inf{s | r < s} ≤ r.
If x ∈
/ Ur , then x ∈
/ Us for every s < r.
Therefore, s ∈
/ {p | x ∈ U p } and hence f (x) = inf{p | x ∈ U p } ≥ r.
Now we prove the continuity of f . Let x0 ∈ X and an open interval (c, d) in [0, 1]
containing f (x0 ).
We will find a neighborhood U of x0 such that f (U) ⊂ (c, d).
Since D is dense in [0, 1], ∃p, q ∈ D such that c < p < f (x0 ) < q < d.
Let U = Uq − Ū p . Since f (x0 ) < q, we have x0 ∈ Uq . (as if x0 ∈
/ Uq , then f (x0 ) ≥ q)
Also as f (x0 ) > p, we have x0 ∈
/ Ū p .
To show f (U) ⊂ (c, d), let x ∈ U.
Then x ∈ Uq ⊂ Ūq implies f (x) ≤ q.
Since x ∈
/ Ū p , we have x ∈
/ U p and hence f (x) ≥ p.
Thus f (x) ∈ [p, q] ⊂ (c, d). Hence f (U) ⊂ (c, d).

Theorem 4.3.2. (Tietze extension theorem). Let X be a normal space; let A be a


closed subspace of X.

1. Any continuous map of A into the closed interval [a, b] of R may be extended
to a continuous map of all of X into [a, b]

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2. Any continuous map of A into R may be extended to a continuous map of
all of X into R.

Proof. Step 1. Let f : A → [−r, r] be continuous.


We assert that there exists a continuous function g : X → R such that

1
|g(x)| ≤ r for all x ∈ X,
3
2
|g(a) f (a)| < r for all a ∈ A.
3
The function g is constructed as follows:
Divide the interval [−r, r] into three equal intervals of length 32 r as

1 1 1 1
I1 = [−r, − r] I2 = [− r, r] I3 = [ r, r]
3 3 3 3

Consider the subsets B = f −1 (I1 ) and C = f −1 (I3 ) of A.


Because f is continuous, B and C are closed disjoint subsets of A.
Therefore, they are closed in X.
Then by the Urysohn lemma, there exists a continuous function g : X → [− 13 r, 13 r]
having the property that g(x) = − 31 r for each x ∈ B, and g(x) = 13 r for each x ∈ C.
Then |g(x)| ≤ 13 r for all x.
We prove that for each a in A, |g(a) − f (a)| ≤ 23 r
There are three cases: if a ∈ B, then both f (a) and g(a) belong to I1 ; if a ∈ C,
then f (a) and g(a) are in I3 ; and if a ∈
/ B ∪C, then f (a) and g(a) are in I2 . In each
case, |g(a) − f (a)| ≤ 23 r.
Step 2. We now prove part (1) of the Tietze theorem.
Without loss of generality, we can replace the arbitrary closed interval [a, b] of R
by the interval [−1, 1], as they are homeomorphic.
Let f : X → [−1, 1] be a continuous map. Then f satisfies the hypotheses of Step
1, with r = 1.

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Therefore, there exists a continuous real-valued function g1 defined on all of X,
such that
|g1 (x)| ≤ 1/3 f or x ∈ X,

| f (a) − g1 (a)| ≤ 2/3 f or a ∈ A.

Now consider the function f −g1 . This function maps A into the interval [2/3, 2/3].
So again by Step 1, with r = 2/3, we get g2 defined on all of X such that

12
|g2 (x)| ≤ f or x ∈ X,
3 3
 2 2
| f (a) − g1 (a) − g2 (a)| ≤ f or a ∈ A.
3
We apply Step 1 to the function f − g1 − g2 And so on.
 n
2
At the (n + 1)th step, applying step1 to the function f − g1 − ...gn , with r = 3 ,
we obtain a real-valued function gn+1 on all all of X such that

1  2 n
|gn+1 (x)| ≤ f or x ∈ X,
3 3
 2 n
| f (a) − g1 (a) − ...gn (a)| ≤ f or a ∈ A.
3
By induction, the functions gn are defined for all n.
We now define g(x) = ∑∞
n=1 gn (x) for all x in X.

Let sn (x) = ∑ni=1 gi (x), the n-th partial sum of the series.
 n−1
The series g(x) converges by comparison with the geometric series 31 ∑∞
n=1
2
3 .
We show that the sequence sn converges to g uniformly. For k > n,
k
|sk (x) − sn (x)| = ∑ gi (x)
i=n+1
k  2 i−1
1
≤ ∑ 3
3 i=n+1
1 ∞  2 i−1  2 n
= ∑ 3 =
3 i=n+1 3

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 n
2
Holding n fixed and letting k → ∞ we see that |g(x) − sn (x)| ≤ 3 for all x ∈ X.
Therefore, sn converges to g uniformly.
Since each sn is continuous, we get that g is continuous.
We show that g(a) = f (a) for a ∈ A.
 n
2
Since | f (a) − ∑ni=1 gi (a)| = | f (a) − sn (a)| ≤ 3 for all a in A,
it follows that sn → f (a) for all a ∈ A.
Therefore, we have f (a) = g(a) for a ∈ A.
Since the series (1/3) ∑(2/3)n converges to 1, we conclude that g maps X into the
interval [1, 1].
Step 3 We now prove f maps A into R.
We can replace R by the open interval (1, 1), as (1, 1) is homeomorphic to R.
So let f : A → (−1, 1) be a continuous map.
Then we can extend f to a continuous map g : X → [1, 1].
Now consider the set D = g−1 (−1) ∪ g−1 (1).
As g is continuous, D is a closed subset of X.
Because g(A) = f (A), which is contained in (1, 1), the set A is disjoint from D.
By the Urysohn lemma, there exists a continuous function φ : X → [0, 1] such that
φ (D) = {0} and φ (A) = {1}.
Define h(x) = φ (x)g(x). Then h is continuous.
Since h(a) = φ (a)g(a) = 1.g(a) = f (a) for all a ∈ A, h is an extension of f .
If x ∈ D, then h(x) = 0.g(x) = 0 and if x ∈
/ D, then |g(x)| < 1 and so |h(x)| < 1.
Thus h maps all of X into (−1, 1).

SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 04-03-01 Let X be a normal space and A be a closed subspace of X.

(I) Any continuous map on [a, b] can be extended to whole X

(II) Any continuous map on A can be extended to whole X. Then

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(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

MCQ 04-03-02 Consider the two statements

(I) Uryshon’s lemma is stated for normal spaces.

(II) Uryshon’s lemma is stated for regular spaces. Then

(A) Only (I) is true.

(B) Only (II) is true.

(C) Both (I) and (II) are true.

