26.

Huygens' Principle

Definition:
“Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of spherical wavelets
which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The
sum of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”.

27. Refraction (Rarer to Denser)

Explanation:
When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends
towards from the normal. This can be explained using Huygens'
Principle, as the wavelets travel at different speeds in different media,
causing the change in direction.
28. Intensity Graph (Interference vs. Diffraction)

Chapter 11

29. Photoelectric Effect

Definition:
It is a phenomenon of ejecting electrons by falling light of suitable
frequency or suitable wavelength on a metal. Ejected electron are
called photoelectrons and current flowing due to the photoelectrons is
called photoelectric current.

This effect was discovered by Hertz.

The 3 conditions for photoelectric effect are :

1. h  W0
2.   0
3.   0
1. Photoelectron : The electron emitted in photoelectric effect is
called photoelectron.
2. Photoelectric current : If current passes through the circuit in
photoelectric effect then the current is called photoelectric
current.
3. Work function : The minimum energy required to make an
electron free from the metal is called work function. It is
constant for a metal and denoted by 𝝋 or W. It is the minimum
for Cesium. It is relatively less for alkali metals.
4. Saturation current : When all the photo electrons emitted by
cathode reach the anode then current flowing in the circuit at
that instant is known as saturated current, this is the maximum
value of photoelectric current.
5. Stopping potential :Minimum magnitude of negative potential
of anode with respect to cathode for which current is zero is
called stopping potential. This is also known as cutoff voltage.
This voltage is independent of intensity
6. Retarding potential: Negative potential of anode with respect
to cathode which is less than stopping potential is called
retarding potential.
30. Failure of Wave Theory

Explanation:
Classical wave theory could not explain the discrete nature of energy
emitted from light, leading to the assertion that light has particle-like
properties.

1. According to wave theory when light incident on a surface,

energy is distributed continuously over the surface. So that
electron must take a time interval to accumulate sufficient
energy to come out. But in experiment there is no time lag.
2. When intensity is increased, more energetic electrons should be
emitted. So that stopping potential should be intensity
dependent. But it is not observed.
3. According to wave theory, if intensity is sufficient then, at each
frequency, electron emission is possible. It means there should
not be existence of threshold frequency
31.Einstein's Equation

Formula:

Where:

• E is the energy of the emitted electron,

• h is Planck's constant,
• ф is the work function of metal

32. De-Broglie Hypothesis

Moving particles of matter should display wave like properties under

suitable conditions. Because nature loves symmetry and the two basic
physical entities- matter and energy, must have symmetrical character

1) Waves associated with a moving particle are matter waves. (not

with stationary particles).
2) Matter waves are neither EM waves nor mechanical waves
3) Matter waves are also known as de-Broglie waves. Because
their concept was given by physicist Louis Victor de Broglie
4) Macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties because their wavelength are so small (beyond any
measurement). But the wave character of microscopic particles
(subatomic particles) is significant and measurable.
For Electron 𝝀=

For Proton 𝝀=

For Deuteron 𝝀=

For Alpha particle 𝝀=

For unchanged particles like neutron and gas atoms

Mean kinetic energy of electrons

Chapter 12
33. Outcomes of Alpha Particle Scattering

1. Most Part of the atom is empty space (Hollow).

2. There is some +ve Charge inside atom in a very small space.

3. The +ve charge inside atom is concentrated to an extremely small

space called Nucleus.
34.Distance of closest approach (nuclear dimension)
The minimum distance from the center of the nucleus upto which the
-particle approaches is called the distance of closest approach (r0 ).
From the figure,

1 2Z e2
ro=
2. Bohr Model
4 π 0 KE

35. Impact parameter (b):

The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector 𝐯⃗ of the α-particles

from the center of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is
known as impact parameter.

2 𝜽
1 Z e cot⁡ ( )
𝟐
b=
4 π 0 (𝟏m𝑽𝟐 )
𝟐
𝜽
 b  cot ( )
𝟐
36. Bohr’s model

Bohr’s first postulate

An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without

the emission of radiant energy. Hence, these orbits are also called
“stationary orbits”.

Bohr’s second postulate

Electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the
angular momentum (L) is some integral multiple of h/2, where h is
the Planck's constant.

i.e., 𝐧𝐡
L=
𝟐𝛑

where n = 1,2,3,....
Bohr’s third postulate
An electron might make a transition from one of its specified non
radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon
is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the
initial and final states.

h = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊
 1. Limitations of Bohr Model

Explanation:
The Bohr model cannot explain the spectra of multi-electron
atoms or the fine structure of spectral lines, as it oversimplifies

37. De-Broglie Explanation of Bohr's Second Postulate

Explanation:
According to De Broglie electron revolves round the nucleus in the
form of stationary waves (i. e. wave packet) in the similar fashion as
stationary waves in a vibrating string.

