MAT509 Topology
MAT509 Topology
U NIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
(F ORMERLY S CHOOL OF A RCHITECTURE , S CIENCE & T ECHNOLOGY )
Pattern
MAT509
TOPOLOGY
(4 Credits)
Semester - II
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.ycmou.ac.in
Phone: +91-253-2231473
MAT509
MAT509 Topology
S25014: Topology
I offer cordial welcome to all of you for the Master’s degree programme of Yashwantrao
Chavan Maharashtra Open University. As a post graduate student, you must have autonomy to
learn, have information and knowledge regarding different dimensions in the field of
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The syllabus of this course has been structured in this book in such a way, to give you autonomy to
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get guidance from some qualified and experienced counsellors / professors. This guidance will not
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answers, doubt clarification. We expect your active participation in the contact sessions at the study
centre. Our emphasis is on ‘self study’. If a student learns how to study, he will become independent in
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We wish that you will enjoy the courses of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open
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Best Wishes!
This book aims at acquainting the students with advance Mathematics required at post
graduate degree level.
The book has been specially designed for Science students. It has a comprehensive
coverage of Mathematical concepts and its application in practical life. The book
contains numerous mathematical examples to build understanding and skills.
The book is written with self- instructional format. Each chapter is prepared with
articulated structure to make the contents not only easy to understand but also
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Each chapter begins with learning objectives which are stated using Action Verbs as
per the Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each Unit is started with introduction to arouse or
stimulate curiosity of learner about the content/ topic. Thereafter the unit contains
explanation of concepts supported by tables, figures, exhibits and solved illustrations
wherever necessary for better effectiveness and understanding.
This book is written in simple language, using spoken style and short sentences. Topics
of each unit of the book presents from simple to complex in logical sequence. This book
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syllabus of the course.
Exercises given in the chapter include MCQs, conceptual questions and practical
questions so as to create a ladder in the minds of students to grasp each and every
aspect of a particular concept.
I thank the students who have been a constant motivation for us. I am grateful to the
writers, editors and the School faculty associated in this SLM development of the
Programme.
INTRODUCTION
Various mathematicians like Frechet, Hausdorff, proposed different definitions for
topology over a period of years during the first decades of the twentieth century,
but it took quite a while to settle down to one definition for topology that seemed
most suitable. In this unit, we learn the definition of a topological space and
important examples of it.
1. φ , X ∈ T .
/T.
but {a, b} ∈
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: Let X be a set and T f = {U ⊂ X|X − U is either finite or is all
of X}. Then T f is a topology, called the finite complement topology.
Solution: Given T f = {U ⊂ X | X −U is finite or U = 0}
/
Since X − X = 0/ is Finite, X ∈ T f .
Also X − 0/ = X implies 0/ ∈ T f .
Let {Uα } be the indexed collection of elements of T f .
If each Uα is empty, then their union is empty and hence belongs to T f .
So assume that there is at least one Uβ which is non empty. Then X −Uβ is finite.
Now X − ∪Uα = ∩(X −Uα ) ⊂ X −Uβ
Since X −Uβ is finite, X − ∪Uα is also finite.
Therefore ∪Uα ∈ T f .
Let U1 ,U2 , ...,Un ∈ T f . If one of Ui is empty, then their intersection is empty.
So assume that Ui 6= 0/ for all i. Then X −U1 , X −U2 , ..., X −Un are finite.
Then X − ∩ni=1Ui = ∪ni=1 (X −Ui ) is finite and so ∩ni=1Ui ∈ T f .
Hence T f is a topology.
Problem 01-02: Let X be a set and Tc = {U ⊂ X|X −U is countable or U c = X}.
MCQ 01-01-02: Let X = {a, b, c}. Which of the following is not a topology?
(A) {0,
/ X}.
(C) {0,
/ X, {a}, {b, c}}.
6. Let X = N and T = {φ , X} ∪ {A ⊂ N : 5 ∈
/ A}. Is T a topology? Justify.
KEY WORDS
Topology, discrete topology, finite complement topology, countable complement
topology .
REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to
INTRODUCTION
Specifying the topology by means of all its open sets is too difficult, in general.
To overcome this difficulty, we consider a smaller collection of open subsets of
X and define the topology in terms of that. That particular collection satisfying
some properties is called a basis, which we define explicitly in this unit.
Example 1.2.2. Let C be the collection of all circular regions (interior of circles)
in the plane. Then B is the base as given any x ∈ X, we can find a circular region
around x and the second condition is explained in the Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.2:
Proof. 1. Clearly φ ∈ T .
2. Let Uα ∈ T , α ∈ Λ and x ∈
S
Uα
α∈Λ
Implies x ∈ U j for some j ∈ Λ.
Since U j ∈ T there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U j
Implies x ∈ B ⊂
S
Uα
α∈Λ
Uα ∈ T .
S
Implies
α∈Λ
i.e. every element U of T (or every open sets U of X) can be expressed as a union
of basis elements.
0 0
Theorem 1.2.9. Let B and B be bases for the topologies T and T on X then
the following are equivalent.
0 0
1. T is finer than T (i.e., T ⊃ T ).
0
2. For each x ∈ X and for each B ∈ B such that x ∈ B, ∃ B ∈ B such that
0
x ∈ B ⊂ B.
Proof. 1 ⇒ 2.
0
Suppose T ⊃ T .
Let x ∈ X and B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.
0
Since B ∈ T Implies B ∈ T .
0 0 0 0 0
As T is the topology generated by B , ∃B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ B.
2 ⇒ 1.
Let U ∈ T and x ∈ U. Then ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U.
0 0
Then by assumption, ∃ B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ B
0
Implies x ∈ B ⊂ B ⊂ U
0
Implies x ∈ B ⊂ U
0
Implies U ∈ T
0
Hence T is finer than T
Definition 1.2.13. Let X be a set with order relation ’<’. Let a, b ∈ X with a < b
then
[a, b) ={x|a ≤ x ≤ b}
Example 1.2.14. Let X = N with order ’<’. Then (1, 5) = {2, 3, 4} and
[1, 5) = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Lemma 1.2.15. Let X be a set with simple order relation and assume that X has
more than one element. Let B be the collection of all sets of the following:
3. All intervals of the form (a, b0 ] where b0 is the largest element of X, if exists.
Proof. Let x ∈ X.
Suppose x is the smallest element of X.
Since X contains more than one element, there exists b such that x < b.
Then x ∈ [x, b) ∈ B.
Similarly, if x is the largest element of X, there exists a such that a < x implies
x ∈ (a, x] ∈ B.
If x is neither smallest nor largest, then there exist a and b such that a < x < b and
hence x ∈ (a, b) ∈ B.
In any case, there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.
Also if B1 and B2 ∈ B then B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B because the intersection of B1 and B2 is
any one of the form (a, b), [a, b) or (a, b].