(D) Both (I) and (II) are false.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 04-03-01: In the proof of Urysohn lemma, for given r, show that f −1 (r) =
∩ p>rU p \ ∩q<rUq .
Solution: If x ∈ Ūr , then f (x) ≤ r. So if x ∈
/ Ur , then f (x)geqr.
/ U¯q .
Hence if f (x) = r , then for p ≥ r, we have x ∈ U p , and for q < r, we have x ∈
For the other direction, if x ∈ U p for all p > r then f (x) ≤ r.
If x ∈
/ U p for p < r, then f (x) ≥ r.
SAQ 04-03-02: Give a direct proof of the Urysohn lemma for a metric space
d(x,A)
(X, d) by setting f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,B) .
Solution: d(x, A) is the shortest distance between x and the set A.
Also d(x, A) is continuous, and d(x, A) = 0 iff x ∈ Ā.
Therefore, for two closed sets A and B, f (x) is well-defined as the denominator is
never 0.

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As d(x, A) is continuous, we get that f (x) is continuous and f (x) = 0 on A and
f (x) = 1 on B.
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about Urysohn’s lemma and the Tietze extension
theorem as an application of Urysohn’s lemma.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Show that the Tietze extension theorem implies the Urysohn lemma.

2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊂ B ⊂ X, A is closed and B is open. Find


a Urysohn’s functions for the closed sets A and Bc ?

KEY WORDS
Normal space, Urysohn lemma, Tietze extension theorem.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 150


UNIT 04-04: COMPACTIFICATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to

 Characterize a completely regular space

 Outline the proof of Stone-Céch compactification

INTRODUCTION
In this section, we learn one more separation axiom namely completely regular,
which sits between regular and normal, and as a reason, it is denoted by T3 1 .
2

We also show that completely regular spaces can be passed onto subspaces and
products. We have seen already some sort of compactification, namely one point
compactification, which is the minimal compactification. In this section, we give
maximal compactification, called Stone-Cech compactification.

Definition 4.4.1. If A and B are two subsets of the topological space X, and if there
is a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}, we
say that A and B can be separated by a continuous function.

Definition 4.4.2. A space X is completely regular if one-point sets are closed


in X and if for each point x0 and each closed set A not containing x0 , there is a
continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x0 ) = 1 and f (A) = {0}.

Example 4.4.3. Every normal space X is completely regular.

Proof. Let A be a closed set and x0 ∈ X such that x0 ∈


/ A.
Since {x0 } is closed, and X is normal, by Urysohn lemma, there exists a continu-
ous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ A and f (x0 ) = 1.
Hence X is completely regular.

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We now show that completely regular spaces can be passed onto subspaces
and products.

Theorem 4.4.4. A subspace of a completely regular space is completely regular.


Product of completely regular spaces is completely regular.

Proof. Let X be completely regular and Y be a subspace of X.


Let x0 be a point of Y , and let A be a closed set of Y not containing x0 .
Let Ā denotes the closure of A in X. As A is closed in Y , we get A = Ā ∩Y .
As x0 ∈
/ A, we have x0 ∈
/ Ā.
Since X is completely regular, there exists a continuous function f : X → [0, 1]
such that f (x0 ) = 1 and f (Ā) = {0}.
Then f |Y : Y → [0, 1] satisfies f |Y (x0 ) = 1 and f |Y (A) = {0}.
Let X = ∏ Xα be a product of completely regular spaces.
Let b = (bα ) ∈ X and A be a closed set of X not containing b.
Since X \ A is open and b ∈ X \ A, there exists a basis element ∏ Uα such that
b ∈ ∏ Uα ⊂ X \ A
As we know Uα = Xα except for finitely many α, say α = α1 , ..., αn .
Given i = 1, ...n, choose a continuous function fαi : Xαi → [0, 1] such that fαi (bαi ) =
1 and fαi (X −Uαi ) = 0.
n
Now define f : X → [0, 1] by f (y) = ∏ fαi (yα ).
i=1
Then f (b) = 1. To show f (A) = 0, let a ∈ A.
Then there exists α j , for some j = 1, · · · , n such that aα ∈
/ Uα j .
Hence fαi (aα ) = 0 implies f (A) = 0.

Definition 4.4.5. A compactification of a space X is a compact Hausdorff space


Y containing X as a subspace such that X̄ = Y. Two compactifications Y1 and Y2
of X are said to be equivalent if there is a homeomorphism h : Y1 → Y2 such that
h(x) = x for every x ∈ X.

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Lemma 4.4.6. Let X be a space; suppose that h : X → Z is an embedding of X in
the compact Hausdorff space Z. Then there exists a corresponding compactifica-
tion Y of X; it has the property that there is an embedding H : Y → Z that equals
h on X. The compactification Y is uniquely determined up to equivalence. We call
Y the compactification induced by the embedding h.

Proof. Let X0 denote the subspace h(x) of Z, and Y0 denote its closure in Z.
Then Y0 is a compact Hausdorff space and X¯0 = Y0
Hence Y0 is a compactification of X0 .
We now construct a space Y containing X such that (X,Y ) is homeomorphic
(X0 ,Y0 ).
We choose a set A disjoint from X that is in bijective correspondence with the set
Y0 − X0 under some map k : A → Y0 − X0 .
Define Y = X ∪ A, and define a bijective correspondance H : Y → Y0 − X0 by

H(x) = h(x) f or x ∈ X,

H(a) = k(a) f or a ∈ A.

Then Y is a topology with open set U if and only if H(U) is open in Y0 .


Now the map H is a homeomorphism; and the space X is a subspace of Y because
h = H|X .
By expanding the range of H, we obtain the required embedding of Y into Z.
Now suppose Yi is a compactification of X and that Hi : Yi → Z is an embedding
that is an extension of h, for i = 1, 2.
Now each Hi maps X onto h(X) = X0 .
As Hi is continuous, it maps Yi into X¯0 .
Hence Hi (Yi ) = X¯0 , and (H2−1 ) o H1 defines a homeomorphism of Y1 with Y2 that
equals the identity on X.

Example 4.4.7. Let Y be the space [0, 1]. Then Y is a compactification of

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X = (0, 1); obtained by adding one point at each end of (0, 1).

Lemma 4.4.8. Let A ⊂ X; let f : A → Z be a continuous map of A into the


Hausdorff space Z. There is atmost one extension of f to a continuous function
g : Ā → Z.

Proof. Suppose that g, g0 : Ā → X are two different extensions of f .


choose x so that g(x) 6= g0 (x).
Let U and U 0 be disjoint neighborhoods of g(x) and g0 (x), respectively.
Choose a neighborhood V of x so that g(V ) ⊂ U and g0 (V ) ⊂ U 0 .
Now V intersects A ,say at point y.
Then g(y) ∈ U and g0 (y) ∈ U 0 .
But since y ∈ A, we have g(y) = f (y) and g0 (y) = f (y).
This contradicts the fact that U and U 0 are disjoint.

