CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Chemical reactions are the processes in which new substances with new properties are
formed.
• During a chemical reaction, atoms of one element do not change into those of another element. Only
a rearrangement of atoms takes place in a chemical reaction.
i. The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
ii. The new substances produced as a result of chemical reaction are called products.
Example:
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
• Characteristics of chemical reactions
1. Evolution of gas
2. Formation of a precipitate
3. Change in colour
4. Change in temperature
5. Change in taste
• Types of chemical reactions
1. Combination reactions
2. Decomposition reactions
3. Displacement reactions
4. Double displacement reactions
5. Oxidation and Reduction reactions
Combination reactions
• Those reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single substance, are called
combination reactions.
• In combination reaction, two or more elements can combine to form a compound, two or more
compounds can combine to form a new compound; or an element and a compound can combine to
form a new compound.
Examples
 Magnesium and oxygen combine, when heated, to form magnesium oxide:
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
 Hydrogen burns in oxygen to from water:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
 Calcium oxide (lime/quicklime) reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked
lime).
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
 Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
 Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide:
2CO + O2 → 2CO2
 Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide.
2SO + O2 → 2SO3
Decomposition Reaction
 • Those reactions in which a compound splits up into two or more simpler substances are known an
decomposition reaction.
• A decomposition reaction is just the opposite of a combination reaction.
• Example: When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes to give calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
• Types of decomposition reactions
1. Thermal decomposition
2. Electrolysis
3. Photolysis
Displacement reaction
• Those reactions in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound, are known
as displacement reactions.
• In general, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.

Examples
1. When a strip of zinc metal is placed in copper sulphate solution, then zinc sulphate solution and
copper are obtained
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
2. Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2
Double displacement reaction
• Those reactions in which two compounds react by an exchange of ions to form two new compounds
are called double displacement reactions.
• A double displacement usually occurs in solution and one of the products, being insoluble,
precipitates outs.

Examples
• When silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride solution, then a white precipitate of silver
chloride is formed along with sodium nitrate solution.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
• If barium chloride solution is added to copper sulphate solution, then white precipitate of barium
sulphate is produced along with copper chloride solution.
BaCl2(aq) +CuSO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + CuCl2(aq)
• The reactions between acids and bases to form slats and water are also double displacement
reactions.
For example, sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react to form sodium chloride and water.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Oxidation and reduction reactions

Oxidation reaction:
 • The addition of oxygen to a substance is called oxidation.
• The removal of hydrogen from a substance is called oxidation.
• The addition of non-metallic element is called oxidation.
Reduction reaction:
• The addition of hydrogen to a substance is called reduction.
• The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
• The addition of metallic element is called reduction.
Oxidising agent:
• The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an oxidizing agent.
• The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an oxidizing agent.
• The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.
Reducing agent:
• The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a reducing agent.
• The substance which removes oxygen is called a reducing agent.
• The substance which gets oxidized is the reducing agent.

• CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Substance oxidized: H2
Substance reduced: CuO
Oxidizing agent: CuO
Reducing agent: H2

• H2S + Cl2 S + 2HCl

Substance oxidized: H2S

Substance reduced : Cl2
Oxidising agent: Cl2
Reducing agent: H2S

• ZnO + C Zn + CO

Substance oxidized: C
Substance reduced: ZnO
Oxidising agent: ZnO
Reducing agent: C
• MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Substance oxidized: HCl

Substance reduced: MnO2
Oxidising agent: MnO2
Reducing agent: HCl
Effects of oxidation reactions
I. Corrosion of metals
• Corrosion is the process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the action of air, moisture or a
chemical (such as an acid) on their surface.
• Rusting of iron metal is the most common form of corrosion.
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3.xH2O
• Rusting of iron is a redox reaction.
II. Rancidity of food
• The condition produced by aerial oxidation of fats and oils in foods marked by unpleasant smell and
taste is called rancidity.
• The development of rancidity of food can be prevented or retarted in the following ways.
 By adding anti-oxidants to food containing fats and oils.
 By packaging fat and oil containing foods in nitrogen air.
 By storing food in air-tight containers.
 By storing foods away from light.