Proof. Since R has neither smallest element nor largest element, we have B =
{(a, b)|a, b ∈ R}.
This topology generated by B is same as the standard topology.
[a, ∞) = {x|x ≥ a}
(−∞, a] = {x|x ≤ a}
Lemma 1.2.20. The open rays form a sub basis for the order topology on X. Also
the topology generated by this sub basis is same as the order topology.
Proof. Let x ∈ X.
If x is the smallest element, then there exists a such that x < a and
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: The topologies Rl and RK are strictly finer than the standard
topology R but are not comparable with one another.
0 00
Solution: Let T , T and T be the topologies of R, Rl and RK respectively.
0
Let x ∈ (a, b) ∈ B. Then [x, b) ∈ B and x ∈ [x, b) ⊂ (a, b).
0
Which means T ⊃ T .
0
On the other hand, 0 ∈ [0, 1) ∈ B but there is no (a, b) ∈ B such that
0 ∈ (a, b) ⊂ [0, 1)(if there is, then a < 0and as(a, b) ⊂ [0, 1), then a ≥ 0)
0
Therefore T is strictly finer than T .
00
Clearly, T ⊃ T as B ” ⊃ B.
We know that 0 ∈ (−1, 1) − K ∈ B ” but there is no open interval (a, b) containing
’0’ such that (a, b) ⊂ (−1, 1) − K.
Because if 0 ∈ (a, b), then b > 0. So by Archimedean property there exists n ∈ N
such that nb > 1
1 1 1
Implies a < n < b and thus n ∈ (a, b) but n ∈
/ (−1, 1) − K
00
Therefore T ) T
SELF-TEST 01
(II) The order topology on the positive integers Z+ is the discrete topology.
Then
1. Determine all the topologies containing T3 and the relation among them.
2. Determine all the topologies containing T5 and the relation among them.
6. Show that the collection C = {[a, b) | a < b, a and b rational} is a basis that
generated a topology different from the lower limit topology on R.
KEY WORDS
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, a student will be able to
Define and understand the concept of product topology and construct exam-
ples
Relate open sets of a subspace with the open sets of the topological space.
INTRODUCTION
The definition of the topological product of an infinite collection of topological
spaces was given by A.N. Tikhonov (1930). The construction of a topological
product is one of the main tools in the formation of new topological objects from
ones already existing. Using topological products one can construct a number of
fundamental standard objects of general topology. Another important topology is
the subspace topology, which is also constructed from the existing one. In this
unit, we focus on product topology and subspace topology and relate them using
open sets.
Before defining the product topology, we prove the following lemma.
Proof. Let x × y ∈ X ×Y .
Since X is open in X and Y is open in Y , X ×Y ∈ B and x × y ∈ X ×Y ∈ B.
Figure 1.3:
Since U1 ∩U2 is open in X and V1 ∩V2 is open in Y (refer the Figure 1.3)
we get (U1 ∩U2 ) × (V1 ∩V2 ) ∈ B
That is (U1 ×V1 ) ∩ (U2 ×V2 ) ∈ B
Implies B is a basis for X ×Y .
The next theorem characterizes the base for the product topology X ×Y using
the bases for X and Y .
Example 1.3.4. The product of standard topology on R with itself is called the
standard topology on R2 . A basis for this product topology is given by
B = {(a, b) × (c, d)|a, b, c, d ∈ R}.
= {(x, y)|x ∈ U}
= U ×Y
Figure 1.4:
We can construct the basis for the subspace topology Y using the base for the
topology X as shown in the next lemma.
Remark 1.3.10. Every open set in a subspace topology need not be open in its
parent topology, for example if X = R with usual topology, then Y = [0, 1) is open
in the subspace topology Y , but not open in X. How ever there is a special case,
where every open set of Y is also open in X, which we prove in the following
lemma.
In the next theorem, we relate the subspace topology and the product topology.
The importance of convex sets is that, if a subset is convex, then the order
topology is same as the subspace topology. We prove this interesting result in the
following theorem.
Theorem 1.3.17. Let X be an ordered set in the order topology and Y be a convex
subset of X. Then the order topology on Y is same as the topology Y inherits as a
subspace of X.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Let T be a topology on X and Y ⊂ X. Then
TY = {Y ∩U|U is open in X} is a topology on Y .
/ X ∈ T , 0/ = Y ∩ 0/ ∈ TY and Y = Y ∩ X ∈ TY
Solution: Since 0,
Let Y ∩Uα ∈ TY , α ∈ Λ. Then
(Y ∩Uα ) = Y ∩ (
S S
Uα )
α∈Λ α∈ΛS
Since Uα ∈ T Implies Uα ∈ T
α∈Λ
Implies Y ∩ ( Uα ) ∈ TY
S
Sα∈Λ
Therefore (Y ∩Uα ) ∈ TY .
α∈Λ
Let Y ∩Ui ∈ TY , i = 1, 2, , ...n. Then
n n
(Y ∩Ui ) = Y ∩ ( Ui ) ∈ TY
T T
i=1 i=1
Hence TY is a topology on Y .
Problem 03-02: Let Y = [0, 1] be a subset of X = R. Then the subspace topology
is same as ordered topology.
Solution: The basis for subspace topology TY contains elements of the form
By definition of TY , each of these sets are open in Y .( Note that the sets [0, b) and
(a, 1] are not open in X)
Since the collection of these sets form a basis for order topology in the case of
Y = [0, 1] its subspace topology and order topology are same.
SELF TEST 01
1
A = {x | < |x| < 1}
2
1
B = {x | < |x| ≤ 1}
2
1
C = {x | ≤ |x| < 1}
2
1
D = {x | ≤ |x| ≤ 1}
2
0 0
4. If T and T are topologies on X and T is strictly fine than T , then what
can you say about the corresponding subspace topologies on the subset Y of
X?
5. Let f : X → Y be such that f (U) is open in Y for all open U in X. Show that
the projection map π1 : X ×Y → X is one such f .
KEY WORDS
Product topology, projections, subspace topology, convex.
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
With the help of open sets, we can introduce some of the basic concepts of a
topological space. In this unit we discuss the notion of closed set, closure of a set
and limit point. We also introduce the Hausdorff space and discuss the closed sets
of the Hausdorff space.
Example 1.4.2. The subset [a, b] of R is closed as [a, b]c = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞) is
open in R.
Example 1.4.5. In the discrete topology on X, each set A is closed because every
subset of X is open implies X − A is open.
Example 1.4.6. Let X = R, Y = [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3]. Then [0, 1] is both open and closed
in Y .
Remark 1.4.7. From the above examples, we can observe that sets are not doors
as a door must be either open or closed, where as a set can be open, or closed, or
both, or neither.
The collection of closed sets have the properties similar to open sets as we
discuss in the next result.
1. 0,
/ X are closed.
2. Int A is the largest open set contained in A as Int A is the union of all such
sets.