Theorem 4.4.9 (The Stone-Cech compactification). Let X be a completely regular


space. There exists a compactification Y of X having the property that every
bounded continuous map f : X → R extends uniquely to a continuous map of Y
into R .

Proof. Let { fα }α∈J be the collection of all bounded continuous real-valued func-
tions on X, indexed by some index set J.
For each α ∈ J, let Iα = [inf fα (X), sup fα (X)]. Then define h : X → ∏α∈J by
h(x) = ( fα (x))α∈J .
Since each Iα is compact, ∏ Iα is compact.
Because X is completely regular, the collection { fα } separates points from closed
sets in X.
Therefore the map h is an embedding.
Let Y be the compactification of X induced by the embedding h.
Then there is an embedding H : Y → ∏ Iα that equals h when restricted to the

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subspace X of Y .
We show that a bounded continuous real-valued function f on X extends to Y .
Since f is bounded and continuous, f = fβ for some index β ∈ J.
Let πβ : ∏ Iα → Iβ be the projection mapping.
Then the continuous map πβ ◦ H : Y → Iβ is the required extension of f as if x ∈ X
we have πβ (H(x)) = πβ (h(x)) = πβ (( fα (x))α∈J ) = fβ (x).
Uniqueness of the extension is a consequence of the lemma 4.4.8 .

Theorem 4.4.10. Let X be a completely regular space. If Y1 and Y2 are two com-
pactification of X satisfying the extension property of Theorem 4.4.9, then Y1 and
Y2 are equivalent.

Proof. Consider the inclusion mapping j2 : X → Y2 .


It is a continuous map of X into the compact Hausdorff space Y2 .
Because Y1 has the extension property, we can extend the j2 to a continuous map
f2 : Y1 → Y2 .
Similarly, we can extend the inclusion map j1 : X → Y1 to a continuous map f1 :
Y2 → Y1 .

Figure 4.4:

Then the composite map f1 ◦ f2 : Y1 → Y1 satisfies f1 ( f2 (x)) = x for all x ∈ X.


Therefore f1 o f2 is a continuous extension of the identity map iX : X → X.
But the identity map of Y1 is also continuous extension of iX .

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Then by lemma 4.4.8, f1 ◦ f2 is equal to the identity map of Y1 .
Similarly, f2 ◦ f1 is equal to the identity map of Y2 .
Thus f1 and f2 are homeomorphisms.

Remark 4.4.11. For each completely regular space X, there exists a unique com-
pactification of X satisfying the extension condition of Theorem 4.4.9. We will
denote this compactification of X by β (X) and call it the Stone-Cech compacti-
fication of X. It is characterised by the fact that any continuous map f : X → C
of X into a compact Hausdorff space C extends uniquely to a continuous map
g : β (X) → C.

SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: Show that every completely regular space X is regular.
Solution: Let A be a closed subset of X and x0 ∈ X \ A.
Then by definition of completely regular, there exists a continuous function
f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x0 ) = 1 and f (A) = {0}.
h   i
Observe that the sets 0, 12 and 12 , 1 are open in [0, 1].
   
As f is continuous, we get that the sets f −1 [0, 12 ) and f −1 ( 12 , 1] are open
and they are disjoint.
   
Also x0 ∈ f −1 ( 21 , 1] and A ⊂ f −1 [0, 21 ) .
Hence X is regular.
Problem 04-02: If Y is a compactification of X, then X is completely regular.
Solution: Suppose X has a compactification Y .
Since Y is compact and Hausdorff, Y is normal.
As every normal space is completely regular, Y is completely regular
Thus A is completely regular being a subspace of Y .
SELF-TEST 01

MCQ 04-04-01 The one point compactification of R is homeomorphic with:

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A. R2

B. R

C. S2

D. S1

MCQ 04-04-02 The one point compactification of R2 is homeomorphic with:

A. R2

B. R

C. S2

D. S1

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01


SAQ 04-04-01: Every locally compact Hausdorff space is completely regular.
Solution: Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space.
Then for given x ∈ X, and given open set U containing x, theer exists a open set V
containing x such that V̄ is compact and V̄ ⊂ U.
Hence by one point compactification, X is normal.
Now by Urysohn’s lemma, X is completely regular. Therefore, X is completely
regular.
SAQ 04-04-02: Show that the unit circle S1 in R2 and the closed interval [0, 1] are
compactifications of the open interval (0, 1).
Solution: (1). Define h : (0, 1) → S1 by h(t) = (cos2πt) × (sin2πt).
Then the embeding induced by h gives rise to a compactification of (0, 1).
(2). The closed interval [0, 1] is a compactification of (0, 1) by adding one point
at each end of (0, 1).
SUMMARY
In this section, we have learned about completely regular spaces and Stone-Cech

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compactification with some examples.
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

1. Let X be completely regular. Show that X is connected of and only if β (X)


is connected, where β (X) is the Stone-Cech compactification.

2. Give an example of a completely regular space which is not normal.

3. Is [0, 1] a compactification of (0, 1)? Is it a one point compactification?

4. What is one point compactification of complex plane?

KEY WORDS
Completely Regular space, Normal space, Uryshon’s lemma, Stone-Cech com-
pactification.
REFERENCES

1. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second edition, Prentice Hall, 2000.

2. J. Dugundji. Topology. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966.

3. D. W. Hall and 0. L. Spencer. Elementary Topology. John Wiley & Sons,


Inc., New York, 1955.

MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 158


ANSWERS TO SELF-TESTS AND END OF UNIT EXERCISES

UNIT 01-01: TOPOLOGICAL SPACES


SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 01-01-01:(C)
2. MCQ 01-01-02:(B)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Not a topology. Intersection property doesn’t hold.
2. Compute the unions and intersections of possible subsets and see that they are
in the given collection.
3.No. Consider An = {2n}. Verify An ∈ T but ∪An ∈
/T
4. The smallest topology containing both T1 and T2 is {0,
/ X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {b, c}}
The largest topology contained in T1 and T2 is the intersection T1 ∩T2 = {0,
/ X, {a}}.
5. Yes
6. Yes
UNIT 01-02: BASIS AND SUB BASIS FOR A TOPOLOGY
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 01-02-01:(A)
2. MCQ 01-02-02:(C)
3. MCQ 01-02-03:(A)
4. MCQ 01-02-04:(A)
5. MCQ 01-02-05:(C)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Verify T3 ⊂ T1 ⊂ T2 ⊂ T4
2. Hint: T5 ⊂ T1 ⊂ T2 ⊂ T4
3. Verify T3 and T5 are not comparable
4. Yes, show that A = ∪{Ux | x ∈ Ux ⊂ A}.