WORKSHEET
I. Multiple Choice Questions.
1. Which of the following does not involve a chemical reaction?
a. digestion of food in our body b. process of respiration
c. burning of candle wax when heated d. melting of candle wax on heating
2. You are given the solution of lead nitrate. In order to obtain a yellow precipitate, you should mix
with it a solution of;
a. potassium chloride b. potassium nitride c. potassium sulphide d. potassium iodide
3. The chemical reaction between quicklime and water is characterised by;
a. evolution of hydrogen gas b. formation of slaked lime precipitate
c. change in temperature of mixture d. change in colour of the product
4. A student notices that new hammer made of iron is shiny while an old one kept in the tool box has a
reddish brown deposit over it. What does the change in colour of hammer indicate?
a. Effect of moisture on metals b. Iron hammer turns brown after sometime
c. Effects of keeping in a box for longer duration d. Iron changes colour when kept with other
tools
5. A student notices her jewellery turned dull and had grey black film over it after wearing for a few
months. What results in the change in its colour?
a. Dust deposit over the jewellery which changes its colour.
b. The jewellery comes in contact with air, moisture, acids and corrodes.
c. The polish over the jewellery was removed after wearing for few months.
d. Silver breaks due to wear and tear and turns its colour change due to rusting.
6. In the reaction MnO2 + 4HCl → 2MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2, the oxidizing agent is
a. MnO2 b. HCl c. MnCl2 d. Cl2
7. In the reaction of iron with copper sulphate solution: CuSO 4 + Fe → Cu + FeSO4, which option in the
given able correctly represents the substance oxidized and the reducing agent.
Option Substance oxidized Reducing agent
a Fe Fe
 b Fe FeSO4
c Cu Fe
d CuSO4 Fe
8. In which of the following chemical equations, the abbreviations represent the correct states of the
reactants and products?
a. 2H2(l) + O2(l) → 2H2O(g) b. 2H2(g) + O2(l) → 2H2O(l)
c. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) d. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
9. The removal of oxygen from a substance is called:
a. oxidation b. corrosion c. reduction d. rancidiy
10. Which of the following can be decomposed by the action of light?
a. NaCl b. KCl c. AgCl d. CuCl
II. Answer the following.
1. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions and identify the type of reaction in
each case.
i. Thermite reaction, iron (III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron and
aluminium oxide
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. Magnesium ribbon is burnt in an atmosphere of nitrogen gas to form solid magnesium nitride.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Chlorine gas is passed in an aqueous potassium iodide solution to form potassium chloride
solution and solid iodine.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iv. Ethanol is burnt in air to form carbon dioxide, water and releases heat.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
v. Iron oxide on heating with carbon monoxide reacts to form solid iron and liberates carbon
dioxide gas.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
vi. Hydrogen sulphide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form solid sulphur and liquid water.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Identify the reducing agent in the following reactions.
i. 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O ___________________
ii. H2O + Fe → HF + HOF ___________________
 iii. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 ___________________
iv. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O ___________________
3. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction in each case.
i. Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide(aq) → Potassium iodide(aq) + Barium bromide(s)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. Zinc carbonate(s) → Zinc oxide(s) + Carbon dioxide(g)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) → Hydrogen chloride(g)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iv. Magnesium(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) → Magnesium chloride(aq) + Hydrogen(g)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Read the Assertion and Reason statements carefully and choose the correct answer.
a. Both the assertion and the reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
b. The assertion and the reason are correct but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
c. Assertion is true but the reason is false.
d. The statement of the assertion is false but the reason is true.
i. Assertion: Burning of Natural gas is an endothermic process.
Reason: Methane gas combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. ________
ii. Assertion: AgBr is used on photographic and X-ray film.
Reason: AgBr is photosensitive and changes to Ag and Bromine in present of sunlight and
undergoes decomposition reaction. ________
iii. Assertion: Magnesium ribbon keeps on burning in atmosphere of nitrogen.
Reason: Magnesium reacts with nitrogen to form magnesium nitrides and this reaction is
combination reaction. ________
iv. Assertion: Zinc reacts with sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas and it is
displacement reaction.
Reason: Zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide. ________
v. Assertion: A lead nitrate on thermal decomposition give lead oxide, brown coloured nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen gas.
Reason: Lead nitrate reacts with potassium iodide to form yellow ppt of lead iodide and the
reaction is double displacement as well as precipitation reaction. ________
vi. Assertion: A reaction in which a substance is decomposed into two or more simpler products
is known as decomposition reaction.
Reason: The decomposition of a substance is impossible without supplying energy.
________
 vii. Assertion: After white washing the walls, a shiny white finish on the walls is obtained after
two to three days.
Reason: Calcium oxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium hydrogen carbonate
which gives shiny finish.
________
viii. Assertion: A reaction in which a substance is decomposed into two or more substances in
known as decomposition reaction.
Reason: The decomposition of a substance is impossible without supplying energy.
________
ix. Assertion: Combustion reaction is also called exothermic oxidation reaction.
Reason: In a combustion reaction oxygen is added and heat is released. ________
x. Assertion: Silver bromide decomposition is used in black and white photography.
Reason: Light provides energy for this exothermic reaction. ________
5. Balance the following chemical equations and identify the type of chemical reaction.
i. Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. HgO → Hg + O2
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. Na + S → Na2S
___________________________________________________________________________
iv. TiCl4 + Mg → Ti + MgCl2
___________________________________________________________________________
v. CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
___________________________________________________________________________