3. If A is closed, then Ā = A.
Example 1.4.21. X = R and C = {0} ∪ (1, 2). Then C̄ = {0} ∪ [1, 2].
Example 1.4.24. 1. If A = (0, 1], then 0 is a limit point of A and also every
0
element of A is a limit point. Thus A = [0, 1].
0
2. If B = { n1 |n ∈ Z+ }, then B = {0} as zero is the only limit point of B.
0
3. If C = {0} ∪ (1, 2), then C = [1, 2].
We give the relationship between the closure of a set and limit points of that
set in the following theorem.
0
Theorem 1.4.25. Let A be subset of the topological space X and A be the set of
0
all limit points of A. Then Ā = A ∪ A .
Proof.
if and only A0 ⊂ A
Example 1.4.29. Any non empty space X with indiscrete topology is not Haus-
dorff.
Proof. Consider 0, 21 ∈ R.
As 0, 12 ∈ (−n, n) for each n, we can’t have two disjoint open sets U and V such
1
that 0 ∈ U and 2 ∈ V.
Hence X is not Hausdorff.
Theorem 1.4.31. Let X be a space in which every finite set is closed and A ⊂ X.
Then the point x is a limit point of A if and only if every neighbourhood of x
contains infinitely many points of A.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: If X = R, then Q̄ = R.
Solution: Let x ∈ R and B = (a, b) be a basis element with x ∈ (a, b).
Since a, b ∈ R, there exists c ∈ Q such that a < c < b.
Thus B ∩ Q 6= 0.
/
Therefore Q̄ = R.
Problem 04-02: Every finite set in Hausdorff space is closed.
Solution: Since every finite set is the finite union of singletons, it is enough to
(I) In the finite complement topology on a set X, every finite set is closed.
(II) In the discrete topology on a set X, every finite set is closed. Then
3. Show the T 1 axiom is equivalent to the condition that for each pair of points
of X, each has a neighborhood not containing the other.
KEY WORDS
Closed sets, limit points, convergence, Hausdorff spaces.
REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
INTRODUCTION
We have seen the concept of continuity on real line and in the plane. In this
section, we define the continuous function which generalizes all these existing
definitions. We also learn homeomorphism between two topological spaces.
The next few results are about construction of continuous from one topological
space to another.
Remark 2.1.14. This result is also true if A and B are open sets such that X =
A ∪ B.
x, x ≤ 0;
Example 2.1.15. The function h : R → R defined by h(x) =
2x , x ≥ 0.
is continuous.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: A function f : X → Y is continuous if f −1 (B) is open for every
basis element B ∈ B.
Solution: Let V be open in Y .
MCQ 02-01-03 Let R denotes the set of all real numbers in its usual topology
and Rl denotes same set in the topology generated by all intervals of the
form [a, b). Let f : R → Rl be defined by f (x) = x for every real number x.
Then which of the following statements is true?
A. f is not continuous
B. f is continuous
C. f is a homeomorphism
D. f −1 is not continuous
2. Show that the subspace (a, b) of R is homeomorphic with (0, 1) and the
KEY WORDS
Open set, Continuity, homeomorphism, Pasting lemma.
REFERENCES
MOOCS
YOUTUBE VIDEOS
WIKIPEDIA
OER
BOOKS
COURSE COMPANION WEBSITE
Visit Here for Course Companion website for this course:
INTRODUCTION
Quotient topology does not come naturally from analysis as a generalization. Quo-
tient topology can be understood some times by cut and paste techniques, for ex-
ample, torus can be constructed by considering a rectangle and pasting its edges
together. In this section, we will learn quotient map, open and closed maps, con-
struction of quotient topology.
Remark 2.2.2. We can observe that quotient map is stronger than continuity; and
some times it is called as strong continuity. The definition can also be stated
interms of closed sets because B is closed iff Y \ B is open iff f −1 (Y \ B) is open
in X iff X \ f −1 (B) is open iff f −1 (B) is closed.
We will now see that not every quotient map is open map.
Example 2.2.8. Let X be the subspace [0, 1]∪[2, 3] of R, and let Y be the subspace
p : X → Y defined by
[0, 2] of R. Consider the map
x ∈ [0, 1];
x,
p(x) =
x − 1, x ∈ [2, 3].
Then p is surjective, continuous and closed and hence it is a quotient map.
Where as it is not an open map, because [0, 1] is open in X, but p([0, 1]) = [0, 1] is
not open in Y .
Example 2.2.11. Let p be the map of the real line R onto the three-point set
A = {a,
b, c} defined by
a, if x > 0;
p(x) = b, if x < 0;
c, if x = 0.
Then the quotient topology on A induced by p is given by
T = {0,
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
Proof. Since p−1 (0) / p−1 (A) = R, p−1 ({a}) = (0, ∞), p−1 ({b}) = (−∞, 0)
/ = 0,
and p−1 ({a, b}) = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) are open in R, we get that
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} ⊂ T
{0,
Also as p−1 ({c}) = {0}, p−1 ({a, c}) = [0, ∞) , p−1 ({b, c}) = (−∞, b] are not
open in R, these sets doesn’t belongs to T
Therefore, T = {0,
/ A, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} is the quotient topology on A = {a, b, c}.
Proof. For each y ∈ Y, the set g(p−1 ({y})) is constant in Z, say g(p−1 ({y})) =
f (y)
That is we have defined a map f : Y → Z such that for each x ∈ X, f (p(x)) = g(x).
If f is continuous, then g = f ◦ p is continuous.
Conversely, suppose g is continuous and V be an open set in Z
Then g−1 (V ) is open in X.
As g−1 (V ) = ( f ◦ p)−1 (V ) = p−1 ( f −1 (V )) and p is a quotient map, we get f −1 (V )
is open in Y . Hence f is continuous.
If f is a quotient map, then g being the composite of two quotient maps is a
quotient map.
Conversely, suppose that g is a quotient map.
As g is surjective, so is f .
Let V be a subset of Z; we show that V is open in Z if f −1 (V ) is open in Y .
Now the set p−1 ( f −1 (V )) is open in X because p is continuous.
That is g−1 (V ) is open in X.
Since g is a quotient map, V is open in Z.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: Let π1 : R × R → R be projection onto the first coordinate. Then
π1 is an open map but not a closed map.
Solution: Clearly π1 is continuous and surjective.
KEY WORDS
Open map, closed map, quotient map, quotient topology.
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we define a connected topological space and construct new connected
spaces from the existing ones. We also show that a finite Cartesian product of
connected spaces is connected, but arbitrary product of connected spaces need not
be connected.
Lemma 2.3.2. A space X is connected if and if the only subsets of X that are both
open and closed in X are the empty set and X itself.
Example 2.3.4. Let X denote a two point space in the indiscrete topology. Then
X is connected as there is no separation for X.