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5. Every topology containing the collection A must contain all unions of sets
of A , i.e. it must contain the topology generated by A . Clearly the topology
generated by A contains A , and is contained in every topology that contains A ,
hence, it equals the intersection of such topologies.
6. The lower limit topology is strictly finer than the topology generated by C as
√ √
3 ∈ [ 3, 3) in lower limit topology, but there is no basis element B ∈ C such
√ √
that 3 ⊂ B ⊂ [ 3, 3).
UNIT 01-03: PRODUCT AND SUBSPACE TOPOLOGIES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 01-03-01:(D)
2. MCQ 01-03-02:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. B is open in A ⊂ Y iff B = A ∩C and C is open in Y ⊂ X iff B = A ∩C,C = Y ∩ D
and D is open in X iff B = A ∩ Y ∩ D and D is open in X iff B = A ∩ D and D is
open in X iff B is open in A ⊂ X.
2. A is open in R as it is the union of open intervals. It is also open in Y .
B is open in Y but not in R.
C and D are not open in Y as well as in R.
3. The collection of sets (a, b) such that a, b ∈ Q is a basis for the standard topol-
ogy on R.
0
4. Let Y and Y be the subspaces topologies. Then, Y is finer but not necessarily
strictly finer than Y .
5. Let U ⊂ X × Y be an open set, and x ∈ π1 (U). Then there exists y such that
x × y ∈ U. Since U is open, there exists basis element A × B in U containing x × y.
Thus x ∈ A = π1 (A × B) ⊂ π1 (U). Therefore, π1 (U) is open.
√ √
6. No, for example, (− 2, 2) ∩ Q is a convex subset which is not an interval in
Q.

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UNIT 01-04: LIMIT POINTS
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 01-04-01:(C)
2. MCQ 01-04-02:(D)
3. MCQ 01-04-03:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Let x < y. If there is some c such that x < c < y, then and (−∞, c) and (c, +∞)
are disjoint neighborhoods of x and y , respectively.
If there is no element between x and y , then (−∞, y) and (x, +∞) are disjoint
neighborhoods ofx and y , respectively.
2. The sequence converges to every point.
3. X is a T1 space iff ∀x ∈ X, {x} is closed iff ∀x ∈ X , X{x} is open iff ∀x ∈ X
and y ∈ X{x}, there is an open set U such that y ∈ U ⊂ {x}.
4. (A × B)c = ((X \ A) ×Y ) ∪ (X × (Y \ B)), hence open.
5. Observe that U \ A = U ∩ (X \ A) is open in X.
6. Closure= A ∪ {(0, 1)}.
UNIT 02-01: CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 02-01-01:(C)
2. MCQ 02-01-02:(C)
3. MCQ 02-01-03:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. No, for example, Consider any constant function.
x−a
2. Define f (x) = b−a . Then f is a homeomorphism as the inverse function is
given by g(y) = (ba)y + a.

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3. 

x x∈Q

f (x) =
0 otherwise

Show that f is continuous only at 0.


4. Use the fact that V = f ( f −1 (V )) and U = ( f −1 )−1 (U).
5. For every open set V of R, the set f −1 (V ) is open in R
6. Use pasting lemma.
UNIT 02-02: QUOTIENT SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 02-02-01:(B)
2. MCQ 02-02-02:(B)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Proof goes in similar lines with Example 2.2.7.
2. Consider the map from R × R to R, projection onto second coordinate.
3. Define f : A → R × {0} by f (x, y) = (x, 0).
Then, f is a retraction as a continuous function on a restricted domain. Therefore,
f is a quotient map.
Also the map g : R × {0} → R, given by g(x, 0) = x is a homeomorphism.
As q = g ◦ f , we get that q is also a quotient map.
But q is neither open nor closed.
4. Combine Example 2.2.7 and solved problem 02-01 to conclude the result.
5. Yes. Proof is similar to that of the problem 02-01.
6. No. Refer example 2.2.7. Try to give other example too.
UNIT 02-03: CONNECTED SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 02-03-01:(B)
2. MCQ 02-03-02:(A)

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 162


END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1.If (X, T ) is disconnected, then there exists a separation in the topology T ,
0
which is also a separation in T .
2. In the finite complement topology, there does not exist two disjoint nonempty
open subsets, as the complement of a nonempty open set is finite, and the only
finite open set is the empty set.
3. Under homeomorphism, if one space is connected so is the other.
If we remove 1 from (0, 1], it is still connected, but any point removed from (0, 1)
makes it disconnected.
[0, 1] is connected even after removing two points namely 0 and 1, but (0, 1] is
disconnected if we remove any two points.
4. Removing 0 makes R disconnected where as removing any point from Rn
leaves it connected.
5.No, as there exists a separation for R = (−∞, 0] ∪ (0, ∞), both are open in Rl .
6. No. For example, there is no element between (0, 1) and (0, 2).
UNIT 02-04: LOCALLY CONNECTED SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 02-04-01:(B)
2. MCQ 02-04-02:(D)
3. MCQ 02-04-03:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
(1) Yes.
Let x = (xi ) and y = (yi ) be two points in the product space.
By assumption, there exist continuous paths αi : [0, 1] → Xi with αi (0) = xi and
αi (1) = yi . Then the function α : [0, 1] → X such that πi ◦ α = αi for all i where
πi is the projection X → Xi . Thus α is a path from x to y.
(2) No, the topologists sine curve is an example.

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(3) Yes.
Let x, y ∈ f (X). Then x = f (a) and y = f (b) for some a, b ∈ X.
As X is path connected, there exists a path α : [0, 1] → X such that α(0) = a and
α(1) = b. Also f ◦ α is continuous with f ◦ α(0) = f (a) = x and f ◦ α(1) =
f (b) = y. Therefore f ◦ α is a path from x to y.
(4) If C is a component of the open set U of Y , then p−1 (C) is a union of compo-
nents of p−1 (U).
(5). NO, for example, in Q, singletons are components which are not open.
(6). Let A be component and y ∈ X \ A.
Consider B = A ∪ {y}. Then B is not connected. Use the separation to get the
result.
UNIT 03-01: COMPACT SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 03-01-01:(A)
2. MCQ 03-01-02:(D)
3. MCQ 03-01-03:(C)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Any open set in a collection that covers a set covers all but finitely many points
of the set. Therefore, a finite sub collection covers it all.
2. In discrete topology, every singleton set is open. Thus {{x} x ∈ R} is an open
cover for R, which has no finite subcover.
3. For each subspace in the collection chose a finite subcovering that covers it and
then take the finite union of all these finite subcoverings.
4. In co-countable topology, the compact sets are only finite sets. So [0, 1] is not
compact.
5. If A is infinite, then ∪a∈A {a} is an open cover for A, which does’nt has any
finite sub cover.