ACIDS, BASES AND SALT

Introduction to Acids, Bases and Salts

A substance that tastes sour in water, turns blue litmus red, and neutralises the bases is known as an acid. If a
substance’s aqueous solution tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue, or neutralises acids, it’s called a base. Salt is
a neutral material that has no effect on litmus in an aqueous solution.
Classification of Matter
On the basis of
a) Composition – elements, compounds and mixtures
b) State – solids, liquids and gases
c) Solubility – suspensions, colloids and solutions
Types of mixtures – homogeneous and heterogeneous
Types of compounds – covalent and ionic
What Is an Acid and a Base?
 Ionisable and Non-Ionisable Compounds
 An ionisable compound, when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions almost
entirely.
 Examples: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.
A non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or in its molten
state.
 Examples: glucose, acetone, etc.
Acids and Bases
 An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to
another substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid. Acidic
substances are usually identified by their sour taste.
Arrhenius’ Theory of Acids and Bases
Arrhenius acid – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H + (aq) or H3O+ ion.
Arrhenius base – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH− ion.
Examples
Acids
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Nitric acid (HNO3)
Bases
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
 Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
 Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Bronsted Lowry Theory
A Bronsted acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.
A Bronsted base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.
Example
 In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH+4(aq) + Cl− (aq)
HCl – Bronsted acid and Cl− : its conjugate acid
NH3 – Bronsted base and NH+4 : its conjugate acid

Physical Test
Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.
a. Taste
An acid tastes sour, whereas a base tastes bitter.
The method of taste is not advised, as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.
Example: The flavours of curd, lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar are all sour. Because they contain
acids, these compounds have a sour flavour. Baking soda has a sour flavour. It’s an example of a foundation.
b. Effect on Indicators by Acids and Bases
An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties, mainly colour or
odour, when brought in contact with an acid or a base.
Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:
a) Litmus
In a neutral solution – purple
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – blue
Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants – red litmus and blue litmus.
An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.
A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.
b) Methyl orange
In a neutral solution – orange
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – yellow
c) Phenolphthalein
In a neutral solution – colourless
In an acidic solution – remains colourless
In a basic solution – pink
Acid-Base Reactions
A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base. Salt and water are the end products of this
reaction. An acid–base neutralisation reaction is formulated as a double-replacement reaction in this
standard approach.
Reactions of Acids and Bases
a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals
 Acids, in general, react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Bases, in general, do not react
with metals and do not produce hydrogen gas.
 Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 (↑)
Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
 Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen
 A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg
Sodium + Magnesium hydroxide → Sodium hydroxide + Magnesium
b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates
 Acids produce carbon dioxide, as well as metal salts and water, when they react with metal
carbonates or metal bicarbonates. Sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water are formed when
sodium carbonate interacts with hydrochloric acid. Allowing carbon dioxide gas to travel through
lime water turns it milky.
 Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
 2HCl+CaCO3 →CaCl2 +H2O+CO2
H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
 Effervescence indicates the liberation of CO2 gas.
c) Reaction of Acid with Base
1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.
Acid + base → salt + water + heat
H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O
2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O
2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature
Base + Non-metal oxide → salt + water + heat
2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O
3. Reaction of acids and base
A very common acid is hydrochloric acid. The reaction between strong acid, says hydrochloric acid and
strong base say sodium hydroxide, forms salt and water. The complete chemical equation is shown below.
HCl (strong acid) + NaOH (strong base) → NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)

Water
Acids and Bases in Water
When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in conducting electricity.
Difference between a Base and an Alkali
Base:
 Bases undergo a neutralisation reaction with acids.
 They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates.
 Most of them are insoluble in water.
Alkali:
 An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).
 It dissolves in water and dissociates to give OH− ion.
 All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.
Hydronium Ion
Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the oxygen atom of a
water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.
Dilution
Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent (usually water) to
it.
It is a highly exothermic process.
To dilute acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.
Strength of Acids and Bases
Strong acid or base: When all molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate completely in
water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for base).
Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate in
water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for base).
Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.