As we have seen in the example 2.3.5, union of connected spaces need not be
connected, but with some extra conditions we can prove that union of connected
spaces is connected.
Theorem 2.3.7. The union of a collection of connected sub spaces of X that have
a point in common is connected.
Theorem 2.3.9. The image of a connected space under a continuous map is con-
nected.
Proof. We prove that the product of two connected spaces X and Y is connected.
Let a × b ∈ X ×Y be a base point. Then the ”horizontal slice” X × b is connected,
being homeomorphic with X.
Also each ”vertical slice” x ×Y is connected, being homeomorphic with Y .
Since x × b ∈ (X × b) ∩ (x ×Y ), each ”T-shaped” space
Figure 2.1:
Tx = (X × b) ∪ (x ×Y ) is connected.
Since a × b ∈
T S
x Tx and each Tx is connected, therefore the union x Tx is con-
nected. As this union equals X ×Y , the space X ×Y is connected.
Now suppose that the product space X1 × ... × Xn−1 is connected.
Since the space X1 × ... × Xn is homeomorphic with (X1 × ... × Xn−1 ) × Xn ,
we get that X1 × ... × Xn is connected.
Lemma 2.3.12. Let {Xα }α∈J be an indexed family of topological spaces and let
B = {∏α∈J Uα |Uα be open in Xα }. Then B is a basis for the topology ∏α∈J Xα .
Implies B1 ∩ B2 ∈ B.
Therefore B is a basis for ∏α∈J Xα .
Proof. Let B be the basis generated by the sub basis S then B consist of finite
intersection of elements of S . If we intersect element belonging to the same SB
we don’t get any thing new because
∏−1 −1 −1
B (UB ) ∩ ∏B (VB ) = ∏B (UB ∩VB ) ∈ SB is again an element of SB .
Therefore Assume that basis element is the finite intersection of differentSB ’s.
B = ∏−1 −1 −1
B1 (UB1 ) ∩ ∏B2 (UB1 ) ∩ ... ∩ ∏Bn (UB1 ) then
x ∈ B if and only if x ∈ ∏−1
Bi (UBi ) ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
if and only if ∏Bi (x) ∈ UBi ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
if and only if xBi ∈ UBi ∀ i = 1, 2, ...n
There is no condition on xα if α 6= Bi i = 1, 2, ...n
Implies B = ∏ Uα where Uα = Xα if α 6= Bi
Therefore B = ∏ Uα where Uα = Xα except for finitely many α’s.
Remark 2.3.16. 1. In a finite product space ∏ni=1 Xi the box topology is same
as the product topology.
2. Since every basis element in the product topology belongs to the basis for
the box topology. We have box topology is finer than product topology.
We now prove that the intermediate value theorem of calculus is the special
case of the following theorem that occurs when we take X to be a closed interval
in R and Y to be R.
Proof. The sets A = f (X) ∩ (−∞, r) and B = f (X) ∩ (r, +∞) are disjoint, and
f (a) ∈ A and f (b) ∈ B.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Let {An } be a sequence of connected subspaces of X, such that
An ∩ An+1 6= 0/ for all n. Then
S
An is connected.
S
Solution: Suppose An is disconnected.
S
Then there is a separation (U,V ) of An .
Since each An is connected , we get either An ⊂ U or An ⊂ V .
Suppose that An ⊂ U. Since An ∩ An+1 6= 0,
/ we get that An+1 ⊂ U.
Then by induction each An ⊂ U.
An ⊂ U and V is empty, which is a contradiction.
S
Hence
S
Therefore, An is connected.
Problem 03-02: The product space Rw is not connected in the box topology.
Solution: Consider the cartesian product Rw in the box topology.
We can write Rw = A ∪ B, where A is the set consisting of all bounded sequences
of real numbers, and the set B of all unbounded sequences.
Then the sets A and B are disjoint and open in the box topology For if a is a point
of Rw , the open set
(I) Rl is connected
0 0
1. Let T and T be two topologies on X. If T ⊃ T , what does connected-
ness of X in one topology imply about connectedness in the other?
3. Show that no two of the spaces (0, 1), (0, 1], and [0, 1] are homeomorphic.
KEY WORDS
Separation, Connected, Connectedness of box and product topology, Linear con-
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INTRODUCTION
In this section, we discuss path connectedness, components, locally path connect-
edness and try to relate these concepts.
Remark 2.4.3. The converse of the above theorem is not true. For example, let S
denote the following subset of the plane.
S = {x × sin(l/x)|0 < x ≤ l}
Because S is the image of the connected set (0, 1] under a continuous map, S
is connected. Therefore, its closure S̄, called the topologist’s sine curve, in R2 is
also connected. But S̄ is not path connected.
Proof. Being equivalence classes, the components of X are disjoint and their
union is X. Each connected subspace A of X intersects only one of them. For
if A intersects the components C1 and C2 of X, say in points x1 and x2 , respec-
tively, then x1 ∼ x2 by definition; this cannot happen unless C1 = C2 .
To show the component C is connected, choose a point xo of C. For each point x
of C, we know that x0 ∼ x, so there is a connected subspace Ax containing xo and
x. By the result just proved, Ax ⊂ C. Therefore C =
S
x∈C Ax .
Since the subspaces Ax are connected and have the point x0 in common, their
union is connected.
Theorem 2.4.7. A space X is locally connected if and only if for every open set U
of X, each component of U is open in X.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: Let X be locally path connected. Show that every connected
open set in X is path connected.
Solution: Let X be locally path connected space and U be a connected open subset
of X.
Then each path component and their unions are open in X.
Hence they are open and closed in U.
As U is connected, there is only one path component and thus U is path connected.
Problem 04-02: If {Aα } is collection of path connected subspaces of X and if
∩Aα 6= 0,
/ then ∪Aα is path connected.
Solution: Let x ∈ ∪Aα . If x, y ∈ Aα for some α, then there is a path between
them. Suppose x and y are in two different spaces. As ∩Aα is non empty, say z is
a common point, then there is a path from x to z and a path from z to y. Thus by
A. 1
B. 2
D. 2, 4
KEY WORDS
Connected spaces, local connected, components, path connected spaces.
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INTRODUCTION
Fréchet was the first to use the term compact. Compactness was introduced
into topology with the intention of generalizing the properties of the closed and
bounded subsets of Rn . In this unit, we discuss the properties of compact topo-
logical space and construct new spaces from old ones. We also see under what
conditions, compactness can be passed on to subspaces and products.
Example 3.1.3. Any topological space X with finite number of elements is com-
pact, as each open cover for X is itself a finite collection.
Figure 3.1:
We now prove tube lemma, which will be useful in proving that product of
finitely many compact spaces is compact.
Lemma 3.1.10. (The tube lemma). Consider the product space X × Y , where Y
is compact. If N is an open set of X ×Y containing the slice x0 ×Y of X ×Y , then
N contains some tube W ×Y about x0 ×Y , where W is a neighborhood of x0 in X.