Electron revolves in those circular orbits whose circumference is an

integral multiple of de–Broglie wavelength associated with the
electron,

2𝝅r = nλ
Chapter 13

38. Nuclear Density is Independent of Mass Number

Explanation:
The density of nuclear matter remains constant regardless of the mass
number due to the compact arrangement of nucleons within the
nucleus.

39. Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Definition:
Mass defect is the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the
sum of the masses of its individual nucleons. It is related to binding
energy by Einstein's equation E=mc2.

(i) Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to split it into

its nucleons (free).

(ii) 𝞓Eb = 𝞓 m.c2

(iii) It is always positive and numerically equal to the energy

equivalent of mass defect (or equal to the energy liberated when it
was formed)
40.Nuclear Force Properties

1. The strongest force in the universe.

2. Works only between the nucleons.
3. Very short range : only upto size of nucleus (3 or 4 fermi). More
than this distance, nuclear force is almost zero.
4. Very much depends upon distance :– Small variation in distance
may cause of large change in nuclear force while electrostatic force
remains almost unaffected.
5. Independent of charge :– Interacts between n–n as well as
between p–p and also between n–p.
6. Spin dependent :– It is stronger between nucleons having same
sense of spin than between nucleons having opposite sense of spin.
7. It is not a central force: – Definition of central force (Fc) : Whose
line of action always passes through a fixed point and its magnitude
depends only on distance, if medium is same. Electrostatic and
gravitational forces are central forces.
8. Nature: – (i) Attractive – If distance is greater than 0.8 fm or
above. (ii) Repulsive – If distance is lesser than 0.8 fm.

41.Binding Energy per Nucleon vs. Mass Number Curve

Explanation:
(i) The value of binding energy per nucleon decides the stability of a
nucleus. It is obtained by dividing binding energy by the mass number
of given nucleus.

(ii) The following figure shows the binding energy per nucleon
plotted against the mass number of various atoms nuclei

Greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.

(iii) It is maximum for isotope of iron – 56 Fe2 6 and is 8.8

MeV/nucleon. It is the most stable nucleus.

(iv) For Uranium, binding energy per nucleon is about 7.7

MeV/nucleon and it is unstable.

(v) The medium size nuclei are more stable than light or heavy
nuclei.

Chapter 14

42. Doping (P-type & N-type)

Definition:
Doping involves adding impurities to a semiconductor to change its
electrical properties.

• P-type: Doping with elements that have fewer valence electrons

(e.g., boron).
• N-type: Doping with elements that have extra valence electrons
(e.g., phosphorus).

43.P-N Junction

Explanation:
A P-N junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductors are
joined, creating a depletion region that allows current to flow in one
direction.
 1. At the junction there is diffusion of charge carriers due to
thermal agitation; so that some of electrons of n-region
diffuse to p-region while some of holes of p-region diffuse
into n-region.

2. Some charge carriers combine with opposite charges to

neutralize each other.

3. Thus near the junction there is an excess of positively

charged ions in n region and an excess of negatively
charged ions in p-region.

4. This sets up a potential difference called potential

barrier and hence an internal electric field Ei across the
junctions.

5. The field Ei is directed from n-region to p-region.

6. This field stops the further diffusion of charge carriers.

7. Thus the layers (≈10-4cm to 10-6cm) on either side of
the junction becomes free from mobile charge carriers and
hence is called the depletion layer

44. Biasing (Forward & Reverse)

• Forward Biasing: When the P-side is connected to a higher

voltage than the N-side, allowing current to flow.
• Reverse Biasing: When the N-side is connected to a higher
voltage, preventing current flow.

45. Characteristics (Forward & Reverse)

Explanation:

• Forward Bias: Current increases exponentially with voltage.

• Reverse Bias: Minimal current flows until breakdown occurs.
46. Rectifier (Half & Full Wave)

Definition: Rectifiers convert AC to DC.

Half-Wave Rectifier:

• During the first half (positive) of the input signal, S1 is at positive

and S2 is at negative potential. So, the PN junction diode D is
forward biased. The current flows through the load resistance RL
and output voltage is obtained across the RL.
• During the second half (negative) of the input signal, S1 is at
negative potential and S2 is at positive potential. The PN
junction diode will be reversed biased. In this case, practically no
 current would flow through the load resistance. So, there will be
no output across the RL.
• Thus, corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get a
unidirectional pulsating output called rectified output
• 40.6% for an ideal diode

•
• Full wave rectifier

During the positive half of the input signal : S1 positive

and S2 negative. In this case diode D1 is forward biased
and D2 is reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and hence
the flow of current in the load resistance RL is from A to
B.

During the negative half of the input signal : S1 is

negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is reverse-biased and
D2 is forward biased. So only D2 conducts and hence the
current flows through the load resistance RL again from
A to B.

It is clear that whether the input signal is positive or

negative, the current always flows through the load
resistance in the same direction and thus output is called
full wave rectified.

max = 81.2% for an ideal diode.