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6. In co-finite topology, only finitely many elements are out side any open set. So
every open conver has a finite sub cover.
UNIT 03-02: FORMS OF COMPACT SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 03-02-01:(A)
2. MCQ 03-02-02:(D)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Let x ∈ R. Then {x} is open in discrete topology and is also compact being
a finite set. Thus {x} is compact containing a neighbourhood of x, namely {x}
itself. Thus R is locally compact at x. As x is arbitrary, the result follows.
2. False
Let X = (Q, discrete) and Y = (Q, usual). Consider f : X → Y as the identity
map. Then X is locally compact where as Y = f (X) is not locally compact.
3. Yes. An infinite subset of A has a limit point in X which is a limit point of A.
As A is closed, it is in A.
4. No.
5. Yes.
6. Define f n+1 = f ◦ f n , An = f n (X) and A = ∩An . Show that A will have a fixed
point.
UNIT 03-03: COUNTABILITY AXIOMS
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 03-03-01:(D)
2. MCQ 03-03-02:(C)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Let {Bn } be a countable basis for X and C a basis for X.
For every pair of indices n, m, choose Cn,m ∈ C such that Bn ⊂ Cn,m ⊂ Bm .
Then Cn,m is countable and is a basis because, for any x ∈ X and open set U con-

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 165


taining x, there exist open set Bm ⊂ U, an open set C ⊂ Bm and an open set Bn ⊂ C
containing x. Thus x ∈ Cn,m ⊂ U.
2.No. Consider the identity map f : (R, discrete) → (R, co − countable). Then
(R, discrete) is first countable but (R, co − countable) is not first countable.
3. No as it is not even first countable.
4. The collection {(a, b) × (c, d) | a, b, c, d ∈ Q} is a countable basis for Rn .
5. No.
6. True.
UNIT 03-04: LINDELÖF SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 03-04-01:(C)
2. MCQ 03-04-02:(D)
3. MCQ 03-04-03:(B)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. In cofinite topology, any infinite set is dense and hence separable.
2. No.
3. Every subset is compact in the co-finite topology and in particular R is com-
pact. As compact implies Lindelöf, we have the result.
4. R with discrete topology is first countable but not separable.
5. Let X be an uncountable set. Then X together with co-finite topology is sepa-
rable but not second countable.
6. Yes
UNIT 04-01: SEPARATION AXIOMS
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 04-01-01:(C)
2. MCQ 04-01-02:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 166


1. Consider 0 and 1. They are disjoint. But we can’t find two open sets U and V
not containing 0.
2. R with co-countable topology, in which any sequence converges to atmost one
point.
3. Yes, R with usual topology is T2 space.
Let x, y ∈ R with x 6= y, say x < y.
Then U = (−∞, y) and V = (x, ∞) are two open sets such that x ∈ U, y ∈
/ U and
y ∈ V, x ∈
/ V.
4. Yes. Let x, y ∈ ∏ Xα with x 6= y. Then there exists β such that xβ 6= yβ . Use the
fact that Xβ is T2 .
5. If Y is a subspace of a T1 space X, then for two distinct points x and y, there
exits two open sets U and V . Then Y ∩U and Y ∩V will do the job.
d(x,y)
6. Yes, every metric space is a T2 space as for x 6= y, take ε = 3 . Then
U = B(x, ε) and V = B(y, ε) are the required open sets.
UNIT 04-02: REGULAR AND NORMAL SPACES
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 04-02-01:(C)
2. MCQ 04-02-02:(D)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Let x ∈ (a, b) and c ∈ (a, x), if there is such a point, otherwise c = a and in this
case, no points below x are limit points of (c, b). Similarly choose d ∈ (x, b) or
d = b if the interval is empty. Then x ∈ (c, d) and (c, d) ⊂ (a, b).
2. For x and y, take first a neighborhood V of y such that V̄ ⊂ X \ {x} , and then a
neighborhood U of x such that Ū ⊂ X \ V̄ .
3. Yes, it is normal in the product topology.
4. True.
5. No.

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If X is compact and Hausdorff, then X is normal
6. Yes, every metric space is normal.
UNIT 04-03: THE URYSOHN LEMMA
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 04-03-01:(C)
2. MCQ 04-03-02:(A)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. Consider the continuous function on the union of two disjoint closed sets equal
to 1 for one set and 0 for the other set and extend it continuously on X.
d(x,A)
2. Define f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,Bc ) .
Verify that f is the required Urysohn’s function.
UNIT 04-04: COMPACTIFICATION
SELF-TEST 01
1. MCQ 04-04-01:(D)
2. MCQ 04-04-02:(C)
END OF UNIT EXERCISES
1. X = A ∪ B is a separaton of X, let f (x) = 0 for x ∈ A and f (x) = 1 for x ∈ B.
2. Rl × Rl is completely regular but not normal.
3. Yes, it is a compactification of (0, 1), but not a one point compactification as
[0, 1] is a two point compactification to (0, 1), by adding one at each end.
4. One point compactification of complex plane is the Riemann Sphere.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 168


Appendix A:

Theorem 6.1.1. Let Xα be an indexed family of spaces and Aα ⊂ Xα for each α


if ∏ Xα is given either the product or box topology then
∏αJ Āα = ∏α∈J Aα .

Proof. Let x ∈ ∏αJ Āα


Implies x ∈ Āα ∀α ∈ J
To show x ∈ ∏α∈J Aα .
Let x ∈ ∏α∈J Uα
Implies xα ∈ Uα ∀ α ∈ J.
Since xα ∈ Āα and xα ∈ Uα
Implies Aα ∩Uα 6= 0/ ∀ α ∈ J
Therefore (∏α∈J Aα ) ∩ (∏α∈J Uα ) = ∏α∈J (Aα ∩Uα ) 6= 0/
Implies x ∈ ∏α∈J Aα
Implies ∏α∈J A¯α ⊂ ∏α∈J Aα
Conversely, let x ∈ ∏α∈J Aα .
To show x ∈ ∏α∈J Āα .
We have to show that xα ∈ Āα ∀ α ∈ J.
Let xα ∈ Uα ∀α ∈ J
Implies x ∈ ∏α∈J Uα

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 169


Implies (∏α∈J Aα ) ∩ (∏ Uα ) 6= 0/
Implies ∏α∈J (Aα ∩Uα ) 6= 0/
Say y ∈ ∏α∈J (Aα ∩Uα )
Implies yα ∈ Aα ∩Uα ∀α
Therefore Aα ∩Uα 6= 0,
/ ∀α
Implies xα ∈ Āα ∀α
⇒ xα ∈ ∏αJ Āα
⇒ ∏α∈J Aα ⊂ ∏αJ Āα .
Hence ∏αJ Āα = ∏α∈J Aα .

Theorem 6.1.2. Let f : A → ∏α∈J Xα be given by f (a) = fα (a) α∈J where
fα : A → Xα for each α.
Let ∏ Xα have the product topology then f is continuous if and only if fα is con-
tinuous for each α.