Since X is compact, there exists a finite sub cover X − C1 , ..., X − Cn such that
Sn
X⊂ i=1 (X −Ci ).
Tn
Implies 0/ ⊃ i=1 Ci , which is a contradiction.
C 6= 0.
T
Therefore, C∈C /
To prove converse, let A be an open cover for X.
For contrary, assume that there is no finite sub collection of A which covers X.
Sn
Then i=1 Ai 6= X for any n ∈ N.
Tn
Implies i=1 (X − Ai ) 6= 0.
/
So the collection C = {X − Aα | Aα ∈ A } satisfies the finite intersection property.
− A) 6= 0/
T
Therefore, A∈A (X
Proof. Step 1. We first show that given any nonempty open set U of X and x ∈ X,
there exists a nonempty open set V contained in U such that x ∈
/ V̄ .
If x ∈ U, since X has no isolated points, U 6= {x}.
So there exists y ∈ U such that y 6= x.
If x ∈
/ U, since U is non empty, ∃y ∈ U.
So in any case, there exists y ∈ U such that y 6= x.
As X is Hausdorff, there exists two disjoint open sets W1 and W2 containing x and
y, respectively.
Let V = W2 ∩U.
Since y ∈ W2 ∩U, we get V 6= 0/ and V ⊂ U.
As x ∈ W1 and V ∩W1 = 0,
/ we get x ∈
/ V̄ .
Step 2. We show that given f : Z+ → X, the function f is not surjective.
Let xn = f (n). Since X is non empty open set and x1 ∈ X, by Step 1, there exists
/ V¯1 .
a nonempty open set V1 ⊂ X such that x1 ∈
As V1 is non empty open subset of X and x2 ∈ X, ∃ a nonempty open set V2 ⊂ V1
/ V¯2 .
such that x2 ∈
By induction, given a non empty open set Vn−1 , there exists a nonempty open set
/ V¯n .
Vn ⊂ Vn−1 such that xn ∈
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: The subspace X = {0} ∪ { 1n |n ∈ Z+ } of R is compact.
Solution: Let A be an open covering of X.
Then there is an element U of A containing 0.
Since U is open and 0 ∈ U, there exists δ > 0 such that (−δ , δ ) ⊂ U.
1
As δ > 0, by Archimedean property, there exists N, such that N < δ.
Hence the set { 1n | n ≥ N} ⊂ U.
So at most 1, 12 , ..., N−1
1
are the elements of X, which are outside U, and these ele-
covered by finitely many open sets, say U1 ,...,Um of A .
ments can be !
m
Ui ∪U is a finite sub collection of A which covers X.
S
Then
i=1
Hence X is compact.
Problem 01-02: The image of a compact space under a continuous map is com-
pact.
Solution: Let f : X → Y be continuous and X be compact.
Let A be a covering for f (X) by sets open in Y .
As f is continuous, the collection { f −1 (A)|A ∈ A } is an open cover for X.
Since X is compact, there exists a finite sub cover f −1 (A1 ), ..., f −1 (An ) for X.
Then {A1 , ..., An } is a finite sub cover for f (X) and hence f (X) is compact.
SELF-TEST 01
2. Prove that an infinite set X with the discrete topology is not compact.
KEY WORDS
Open cover, Compact spaces, tube lemma, finite intersection property.
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Provide examples of spaces which are locally compact but not compact
INTRODUCTION
In early days of topology, a space is called compact if every infinite subspace of
it has a limit point, whereas the open covering formulation was called bicompact-
ness. Later, the standard definition of compact is interms of open covering, the
above compactness is renamed to limit point compactness. There is also another
version of compactness called sequential compactness. In this unit we will com-
pare these three versions of compactness and see when they all be same. We also
study local compactness and one point compactification.
The next few results emphasize the relation among these three versions of
compactness.
Theorem 3.2.6. Let X be a metrizable space. Then the following are equivalent:
1. X is compact.
3. X is sequentially compact.
Example 3.2.10. Every simply ordered set X having the least upper bound prop-
erty is locally compact: Given a basis element for X, it is contained in a closed
interval in X, which is compact.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 02-01: Limit point compactness need not imply compactness.
Solution: Let Y = {a, b} be given with indiscrete topology,i.e. Y and 0/ are the
only open sets in Y .
We show that the space X = Z+ × Y = {(n, a), (m, b) | n, m ∈ Z+ } is limit point
compact.
Let S be a non empty set of X, say (n, a) ∈ S.
Then (n, b) is a limit point of S as if A × Y is a neighborhood of (n, b), then
(n, a) ∈ (A ×Y ) ∩ S.
We can observe that singleton {n} is open in Z+ as {n} = (n − 1, n + 1) ∩ Z+ .
Thus the collection Un = {n} ×Y is an open cover for X but has no finite subcover
for X. Therefore, X is not compact.
Problem 02-02: The space Rω is not locally compact.
Solution: If a basis element B = (a1 , b1 ) × ... × (an , bn ) × R × ... × R × .... con-
tained in a compact subspace, then its closure B = [a1 , b1 ] × ... × [an , bn ] × R ×
... × R × .... is compact, which is a contradiction.
Hence Rω is not locally compact.
SELF-TEST 01
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Provide examples of spaces which are first countable but not second
INTRODUCTION
The countable axioms do not arise naturally from the study of analysis. Problems
like embedding a given space in a metric space or in a compact Hausdorff are
purely from topology and these problems can be solved with the help of countable
and separable axioms. In this section, we study the two countable axioms: first
countable and second countable; relation among them.
Proof. Let x ∈ R.
Suppose B = {Bn | n ∈ N} is a countable base at x.
Here each Bcn is countable and so
S c
Bn = ( Bn )c is countable
T
n n
Bn is open and x ∈ V .
T
Therefore V =
n
Now take y ∈ V \ {x} and U = V \ {y}.
Then x ∈ U and U is open as U c = V c ∪ {y} is countable.
As y ∈ Bn for each n and y ∈
/ U, we get that Bn * U for all n.
Which is a contradiction to the fact that B is countable base at x.
Therefore, R with countable complement topology is not first countable.
Theorem 3.3.6. Every second countable space is first countable, but not the con-
verse.
We now show that the spaces satisfying countable axioms are nice in the sense
that they can be passed onto subspaces and products.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 03-01: Every metrizable space is first countable.
Solution: For each x ∈ X, let Bx = {B(x, n1 ) | n ∈ N}.
Let U be a neighborhood of x.
Then there is an ε > 0 such that x ∈ B(x, ε) ⊂ U.
1
By Archimedean property, ∃ n ∈ N such that n < ε.
Then, x ∈ B(x, 1n ) ⊂ B(x, ε) ⊂ U.
Therefore Bx is a countable base at x and hence X is first countable.
Problem 03-02: R with lower limit topology is first countable but not second
countable.