Universal Indicator
A universal indicator has a pH range from 0 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
A neutral solution has pH=7
pH
pH=−log10[H+]
In pure water, [H+]=[OH−]=10−7 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
If pH < 7 → acidic solution
If pH > 7→ basic solution
pH scale
Importance of pH in Everyday Life
1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals
Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food, functions of
enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.
2. pH of a soil
The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.
3. pH in the digestive system
The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 to 4.
The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by HCl in our stomach.
4. pH in tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH 5.5 and below.
5. pH of self-defence by animals and plants
Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defence mechanism. For example, bee and plants
like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defence. These secreted acidic substances have a specific
pH.

Manufacture of acids and bases

a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)
Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.
b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H2(g)
f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
Salts
Salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.
Examples – KCl, NaNO3 , CaSO4, etc.
Salts are usually prepared by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.
Common Salt
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s used all over the world for cooking.
Family of Salts
Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl, LiCl.
pH of Salts
A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.
Chemicals from Common Salt
Sodium chloride is a common salt. NaCl is its molecular formula. The fundamental element in our meals is
sodium chloride. It is used in our food as a flavour enhancer as well as a
preservative. From common salt, we may make the following four compounds.
1. Sodium hydroxide or lye or caustic soda
2. Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate
3. Washing soda or sodium carbonate decahydrate
4. Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite
Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide
The strong base sodium hydroxide is a common and useful one. Preparing a solution of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) in water requires extra caution because the exothermic reaction releases a lot of heat. It’s possible
that the solution will spatter or boil. Here’s how to manufacture a sodium hydroxide solution safely, as well
as recipes for a variety of NaOH strengths.
Chemical formula – NaOH, also known as – caustic soda

Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):

Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl2 is released
At cathode: H2 is released
Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.

Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder is soluble in water and is used as a bleaching agent in textile industries. It is also used as
an oxidizing agent and a disinfectant in many industries. It should also be noted that bleaching powder is
synthesized by the reacting chlorine gas on dry slaked lime i.e. Ca(OH)2.
Chemical formula – Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2
Preparation – Ca(OH)2(aq)+Cl2(g)→CaOCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
On interaction with water – bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for bleaching action.
Uses of Bleaching Powder
 It is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry, as a bleaching agent for cotton and linen in the
textile industry.
 It is a strong oxidizing agent, hence used as an oxidizer in many industries.
 It is used as a disinfectant which is used for disinfecting water to make potable water.
Baking Soda
 Sodium bicarbonate, also known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical compound
with the formula NaHCO3 and the IUPAC designation sodium hydrogen carbonate. A sodium cation
(Na+) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO3) combine to form this salt. Sodium bicarbonate is a white,
crystalline substance that is commonly found as a fine powder. It tastes slightly salty and alkaline,
like washing soda (sodium carbonate).
 Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process):
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3→CaO+CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)→NaHCO3(aq)+NH4Cl(aq)
Uses:
 Reduces the acidity in the stomach
 Acts as an antacid which is used to treat stomach upset and indigestion
 Used in the process of washing as a water softener
Washing Soda
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process) –
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)
Uses
1. In the glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner
Crystals of Salts
 Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The water that
combines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.
 The process by which a solid form, in which the atoms or molecules are strongly arranged into a
structure known as a crystal, is known as crystallisation. Precipitation from a solution, freezing, and,
more rarely, direct deposition from a gas are some of the ways crystals form.
 Example:
Table salt (sodium chloride or halite crystals), sugar (sucrose), and snowflakes are examples of
common materials that form crystals. Many gemstones, such as quartz and diamond, are crystals.
Plaster of Paris
 Plaster of Paris is a widely used chemical compound that is extensively used in sculpting materials
and gauze bandages. Plaster of Paris is a white powdery chemical compound that is hydrated calcium
sulphate that is usually obtained by calcining gypsum. While we have seen many applications of this
material in our everyday lives, if we try to understand its chemistry, we will find that it is a white
 powdery chemical compound that is hydrated calcium sulphate that is usually obtained by calcining
gypsum. To put it another way, Plaster of Paris is often manufactured of heated gypsum at a high
temperature.
 Gypsum plaster is another name for the plaster of Paris. Plaster of Paris is expressed as CaSO 4. ½
H2O in the chemical formula.
 Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4. ½ H2O and 3/2 H2O
CaSO4. ½ H2O is plaster of Paris.
CaSO4. ½ H2O means two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.
Uses – cast for healing fractures.
WORKSHEET
I. Multiple Choice Questions.
1. Which fruit is basic in nature?
a. Apples b. Strawberries c. Oranges d. Banana
2. Which of the following will be present in dilute aqueous solution of sulphuric acid?
a. H3O+ + SO42- b. H3O+ + OH- c. OH- + SO42- d. H3O+ + SO2
3. A student learns that plants grow when the pH of the soil is slightly acidic. Which range of pH is
most suited for plant growth?
a. 1 – 3 b. 5.5 – 7 c. 7 – 9 d. 11 – 14
4. How will you protect yourself from the heat generated while diluting a concentrated acid?
a. By adding acid to water with constant stirring.
b. By adding water to acid with constant sitting.
c. By adding water to acid followed by base.
d. By adding base to acid with constant stirring.
5. Which of the following oxide(s) is/are soluble in water to form alkalis?
(i) Na2O (ii) SO2 (iii) K2O (iv) NO2
a. (i) and (iii) b. (i) only c. (ii) and (iv) d. (iii) only
6. Study the diagram given below and identify the gas formed in the reaction.
a. carbon dioxide which extinguishes the burning candle.
b. oxygen due to which the candle burns more brightly.
c. sulphur dioxide which produces a suffocating smell.
d. hydrogen which while burning produces a popping sound.
7. Select from the following the statement which is true for bases.
a. bases are bitter and turn blue litmus red.
b. bases have a pH less than 7.
c. Bases are sour and change red litmus to blue.
d. Bases turn pink when a drop of phenolphthalein is added to them.
8. An aqueous solution with pH = 1 is
a. strongly acidic b. strongly basic c. neutral d. weakly acidic
9. NaHCO3 is formed by reaction of
a. NaOH + H2CO3 b. NaCl + H2CO3 c. Na2CO3 + HCl d. NaOH + Na2CO3
10. Ag2S reacts with H2SO4 to form
a. AgSO4 b. Ag2SO4 + H2S c. Ag2O + H2S d. AgOH + H2S
11. Dry slaked lime reacts with Cl2 gas to form
a. CaCl2 b. CaOCl2 c. Ca(OH)2 d. CaO
12. Which of the following salts do not have the water of crystallisation?
(i) Bleaching powder (ii) Plaster of Paris (iii) Washing soda (iv) Baking soda
a. (ii) and (iv) b. (i) and (iii) c. (ii) and (iii) d. (i) and (iv)
 13. Two salts X and Y are dissolved in water separately. When phenolphthalein is added to these two
solutions, the solution X turns pink and the solution Y does not show any change in colour, therefore
X and Y respectively are
a. Na2CO3, NH4Cl b. Na2SO4, NaHCO3 c. NH4Cl, Na2SO4 d. NaNO3, Na2SO4
14. NaOH is obtained by electrolysis of
a. Aq. Solution of NaCl b. Aq. Na2CO3 c. Aq. NaHCO3 d. Molten NaCl
15. Baking soda is a mixture of:
a. sodium carbonate and acetic acid
b. sodium carbonate and tartaric acid
c. sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid
d. sodium hydrogen carbonate and acetic acid
II. Answer the following questions.
1. i. Why does bleaching powder act as bleaching agent?
ii. Write chemical equation representing the action of CO 2 present in atmosphere on bleaching
powder left in open.
2
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. The pH of a salt used to tasty and crispy pakoras is 8.4. Identify the salt and write a chemical
equation for its formation.
2
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. To prepare a salad dressing, Parag adds a solution of sodium chloride in distilled water to vinegar.
State what change will occur in the following?
i. the pH of the vinegar ii. the acidity of the vinegar 2
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on the following with chemical equation.
i. magnesium ribbon ii. crushed egg shell 2
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________________
5. A clear solution of slaked lime is made by dissolving Ca(OH) 2 in an excess of water. This solution is
left exposed to air. The solution slowly goes milky as a faint white precipitate forms. Explain why a
faint white precipitate forms, support your response with the help of a chemical equation. 2
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Give reason for the following statements. 5
i. Tap water conducts electricity whereas distilled water does not.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
ii. Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not turn blue litmus red whereas dilute hydrochloric acid does.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
iii. During summer season, a milk man usually adds a very small amount off baking soda to fresh
milk.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
iv. For a dilution of acid, acid is added into water and not water into acid.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
v. Ammonia is a base but does not contain hydroxyl group.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. i. Mention the pH of aqueous solution of the following salts as 7, more than 7, and less than 7.
NH4Cl, NaNO3
ii. Two solution A and B have pH value 3.0 and 10.5 respectively. Which of these will turn
a. blue litmus solution red b. Phenolphthalein from colourless to pink.
Justify your answer in each case. 3
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. Consider the following salts – (a) YCl (ii) NH4X (iii) ZCO3
i. What would be pH of salt solution of YCl if Y is Na? 3
_________________________________________________________________________________
ii. If salt NH4X, X is nitrate, then the solution will give what colour with universal indicator and
why?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
iii. What will be change in colour in blue litmus solution if ZCO3 is added to it and Z is potassium?
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Read the Assertion and Reason statements carefully and choose the correct answer.
a. Both the assertion and the reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
b. The assertion and the reason are correct but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
c. Assertion is true but the reason is false.
d. The statement of the assertion is false but the reason is true.
i. Assertion: Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as an ingredient in antacids.
Reason: NaHCO3 is a mild non-corrosive basic salt. ________
ii. Assertion: Carbonic acid is weak acid.
Reason: It ionises completely in aqueous solution. ________
iii. Assertion: Copper sulphate is acidic salt.
Reason: It is a salt of weak base [Cu(OH)2] and strong acid (H2SO4). ________
iv. Assertion: Ammonium hydroxide is weak base
Reason: Phenolphthalein becomes pink in NH4OH ________