Proof. f : A → ∏α∈J Xα is given by f (a) = fα (a) α∈J where fα : A → Xα .
Since ∏α : ∏α∈J Xα → Xα, we get fα = ∏α ◦ f .
Now suppose f is continuous. As ∏α is continuous, ∏α ◦ f is continuous ∀ α.
Implies fα is continuous ∀ α.
Conversely, suppose fα is continuous for each α.
A typical basis element of the product topology is ∏−1
B (UB ) where UB is open in
XB .
 
We have to show that f −1 ∏−1
B (UB ) is open in A.
 
But f −1 ∏−1 −1 −1
B (UB ) = (∏B ◦ f ) (UB ) = f B (UB ).
−1
Since fB is continuous. fbeta (UB ) is open.
Implies f is continuous.

Remark 6.1.3. The above result is not true for box topology.
For example, consider Rw = ∏n∈Z+ Xn , infinite countable product of Xn = R, ∀ n.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 170


Define f : R → Rw by f (t) = (t,t, ...).
Suppose that Rw is given with box topology.
Since fn : R → R given by fn (t) = t, we have fn is continuous for each n. Consider,

1 1 1 1
B = (−1, 1) × (− , ) × (− , ) × ...
2 2 3 3
1 1
= ∏ (− , )
n≥1 n n

Then B is open in box topology.


Suppose f −1 (B) is open in R.
Since 0 ∈ f −1 (B), f −1 (B) is open in R ∃ δ > 0 such that 0 ∈ (−δ , δ ) ⊂ f −1 (B)

Implies f (−δ , δ ) ⊂ B

⇒ ∏n (−δ , δ ) ⊂ ∏n (B) ∀
Implies fn (−δ , δ ) ⊂ (− 1n , n1 ) ∀


⇒ (−δ , δ ) ⊂ (− 1n , n1 ) ∀
1
Which is a contradiction as ∃ n0 such that n0 δ > 1 ⇒ δ > n0 and hence
(−δ , δ ) is not subset of (− n10 , n10 )
Thus f −1 (B) is not open and hence f is not continuous.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 171


Appendix B:

Definition 7.1.1. Metric Topology


If d is a metric on X, then the collection B = {Bd (x, ε)|x ∈ X, ε > 0} is a basis for
X and the topology generated by B is called the metric topology on X induced by
d.

Definition 7.1.2. Metrizable


A topological space X is said to be metrizable if there exists a metric d on X that
induces the topology of X.

Example 7.1.3. A metric space is metrizable with given metric on X.

Definition 7.1.4. Bounded Metric


Let X be a metric space with metric d. Define d¯ : X × X → R by d(x,
¯ y) =

min{d(x, y), 1}. Then d¯ is a metric and called the standard bounded metric corre-
sponding to d.

Theorem 7.1.5. The topology generated by d is same as the topology generated


by d.¯

¯ y) = min{d(x, y), 1} is a metric on X.


Proof. First we show that d(x,

¯ y) ≥ 0
1. d(x,

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 172


¯ y) = 0 if and only if x = y
2. d(x,

¯ y) = d(y,
3. d(x, ¯ z)

¯ z) ≤ d(x,
4. Now we will show that d(x, ¯ z)
¯ y) + (y,

¯ y) = 1 or d(y,
Suppose d(x, ¯ z) = 1 then
¯ y) + d(x,
d(x, ¯ z) ≤ 1 ≤ d(x,
¯ z)
¯ z) ≤ d(x,
Implies d(x, ¯ y) + d(y,
¯ z)
¯ y) < 1 and d(y,
Now suppose d(x, ¯ z) < 1 then
¯ y) = d(x, y) and d(y,
d(x, ¯ z) = d(y, z)

¯ z) ≤ d(x,
Therefore d(x, ¯ z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y,
¯ z)

¯ y) + d(y,
= d(x, ¯ z)

¯ z) ≤ d(x,
d(x, ¯ y) + d(y,
¯ z)

Therefore d¯ is a metric on X.
Since the collection of ε-balls with ε < 1 forms a basis for the metric topology, it
follows that d and d¯ induces the same topology on X as the collection of ε balls
with ε < 1 under these two metric are same.
 1
2
Definition 7.1.6. Given x, y ∈ Rn define d(x, y) = ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2 and ρ(x, y) =
max{|xi − yi |, ...|xn − yn |} then d and ρ are metrics on Rn and are called Euclidean
metric and square metric respectively.
0 0
Theorem 7.1.7. Let d and d be two metrics on X ; T and T be topologies
0 0
induced by d and d . Then T is finer than T if and only if for each x ∈ X and
ε > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such that Bd 0 (x, δ ) ⊂ Bd (x, ε).
0
Proof. Suppose T ⊃ T . Let x ∈ X and ε > 0.
0
Since Bd (x, ε) is open in T , ∃ B ∈ T such that B ⊂ Bd (x, ε).
0 0
As B is open in T ∃ δ > 0 such that Bd (x, δ ) ⊂ B

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 173


Conversely, suppose assume that ε − δ criteria is true.
To show T 0 ⊃ T , let B ∈ T .
As B is open in T , ∃ ε > 0 such that Bd (x, ε) ⊂ B.
0
Then by assumption ∃ δ > 0 such that Bd (x, δ ) ⊂ Bd (x, ε)
0
Implies Bd (x, δ ) ⊂ B
0
⇒ T is finer than T .

Theorem 7.1.8. The topologies on Rn induced by Euclidean metric d and square


metric are the same as the product topology on Rn .
 1
2
Proof. Here d(x, y) = ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2 and
 1
2
ρ(x, y) = max{|xi − yi |...|xn − yn |}. Since |xi − yi ≤ ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2
 1
n 2 2
Implies max{1 ≤ i ≤ n}{|xi − yi |} ≤ ∑i=1 (xi − yi )
Implies ρ(x, y) ≤ d(x, y).
Let y ∈ Bd (x, ε)
Implies d(x, y) < ε
⇒ ρ(x, y) < ε
⇒ y ∈ Bρ (x, ε)
Therefore Bd (x, ε) ⊂ Bρ (x, ε)
Implies Td ⊃ Tρ .
Also (xi − yi )2 ≤ max1≤i≤n {|xi − yi |2 }
Implies ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2 ≤ n max1≤i≤n {|xi − yi |2 }
 1 √
2
Implies sumni=1 (xi − yi )2 ≤ n max1≤i≤n {|xi − yi |2 }

Implies d(x, y) ≤ nρ(x, y)
Let y ∈ Bδ (x, ε)
⇒ ρ(x, y) < ε
⇒ d(x, y) < √ε
n
y ∈ Bd (x, √εn )