Solution: Let x ∈ R. Then Clearly the collection {[x, x + 1n ) | n ∈ N} is a countable
base at x.
Hence R with lower limit topology is first countable.
Now suppose R with lower limit topology has a countable base, say B = {B1 , B2 , ...}.
Let bn = inf Bn . Then J = {bn | n ∈ N} is countable.
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INTRODUCTION
We have seen the first countable and second countable axioms. Other than the
these two countable axioms, there are other two alternative countable axioms,
namely separable and Lindelöf. Even though these two axioms are weaker than
the second countable, they have their own importance.
We now prove that every second countable space is Lindelöf as well as sepa-
rable.
Lindelöf spaces are not as nice as first and second countable spaces in the
sense that they are not passed on to subspaces and products.
Proof. The ordered square I02 = [0, 1] × [0, 1] is compact; therefore it is Lindelf.
Now consider the subspace A = I × (0, 1).
Then A is the union of the disjoint sets Ux = {x} × (0, 1), each of which is open
in A. This collection of sets is uncountable, and no proper subcollection covers A.
Therefore A is not Lindelöf.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: The space Rl (lower limit topology) is separable.
Solution: Let A be an open covering for Rl .
Then for any U ∈ A , there exists a basis element [aα , bα ) contained in U. So if
open cover of basis elements has a countable sub cover then A will have countable
sub cover.
So without loss of generality, let A = {[aα , bα ) | α ∈ J} be an covering of Rl .
S
Let C be the set C = α∈J (aα , bα ) which is a subset of R.
We show the set R −C is countable.
Let x be a point of R −C.
Since x ∈
/ C, x belongs to no open interval (aα , bα ), therefore x = aβ for some
index β .
Choose such a β and then choose qx to be a rational number belonging to the
interval (aβ , bβ ).
Define f : R −C → Q by f (x) = qx .
To show f is injective, let x, y ∈ R −C with x < y.
Then f (x) = qx ∈ (aβ , bβ ) Implies qx < bβ
Since x < y and y ∈
/ (aβ , bβ ), we get y > bβ .
Therefore, f (x) = qx < bβ < y < f (y), hence f is injective.
(∵ y = aγ and f (y) ∈ (aγ , bγ ) Implies y = aγ < f (y))
KEY WORDS
Countable, dense, separable and Lindelöf spaces.
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INTRODUCTION
The separation axioms are about the use of topological means to distinguish dis-
joint sets and distinct points. Separation axioms depends on how rich is the topo-
logical space interms of open sets. More the open sets in a space, it separates
more points and sets. The separation axioms are denoted with the letter ”T”, as
the word for separation in German is Trennung. In this section, we discuss three
separation axioms: T0 , T1 and T2 .
Definition 4.1.2 (T1 axiom). A topological space X satisfies T1 axiom, if for given
two distinct points x, y ∈ X, there exist two open sets U and V such that x ∈ U,y ∈
/U
and y ∈ V ,x ∈
/ U.
Definition 4.1.3 (T2 axiom). A topological space X satisfies T2 axiom, if for given
two distinct points x, y ∈ X, there exist two disjoint open sets U and V such that
x ∈ U and y ∈ V . T2 space is also called Hausdorff space, which we have seen
already.
Remark 4.1.4. The following observations justify why the above axioms are
called separation axioms:
Figure 4.1:
Example 4.1.6. The discrete topology with atleast two points is a T0 space, as
every singleton is open.
Proof. If we take a and c, then the only open set containing c is X, which also
contains a. Thus we cannot separate these two elements by two open sets.
Hence X is not T1 .
Theorem 4.1.9. A space X is T1 space if and only if each singleton set is closed
in X.
Theorem 4.1.11. 1. Every simple order set is a Hausdorff space in the order
topology.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 01-01: A finite T1 space is discrete.
Solution: Let X = {x1 , ..., xn }.
We have to show that each {xi } is open
But {xi }c = {x1 , ..., xi−1 , xi+1 , ..., xn } is finite and hence closed in X.
Thus X is discrete.
Problem 01-02: R together with finite complement topology is T1 but not T2 .
Solution: Let x, y ∈ R with x 6= y.
Then U = R \ {y} and V = R \ {x} are open such that
x ∈ U but y ∈
/ V and y ∈ V but x ∈
/ V.
Therefore, R is T1 space.
Suppose that R is T2 .
Then for 0, 1 ∈ R , there exists two open sets 0 ∈ U ; 1 ∈ V and U ∩V = 0.
/
As U and V are open, U c and V c are finite.
Also U ∩V = 0/ implies U ⊂ V c and so U is finite.
Then R = U ∪U c is finite, which is absurd.
Hence R together with finite complement topology is not T2 .
SELF-TEST 01
2. Give an example of a space which is not T2 , but in which any sequence has
at most one limit.
KEY WORDS
T0 , T1 , T2 spaces, Hausdorff space.
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INTRODUCTION
In the previous section, we have seen three separation axioms. In this section
we discuss two more important separation axioms: regular and normal. We also
exhibit whether these can be passed on to subspaces and products.
Figure 4.2:
Proof. Since Rl is finer than R and one-point sets are closed in R, we get that
one-point sets are closed in Rl .
To check normality, suppose that A and B are disjoint closed sets in Rl .
Let a ∈ A. Since Rl − B is open and a ∈ Rl − B, there exists a basis element [a, xa )
such that [a, xa ) ⊂ Rl − B. i.e. for each a ∈ A, [a, xa ) ∩ B = 0.
/
Similarly, for b ∈ B, choose a basis element [b, xb ) such that [b, xb ) ∩ A = 0.
/
S S
Now let U = [a, xa ) and V = [b, xb ).
a∈A b∈B
suppose z ∈ U ∩ V , then ∃a ∈ A and b ∈ B such that z ∈ [a, xa ) and z ∈ [b, xb ).
Suppose a < b. Then a < b ≤ z < xa implies b ∈ [a, xa ), which is a contradiction.
([a, xa ) ∩ B = 0)
/
Therefore U and V are disjoint open sets containing A and B respectively.
Hence Rl is normal.
Figure 4.3:
By inductively we define,
n n
Un0 = Un \ and Vn0 = Vn \
[ [
V̄i Ūi
i=1 i=1
KEY WORDS
Regular space, Normal space, Metric space, Hausdorff space.
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INTRODUCTION
In this section, we learn one of the deeper results, called Urysohn’s lemma, which
guarantees the existence of continuous real valued function on a normal space. We
also see one of the consequence of Urysohn’s lemma, namely, Tietze extension
theorem which is an important result that asserts the extension of a continuous
function defined on a subspace to the whole space.
A ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 1 and Ū 1 ⊂ U 3 ⊂ Ū 3 ⊂ X − B. So we have,
4 4 2 2 4 4
A ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 1 ⊂ Ū 1 ⊂ U 3 ⊂ Ū 3 ⊂ X − B.