v. Assertion: Bleaching powder liberate chlorine when kept in atmosphere. ________

Reason: CaOCl2 reacts with CO2 present in atmosphere to form CaCO3 and chlorine gas.
vi. Assertion: Universal indicator gives green colour with distilled water.
Reason: pH of distilled water is 7 and it is neutral and universal indicator gives green colour
with neutral solution. ________
vii. Assertion: The aqueous solutions of glucose and alcohol do not show acidic character.
Reason: Aqueous solutions of glucose and alcohol do not give H+ ions. ________
viii. Assertion: After white washing the walls, a shiny white finish on walls is obtained after two
or three days.
Reason: Calcium oxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium hydrogen carbonate
which gives shiny white finish.
________
ix. Assertion: Ferrous sulphate is acidic salt.
Reason: It is a salt of weak base Fe(OH)2 and strong acid (H2SO4). ________
x. Assertion: Salts are formed by reaction of acid and base
Reason: Salts may be acidic, basic or neutral ________
 xi. Assertion: Baking powder is used for making cake instead of baking soda.
Reason: Baking powder contains tartaric acid which reacts with Na 2CO3 and remove bitter
taste. ________
xii. Assertion: Pure water is neither acidic nor basic.
Reason: The pH of solution is inversely proportional to conc. of [H3O]+ ________
Assertion: A gas is produced when conc. H2SO4 is added to NaCl in a test tube. The gas is
passed over dry blue litmus paper, it changed to red. ________
Reason: Blue colour of dry litmus paper does not change to red.
xiii. Assertion: A white coloured powder is used by doctors for supporting fractured bone. It is
plaster of Paris.
Reason: It is gypsum. ________
xiv. Assertion: It is advised while diluting an acid, one should add water to acid, not acid to water
keeping the solution continuously stirred.
Reason: The process of dissolving an acid into water is highly exothermic. ________
10. Answer the following questions. 3
i. For the preparation of cakes, baking powder is used. If at home your mother uses baking soda
instead of baking powder, how will it affect the taste of the cake and why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ii. How is baking soda be converted into baking powder?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
iii. What makes the cake soft and spongy?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 METALS AND NON-METALS