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 174


Bρ (x, ε) ⊂ Bd (x, √εn )
⇒ Tρ ⊃ Td
Therefore Tρ = Td
Now we show that topology Tρ generated by square metric is same as product
topology T .
Let B = (a1 , b1 )×(a2 , b2 )×...×(an , bn ) be a basis element in Rn and x = (x1 , x2 , ...xn ) ∈
B
Implies xi ∈ (ai , bi ) ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n.
Since(ai , bi ) is open in R ∃ εi > 0 such that (xi − εi , xi + εi ) ⊂ (ai , bi ) ∀ i
Take ε = min{ε1 , ε2 , ...εn }.
To show Bρ (x, ε) ⊂ B, let y ∈ Bρ (x, ε)
Implies ρ(x, y) < ε
⇒ |xi − yi | < ε ∀i
⇒ |xi − yi | < ε < εi ∀i
⇒ yi ∈ (xi − εi , xi + εi ) ⊂ (ai , bi )
⇒y∈B
Therefore Bρ (x, ε) ⊂ B
⇒ Tρ ⊂ T .
Let Bρ (x, ε) be a basis element in Tρ . Then
Bρ (x, ε) = (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) × (x2 − ε, x2 + ε) × ... × (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) is open in Rn
Therefore B = (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) × ... × (xn − ε, xn + ε) ⊂ Bρ (x, ε)
T ⊃ Tρ
Therefore T = Tρ = Td
Hence the product topology on Rn is metrizable.

Definition 7.1.9. Given an index set J and x = (xα ), y = (yα ), define ρ̄ on RJ by


¯ α , yα )|α ∈ J} where d(x
ρ̄(x, y) = sup{d(x ¯ α , yα ) = min{d(xα , yα ), 1}. Then the

topology induced by ρ̄ is called the uniform metric.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 175


Theorem 7.1.10. The uniform topology on RJ is finer than the product topology
and coarser than the box topology.

Proof. Let B = ∏ Uα be a basis element in RJ and x ∈ B.


Since Uα = R except for finitely many, let Uαi = R for α 6= 1, 2, , ...n.
As x ∈ B then xα ∈ Uα ∀α as Uα1 ,Uα2 , ...Uαn are open in R ∃ εi > 0 such that
xαi ∈ (xαi − εi , xαi + εi ) ⊂ Uαi
Take ε = min{ε1 , ε2 , ...εn }.
Let y ∈ Bρ̄ (x, ε)
⇒ ρ̄(x, y) < ε
¯ α , yα ) < ε
⇒ d(x ∀α
In particular,
¯ α , yα ) < ε < εi ,
d(x ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
i i

⇒ yαi ∈ Uαi i = 1, 2, ...n


Therefore y ∈ ∏ Uα = B
⇒ B f¯(x, ε) ⊂ B.
Hence Uniform topology is finer than product topology.
Let B be a basis element in the uniform topology i.e. B = Bρ (x, ε).
Now take U = ∏(xα − ε2 , xα + ε2 ).
Then U ⊂ B as for any y in U, |yα − xα | < ε
⇒ y ∈ Bρ̄ (x, ε).
Therefore Box topology is finer than uniform topology.

¯ b) = min{|a − b|, 1} be the standard bounded metric


Theorem 7.1.11. Let d(a,
¯
on R. If x and y are two points of Rw , define D(x, y) = sup{ d(xii ,yi ) }. Then D is a
metric that induces the product topology on Rw .

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 176


Proof.

¯ i , zi ) ≤ d(x
∵ d(x ¯ i , yi ) + d(y¯ i , zi )
¯ i , zi ) d(x
d(x ¯ i , yi ) d(y ¯ i , zi )
≤ +
i i i
¯
d(xi , yi ) ¯ i , yi )
d(x
≤ sup{ } + sup{ }
i i
¯ i , zi )
d(x
≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)
i
¯ i , yi )
d(x
⇒ sup{ } ≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)
i
⇒ D(x, z) ≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)

Therefore D is a metric on Rw .
Let TD be the topology generated by D and T be the product topology on Rw .
To show T ⊂ TD , let BD (x, ε) be a basis element of TD .
1
Since ε > 0 ∃ N such that N < ε.
Let V = (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) × ... × (xN − ε, xN + ε). Then V is open in the product
topology.
To show that V ⊂ BD (x, ε), let y ∈ V .
Then yi ∈ (xi − ε, xi + ε) ∀ i = 1, 2, ...N and yi ∈ R ∀ i > N.
|xi −yi | 1
Clearly, i ≤ N < ε ∀i > N
Therefore D(x, y) ≤ max{ d(x11,y1 ) , d(x22,y2 ) , ..., d(xNN,yN ) , ε}
⇒ y ∈ BD (x, ε)
Therefore V ⊂ BD (x, ε).
Conversely, consider a basis element U = ∏i∈Z+ Ui in the product topology where
Ui is open in R for i = α1 , α2 , ..., αn and U j = R j 6= αi .
Let x ∈ U. Then xi ∈ Uαi i = 1, 2, ...n.
Since Ui is open in R ∃ 1 ≥ εi > 0 such that xi ∈ (xi − εi , xi + εi ) ⊂ Uαi i=
1, 2, ...n.
Now take ε = min{ εii |i = α1 , ...αn }.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 177


Claim: BD (x, ε) ⊂ U.
Let y ∈ BD (x, ε)
⇒ D(x, y) < ε
¯
⇒ sup{ d(x1i ,yi ) } < ε
¯ i ,yi )
d(x
Therefore 1 <ε ∀i
¯ i , yi ) < ε.i < εi ≤ 1 ∀ i = α1 , α2 , ...αn
⇒ d(x
⇒ yi ∈ Uαi for i = 1, 2, ...n
⇒y∈U
Therefore y ∈ UandTD = T
⇒ Rw is metrizable.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 178


Appendix C:

Theorem 8.1.1. (Urysohn metrization theorem). Every regular space X with a


countable basis is metrizable.

Proof. Step 1 We prove the following: There exists a countable collection of con-
tinuous functions fn : X → [0, 1] having the property that given any point x0 of X
and any neighborhood U of x0 , there exists an index n such that fn is positive at
x0 and vanishes outside U.
Let {Bn } be a countable basis for X. Let x ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of x.
Then there exists Bm such that x ∈ Bm ⊂ U.
Since X is regular, there exists V containing x such that x ∈ V ⊂ Bm .
Again we can find a basis element Bn such that x ∈ Bn ⊂ V .
Therefore, x ∈ Bn ⊂ V ⊂ Bm .
For each pair n, m of indices for which B̄n ⊂ Bm , apply the Urysohn lemma to
choose a continuous function gn,m : X → [0, 1] such that gn,m (B̄n ) = {1} and
gn,m (X − Bm ) = {0}.
Then the collection {gn,m } satisfies our requirement.
Because the collection {gn,m } is indexed with a subset of Z+ × Z+ , it is countable;
therefore it can be re indexed with the positive integers, giving us the desired col-
lection { fn }.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 179


Step 2 Given the functions fn as in Step 1, take Rw in the product topology and
define a map F : X → Rw by F(x) = ( f1 (x), f2 (x), ..)
We show that F is an embedding.
First, F is continuous because Rw has the product topology and each fn is contin-
uous. Second, F is injective because given x 6= y, there exists an open set U such
that x ∈ U and y ∈
/ U.
Then by step 1, there is an index n such that fn (x) > 0 and fn (y) = 0; therefore,
F(x) 6= F(y).
Finally, we prove that F is a homeomorphism of X onto its image, the subspace
Z = F(X) of Rw .
We know that F defines a continuous bijection of X with Z.
Let z0 be a point of F(U). We Shall find an open set W of Z such that z0 ∈ W ⊂
F(U).
Let x0 be the point of U such that F(x0 ) = z0 .
Choose an index N for which fN (xo) > 0 and fN (XU) = {0}.
 