4 4 2 2 4 4
Since for any p ∈ D, p = k.2−n for some 0 < k < 2n , there exists a open set U p
and if p < q, then UP ⊂ Uq .
inf{d : x ∈ U }, i f x ∈ S
d d∈D Ud
Now we define, f : X → [0, 1] by f (x) =
if x ∈
S
1,
/ d∈D Ud
Then f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ A because, A ⊆ Ud , for all d ∈ D and D is dense in [0, 1].
As B ∩Ud = 0/ for all d ∈ D, we get f (b) = 1 for all b ∈ B.
If x ∈ Ūr , then x ∈ Us for every s > r.
Therefore, s ∈ {p | x ∈ U p }, so f (x) = inf{p | x ∈ U p } ≤ inf{s | r < s} ≤ r.
If x ∈
/ Ur , then x ∈
/ Us for every s < r.
Therefore, s ∈
/ {p | x ∈ U p } and hence f (x) = inf{p | x ∈ U p } ≥ r.
Now we prove the continuity of f . Let x0 ∈ X and an open interval (c, d) in [0, 1]
containing f (x0 ).
We will find a neighborhood U of x0 such that f (U) ⊂ (c, d).
Since D is dense in [0, 1], ∃p, q ∈ D such that c < p < f (x0 ) < q < d.
Let U = Uq − Ū p . Since f (x0 ) < q, we have x0 ∈ Uq . (as if x0 ∈
/ Uq , then f (x0 ) ≥ q)
Also as f (x0 ) > p, we have x0 ∈
/ Ū p .
To show f (U) ⊂ (c, d), let x ∈ U.
Then x ∈ Uq ⊂ Ūq implies f (x) ≤ q.
Since x ∈
/ Ū p , we have x ∈
/ U p and hence f (x) ≥ p.
Thus f (x) ∈ [p, q] ⊂ (c, d). Hence f (U) ⊂ (c, d).
1. Any continuous map of A into the closed interval [a, b] of R may be extended
to a continuous map of all of X into [a, b]
1
|g(x)| ≤ r for all x ∈ X,
3
2
|g(a) f (a)| < r for all a ∈ A.
3
The function g is constructed as follows:
Divide the interval [−r, r] into three equal intervals of length 32 r as
1 1 1 1
I1 = [−r, − r] I2 = [− r, r] I3 = [ r, r]
3 3 3 3
Now consider the function f −g1 . This function maps A into the interval [2/3, 2/3].
So again by Step 1, with r = 2/3, we get g2 defined on all of X such that
12
|g2 (x)| ≤ f or x ∈ X,
3 3
2 2
| f (a) − g1 (a) − g2 (a)| ≤ f or a ∈ A.
3
We apply Step 1 to the function f − g1 − g2 And so on.
n
2
At the (n + 1)th step, applying step1 to the function f − g1 − ...gn , with r = 3 ,
we obtain a real-valued function gn+1 on all all of X such that
1 2 n
|gn+1 (x)| ≤ f or x ∈ X,
3 3
2 n
| f (a) − g1 (a) − ...gn (a)| ≤ f or a ∈ A.
3
By induction, the functions gn are defined for all n.
We now define g(x) = ∑∞
n=1 gn (x) for all x in X.
Let sn (x) = ∑ni=1 gi (x), the n-th partial sum of the series.
n−1
The series g(x) converges by comparison with the geometric series 31 ∑∞
n=1
2
3 .
We show that the sequence sn converges to g uniformly. For k > n,
k
|sk (x) − sn (x)| = ∑ gi (x)
i=n+1
k 2 i−1
1
≤ ∑ 3
3 i=n+1
1 ∞ 2 i−1 2 n
= ∑ 3 =
3 i=n+1 3
SELF-TEST 01
1. Show that the Tietze extension theorem implies the Urysohn lemma.
KEY WORDS
Normal space, Urysohn lemma, Tietze extension theorem.
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INTRODUCTION
In this section, we learn one more separation axiom namely completely regular,
which sits between regular and normal, and as a reason, it is denoted by T3 1 .
2
We also show that completely regular spaces can be passed onto subspaces and
products. We have seen already some sort of compactification, namely one point
compactification, which is the minimal compactification. In this section, we give
maximal compactification, called Stone-Cech compactification.
Definition 4.4.1. If A and B are two subsets of the topological space X, and if there
is a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}, we
say that A and B can be separated by a continuous function.
Proof. Let X0 denote the subspace h(x) of Z, and Y0 denote its closure in Z.
Then Y0 is a compact Hausdorff space and X¯0 = Y0
Hence Y0 is a compactification of X0 .
We now construct a space Y containing X such that (X,Y ) is homeomorphic
(X0 ,Y0 ).
We choose a set A disjoint from X that is in bijective correspondence with the set
Y0 − X0 under some map k : A → Y0 − X0 .
Define Y = X ∪ A, and define a bijective correspondance H : Y → Y0 − X0 by
H(x) = h(x) f or x ∈ X,
H(a) = k(a) f or a ∈ A.
Proof. Let { fα }α∈J be the collection of all bounded continuous real-valued func-
tions on X, indexed by some index set J.
For each α ∈ J, let Iα = [inf fα (X), sup fα (X)]. Then define h : X → ∏α∈J by
h(x) = ( fα (x))α∈J .
Since each Iα is compact, ∏ Iα is compact.
Because X is completely regular, the collection { fα } separates points from closed
sets in X.
Therefore the map h is an embedding.
Let Y be the compactification of X induced by the embedding h.
Then there is an embedding H : Y → ∏ Iα that equals h when restricted to the
Theorem 4.4.10. Let X be a completely regular space. If Y1 and Y2 are two com-
pactification of X satisfying the extension property of Theorem 4.4.9, then Y1 and
Y2 are equivalent.
Figure 4.4:
Remark 4.4.11. For each completely regular space X, there exists a unique com-
pactification of X satisfying the extension condition of Theorem 4.4.9. We will
denote this compactification of X by β (X) and call it the Stone-Cech compacti-
fication of X. It is characterised by the fact that any continuous map f : X → C
of X into a compact Hausdorff space C extends uniquely to a continuous map
g : β (X) → C.
SOLVED PROBLEMS 01
Problem 04-01: Show that every completely regular space X is regular.
Solution: Let A be a closed subset of X and x0 ∈ X \ A.
Then by definition of completely regular, there exists a continuous function
f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x0 ) = 1 and f (A) = {0}.
h i
Observe that the sets 0, 12 and 12 , 1 are open in [0, 1].
As f is continuous, we get that the sets f −1 [0, 12 ) and f −1 ( 12 , 1] are open
and they are disjoint.
Also x0 ∈ f −1 ( 21 , 1] and A ⊂ f −1 [0, 21 ) .
Hence X is regular.
Problem 04-02: If Y is a compactification of X, then X is completely regular.