In a periodic table, all elements found on the planet have been appropriately ordered based on their
increasing atomic numbers. There are a total of 118 elements known to us, 92 of which are derived
naturally, and the remaining 26 are created artificially in the laboratory. Based on their physical and
chemical properties, these elements can be divided into three groups: Metalloids, Metals, and Non-Metals.
Physical Properties
Any measurable property whose value describes a condition of a physical system is referred to as a physical
property. A system’s physical properties can be utilised to characterise its transitions between brief states.
Observables are a term used to describe physical qualities.
Physical Properties of Metals
● Hard and have a high tensile strength – Carbon is the only non-metal with very high tensile strength.
● Solid at room temperature – One non-metal, bromine, is a liquid at room temperature. The other non-
metals are solids at room temperature, including carbon and sulfur.
● Sonorous – Metals produce a typical ringing sound when hit by something.
● Good conductors of heat and electricity – Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
● Malleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets
● Ductile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires
● High melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga)) – Graphite, a form of carbon (a
non-metal), has a high boiling point and exists in a solid state at room temperature.
● Dense (except alkali metals). Osmium – highest density, and lithium – least density
● Lustrous – Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be polished, e.g., gold,
silver and copper. Iodine and carbon are non-metals which are lustrous. Note that carbon is lustrous only in
certain forms like diamond and graphite.
● Silver-grey in colour (except gold and copper) – Metals usually have a silver or grey colour.
Non-Metals
Nonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.
Physical Properties of Non-metals
 Occur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature
 Brittle
 Non-malleable
 Non-ductile
 Non-sonorous
 Bad conductors of heat and electricity
Exceptions in Physical Properties
 Alkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.
 Mercury is a liquid metal.
 Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
 Mercury expands significantly for the slightest change in temperature.
 Gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
 Iodine is non-metal, but it has lustre.
 Graphite conducts electricity.
 Diamond conducts heat and has a very high melting point.
Examples of Non-metals
1. Hydrogen – Gas
2. Nitrogen – Gas
3. Oxygen – Gas
4. Fluorine – Gas
5. Chlorine – Gas
6. Bromine – Liquid
7. Iodine – Solid
8. Carbon – Solid
9. Sulphur – Solid
10. Phosphorous – Solid
11. Silicon – Solid
Chemical Properties
Chemical Properties of Metals
● Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.
● Mg reacts with hot water.
● Al, Fe and Zn react with steam.
● Cu, Ag, Pt, and Au do not react with water or dilute acids.
Reaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)
A metal oxide is formed when metals are burned in the air and react with oxygen in the air. Metal oxides are
a type of basic material found in nature. They change the colour of red litmus to blue. To avoid reactions
with oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide in the air, sodium and potassium metals are kept in kerosene oil.
Metal + Oxygen→ Metal oxide (basic)
● Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch fire.
4K(s)+O2(g)→2K2O(s) (vigorous reaction)
● Mg, Al, Zn, and Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.
2Mg(s)+O2(g)→2MgO(s) (Mg burns with white dazzling light)
4Al(s)+3O2(g)→2Al2O3(s)
● Silver, platinum and gold don’t burn or react with air.
Basic Oxides of Metals
 Metal oxides are crystalline solids that contain a metal cation and an oxide anion. They typically
react with water to form bases or with acids to form salts. MO + H 2O → M(OH)2 (where M = group
2 metal). Thus, these compounds are often called basic oxides.
 Some metallic oxides get dissolved in water and form alkalis. Their aqueous solution turns red litmus
blue.
 Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→2KOH(aq)
Amphoteric Oxides of Metals
 Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form salt and
water.
For example – Al2O3, ZnO, PbO, SnO
Al2O3(s)+6HCl(aq)→2AlCl3(aq)+3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s)+2NaOH(aq)→2NaAlO2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2HCl(aq)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2O(l)
Reactivity Series
The reactivity series of metals, also known as the activity series, refers to the arrangement of metals in the
descending order of their reactivities.
The below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order.
Symbol Element
K Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)
Ba Barium
Ca Calcium
Na Sodium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
H Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum

Roasting
Converts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
It also removes volatile impurities.
2ZnS(s)+3O2(g)+Heat→2ZnO(s)+2SO2(g)
Calcination
Converts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of limited air. It also
removes volatile impurities.
ZnCO3(s)+heat→ZnO(s)+CO2(g)
CaCO3(s)+heat→CaO(s)+CO2(g)
Al2O3.2H2O(s)+heat→2Al2O3(s)+2H2O(l)
2Fe2O3.3H2O(s)+heat→2Fe2O3(s)+3H2O(l)

Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

 Aluminium, iron, and zinc are metals that do not react with either cold or hot water. However, when
 they come into contact with steam, they produce metal oxide and hydrogen. Lead, copper, silver, and
gold are metals that do not react with water.
 Metal+Water→Metal hydroxide or Metaloxide+Hydrogen
 2Na+2H2O(cold)→2NaOH+H2+heat
Ca+2H2O(cold)→Ca(OH)2+H2
Mg+2H2O(hot)→Mg(OH)2+H2
2Al+3H2O(steam)→Al2O3+3H2
 Zn+H2O(steam)→ZnO+H2
3Fe+4H2O(steam)→Fe3O4+4H2
Reaction of Metals with Acid
 When a metal is immersed in acid, it becomes smaller and smaller as the chemical process consumes
it. Gas bubbles can also be detected at the same moment. Hydrogen gas bubbles are formed as a
result reaction. Because hydrogen is combustible, this can be demonstrated with a burning
 Metal + dilute acid Salt + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s)+2HCl(dilute)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)
2K(s)+H2SO4(dilute)→K2SO4(aq)+H2(g)
 Only Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mg(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)
Mn(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mn(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)
Displacement Reaction
A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.