Take the open ray (0, +∞) in R, and let V be the open set V = πN−1 (0, +∞) of
Rw .
Let W = V ∩ Z. Then W is open in Z, by definition of the subspace topology.
z0 ∈ W because πN (z0 ) = πN (F(XO )) = fN (x0 ) > 0.
And W ⊂ F(U). For if z ∈ W , then z = F(x) for some x ∈ X, and πN (z) ∈ (0, +∞).
 
Since πN (Z) = πN F(x) = fN (x), and fN vanishes outside U, the point x must
be in U.
Then z = F(x) is in F(U), as desired.
Thus F is an embedding of X in Rw .
Since Rw is metrizable, X, as a subspace of Rw , is metrizable.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 180


Appendix D:

Notation:

• c is an element of X

• C is a subset of X

• C is a collection of subsets of X

• C is a superset whose elements are collections of subsets of X

Lemma 9.1.1. Let X be a set; let A be a collection of subsets of X having the


finite intersection property. Then there is a collection D of subsets of X such that
D contains A , and D has the finite intersection property, and no collection of
subsets of X that properly contains D has this property.
We often say that a collection D satisfying the conclusion of this theorem is max-
imal with respect to the finite intersection property.

Proof. Let A be a collection of subsets of X that has the finite intersection prop-
erty(in short, f.i.p).
Let A = {B | B ⊃ A and B has f.i.p}.
For B1 , B2 ∈ A, we define B1 ≤ B2 if B1 ⊆ B2 .
We show that A has a maximal element D.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 181


In order to apply Zorn’s lemma, we must show that if B is a “subsuperset” of A
that is simply ordered by proper inclusion, then B has an upper bound in A.
We show that the collection C = B is an element of A, then it is the required
S
B∈B
upper bound on B.
To show that C is an element of A, we must show that C ⊃ A and that C has the
finite intersection property.
Clearly C contains A , since each element of B contains A .
To show that C has the finite intersection property, let C1 , ...,Cn be elements C .
Because C is the union of the elements of B, there is, for each i, an element Bi of
B such that Ci ∈ B.
The superset {B1 , ..., Bn } is contained in B, so it is simply ordered by the relation
of proper inclusion.
Being finite, it has a largest element; that is, there is an index k such that Bi ⊂ Bk
for i = 1, ..., n. Then all the sets C1 , ...,Cn are elements of Bk .
As Bk has the finite intersection property, the intersection of the sets C1 , ...,Cn is
nonempty, as desired.

Theorem 9.1.2. Let X be a set; let D be a collection of subsets of X that is


maximal with respect to the finite intersection property. Then:

1. Any finite intersection of elements of D is an element of D

2. If A is a subset of X that intersects every element of D, then A is an element


of D

Proof. 1. Let B equal the intersection of finitely many elements of D.


Consider E = D ∪ {B}. We show that E has the finite intersection prop-
erty;then maximality of D implies that E = D, so that B ∈ D as desired
Take finitely many elements of E . If none of them is the set B, then their
intersection is nonempty because D has the finite intersection property.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 182


If one of them is the set B, then their intersection is of the form D1 ∩ ... ∩
Dm ∩ B. Since B equals a finite intersection of elements of D, this set is
nonempty.

2. Given A, define E = D ∪ {A}.


We show that E has the finite intersection property, from which we con-
clude that A belongs to D.
Take finitely many elements of E . If none of them is the set A, their inter-
section is automatically nonempty.
Otherwise, it is of the form D1 ∩ ... ∩ Dm ∩ A. Now D1 ∩ ... ∩ Dm belongs
to D, by (a); therefore, the intersection D1 ∩ ... ∩ Dm ∩ A is nonempty, by
hypothesis.

Theorem 9.1.3. (Tychonoff theorem). An arbitrary product of compact spaces is


compact in the product topology

Proof. Let X = ∏ Xα , where each space Xα is compact.


α∈J
Let A be a collection of subsets of X having the finite intersection property.
Ā 6= 0.
T
We prove that the intersection / Then X is compact.
A∈A
Choose a collection D of subsets of X such that D ⊂ A and D is maximal with
respect to the finite intersection property. ( Such D exists by previous lemma).
D̄ 6= 0/ as D ⊂ A .
T
It will suffice to show that the intersection
D∈D
Given α ∈ J, let πα : X → Xα be the projection map.
Consider the collection {πα (D)|D ∈ D} of subsets of Xα . This collection has the
finite intersection property because D does.
By compactness of Xα , for each α, w can choose a point xα of Xα such that
xα ∈
T
D∈D πα (D).

Let x be the point (xα )α∈J of X.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 183


We shall show that x ∈ D̄ for every D ∈ D.
First we show that if πβ−1 (Uβ ) is any subbasis element (for the product topology
on X) containing x, then πβ−1 (Uβ ) intersects every element of D.
The set Uβ is a neighborhood of xβ in Xβ .
Since xβ ∈ πβ (D) by definition, Uβ intersects πβ (D) in some point, say πβ (y),
where y ∈ D.
Then y ∈ πβ−1 (Uβ ) ∩ D and by previous results, every subbasis element containing
x belongs to D.
And then it follows that every basis element containing x belongs to D, as every
basis element is a finite intersection of subbasis elements.
i.e. if B is the basis element containing x, then B ∈ D.
As D has the finite intersection property, B ∩ D 6= 0/ for every D ∈ D ; hence x ∈ D̄
for every D ∈ D as desired.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 184


References

The content writers here by thank James R. Munkres, as we have taken most of
the material from his book: Topology. Definitions, statements and some diagrams
have been taken from this book as it is so that students can understand better. We
duly acknowledge the content taken from this book. Most of the proofs have been
altered according to our understanding. These are the reference books:

1. Topology: First course, J R Munkres ,Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey .

2. Theory and Problems of Set Theory and Related Topics, Lipshutz Sey-
mour,Schaum Publishing Co. New York

3. Foundations of General Topology, Pervin William J, Academic Press.

S25014: TOPOLOGY Page 185


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