Solution: Suppose X has a compactification Y .
Since Y is compact and Hausdorff, Y is normal.
As every normal space is completely regular, Y is completely regular
Thus A is completely regular being a subspace of Y .
SELF-TEST 01
B. R
C. S2
D. S1
A. R2
B. R
C. S2
D. S1
KEY WORDS
Completely Regular space, Normal space, Uryshon’s lemma, Stone-Cech com-
pactification.
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Remark 6.1.3. The above result is not true for box topology.
For example, consider Rw = ∏n∈Z+ Xn , infinite countable product of Xn = R, ∀ n.
1 1 1 1
B = (−1, 1) × (− , ) × (− , ) × ...
2 2 3 3
1 1
= ∏ (− , )
n≥1 n n
⇒ (−δ , δ ) ⊂ (− 1n , n1 ) ∀
1
Which is a contradiction as ∃ n0 such that n0 δ > 1 ⇒ δ > n0 and hence
(−δ , δ ) is not subset of (− n10 , n10 )
Thus f −1 (B) is not open and hence f is not continuous.
min{d(x, y), 1}. Then d¯ is a metric and called the standard bounded metric corre-
sponding to d.
¯ y) ≥ 0
1. d(x,
¯ y) = d(y,
3. d(x, ¯ z)
¯ z) ≤ d(x,
4. Now we will show that d(x, ¯ z)
¯ y) + (y,
¯ y) = 1 or d(y,
Suppose d(x, ¯ z) = 1 then
¯ y) + d(x,
d(x, ¯ z) ≤ 1 ≤ d(x,
¯ z)
¯ z) ≤ d(x,
Implies d(x, ¯ y) + d(y,
¯ z)
¯ y) < 1 and d(y,
Now suppose d(x, ¯ z) < 1 then
¯ y) = d(x, y) and d(y,
d(x, ¯ z) = d(y, z)
¯ z) ≤ d(x,
Therefore d(x, ¯ z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y,
¯ z)
¯ y) + d(y,
= d(x, ¯ z)
¯ z) ≤ d(x,
d(x, ¯ y) + d(y,
¯ z)
Therefore d¯ is a metric on X.
Since the collection of ε-balls with ε < 1 forms a basis for the metric topology, it
follows that d and d¯ induces the same topology on X as the collection of ε balls
with ε < 1 under these two metric are same.
1
2
Definition 7.1.6. Given x, y ∈ Rn define d(x, y) = ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2 and ρ(x, y) =
max{|xi − yi |, ...|xn − yn |} then d and ρ are metrics on Rn and are called Euclidean
metric and square metric respectively.
0 0
Theorem 7.1.7. Let d and d be two metrics on X ; T and T be topologies
0 0
induced by d and d . Then T is finer than T if and only if for each x ∈ X and
ε > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such that Bd 0 (x, δ ) ⊂ Bd (x, ε).
0
Proof. Suppose T ⊃ T . Let x ∈ X and ε > 0.
0
Since Bd (x, ε) is open in T , ∃ B ∈ T such that B ⊂ Bd (x, ε).
0 0
As B is open in T ∃ δ > 0 such that Bd (x, δ ) ⊂ B
¯ i , zi ) ≤ d(x
∵ d(x ¯ i , yi ) + d(y¯ i , zi )
¯ i , zi ) d(x
d(x ¯ i , yi ) d(y ¯ i , zi )
≤ +
i i i
¯
d(xi , yi ) ¯ i , yi )
d(x
≤ sup{ } + sup{ }
i i
¯ i , zi )
d(x
≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)
i
¯ i , yi )
d(x
⇒ sup{ } ≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)
i
⇒ D(x, z) ≤D(x, y) + D(y, z)
Therefore D is a metric on Rw .
Let TD be the topology generated by D and T be the product topology on Rw .
To show T ⊂ TD , let BD (x, ε) be a basis element of TD .
1
Since ε > 0 ∃ N such that N < ε.
Let V = (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) × ... × (xN − ε, xN + ε). Then V is open in the product
topology.
To show that V ⊂ BD (x, ε), let y ∈ V .
Then yi ∈ (xi − ε, xi + ε) ∀ i = 1, 2, ...N and yi ∈ R ∀ i > N.
|xi −yi | 1
Clearly, i ≤ N < ε ∀i > N
Therefore D(x, y) ≤ max{ d(x11,y1 ) , d(x22,y2 ) , ..., d(xNN,yN ) , ε}
⇒ y ∈ BD (x, ε)
Therefore V ⊂ BD (x, ε).
Conversely, consider a basis element U = ∏i∈Z+ Ui in the product topology where
Ui is open in R for i = α1 , α2 , ..., αn and U j = R j 6= αi .
Let x ∈ U. Then xi ∈ Uαi i = 1, 2, ...n.
Since Ui is open in R ∃ 1 ≥ εi > 0 such that xi ∈ (xi − εi , xi + εi ) ⊂ Uαi i=
1, 2, ...n.
Now take ε = min{ εii |i = α1 , ...αn }.
Proof. Step 1 We prove the following: There exists a countable collection of con-
tinuous functions fn : X → [0, 1] having the property that given any point x0 of X
and any neighborhood U of x0 , there exists an index n such that fn is positive at
x0 and vanishes outside U.
Let {Bn } be a countable basis for X. Let x ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of x.
Then there exists Bm such that x ∈ Bm ⊂ U.
Since X is regular, there exists V containing x such that x ∈ V ⊂ Bm .
Again we can find a basis element Bn such that x ∈ Bn ⊂ V .
Therefore, x ∈ Bn ⊂ V ⊂ Bm .
For each pair n, m of indices for which B̄n ⊂ Bm , apply the Urysohn lemma to
choose a continuous function gn,m : X → [0, 1] such that gn,m (B̄n ) = {1} and
gn,m (X − Bm ) = {0}.
Then the collection {gn,m } satisfies our requirement.
Because the collection {gn,m } is indexed with a subset of Z+ × Z+ , it is countable;
therefore it can be re indexed with the positive integers, giving us the desired col-
lection { fn }.
Notation:
• c is an element of X
• C is a subset of X
• C is a collection of subsets of X
Proof. Let A be a collection of subsets of X that has the finite intersection prop-
erty(in short, f.i.p).
Let A = {B | B ⊃ A and B has f.i.p}.
For B1 , B2 ∈ A, we define B1 ≤ B2 if B1 ⊆ B2 .
We show that A has a maximal element D.
The content writers here by thank James R. Munkres, as we have taken most of
the material from his book: Topology. Definitions, statements and some diagrams
have been taken from this book as it is so that students can understand better. We
duly acknowledge the content taken from this book. Most of the proofs have been
altered according to our understanding. These are the reference books:
2. Theory and Problems of Set Theory and Related Topics, Lipshutz Sey-
mour,Schaum Publishing Co. New York
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