How Do Metals React with the Solution of Other Metal Salts

A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution in a displacement reaction.
Metal displacement reaction is a common name for this reaction. The reactivity of certain regularly used
metals has been ordered in decreasing order. This is referred to as the reactivity or activity series.
Metal A+Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B
Fe(s)+CuSO4(aq)→FeSO4(aq)+Cu(s)
Cu(s)+2AgNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)(aq)+2Ag(s)

 It’s a component of thermite welding. Aluminium displaces iron from its oxide in this process.
 It is used in the production of steel. In which iron is displaced from its oxide by carbon.
 It is mostly utilised in metal extraction.

Reaction of Metals with Bases

The base has a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base dissolved in water is called an alkali. When
chemically reacting with acids, such compounds produce salts. Bases are known to turn blue on red litmus
paper.
Base+metal → salt+hydrogen
2NaOH(aq)+Zn(s) → Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2(g)
2NaOH(aq)+2Al(s)+2H2O(l) → 2NaAlO2(aq)+2H2(g)

Extraction of Metals and Non-Metals

Applications of Displacement Reaction

1. Extraction of metals
2. Manufacturing of steel
3. Thermite reaction: Al(s)+Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3+Fe(molten)
The thermite reaction is used in the welding of railway tracks, cracked machine parts, etc.

Occurrence of Metals
Most elements, especially metals, occur in nature in a combined state with other elements. All these
compounds of metals are known as minerals. But out of them, only a few are viable sources of that metal.
Such sources are called ores.
Au, Pt – exists in the native or free state.
Extraction of Metals
The process of extracting metal ores buried deep underground is called Mining. The metal ores are found in
the earth’s crust in varying abundance. The extraction of metals from ores is what allows us to use the
minerals in the ground! The ores are very different from the finished metals that we see in buildings and
bridges. Ores consist of the desired metal compound and the impurities and earthly substances called
Gangue.

Metals of high reactivity – Na, K, Mg, Al.

Metals of medium reactivity – Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.
Metals of low reactivity – Cu, Ag, Hg

Enrichment of Ores
It means the removal of impurities or gangue from ore through various physical and chemical processes. The
technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the properties of the ore and the gangue.
In chemistry, a gangue is an undesirable substance or impurity that surrounds the mineral in an ore deposit,
such as sand, rock, or any other material. When it comes to mining, this mineral is very frequent.

Extracting Metals Low in Reactivity Series

By self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu etc., are heated in
air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide, which then reacts with the remaining sulphide ore to give the
crude metal and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no external reducing agent is used.
1. 2HgS(Cinnabar)+3O2(g)+heat→2HgO(crude metal)+2SO2(g)
2HgO(s)+heat→2Hg(l)+O2(g)
2. Cu2S(Copper pyrite)+3O2(g)+heat→2Cu2O(s)+2SO2(g)
2Cu2O(s)+Cu2S(s)+heat→6Cu(crude metal)+SO2(g)
3. 2PbS(Galena)+3O2(g)+heat→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
PbS(s)+2PbO(s)→2Pb(crudemetal)+SO2(g)

Extracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series

  Calcination is a process in which ore is heated in the absence of air, or air might be supplied in
limited quantity. Roasting involves heating ore lower than its melting point in the presence of air or
oxygen.
 involves the thermal decomposition of carbonate ores.
 Smelting – it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore (metal oxide) to a high temperature with a
suitable reducing agent. The crude metal is obtained in its molten state.
Fe2O3+3C(coke)→2Fe+3CO2

Aluminothermic reaction – also known as the Goldschmidt reaction, is a highly exothermic reaction in
which metal oxides, usually of Fe and Cr, are heated to a high temperature with aluminium.
Fe2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Fe+heat
Cr2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Cr+heat

Extraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series

 Electrolytic reduction:
o Down’s process: Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.
 At the cathode (reduction):
Na+(molten)+e−→Na(s)
Metal is deposited.
 At the anode (oxidation):
2Cl−(molten)→Cl2(g)+2e–
Chlorine gas is liberated.
o Hall’s process: A mixture of molten alumina and a fluoride solvent, usually cryolite
(Na3AlF6), is electrolysed.
 At the cathode (reduction):
2Al3++6e–→ 2Al(s)
Metal is deposited.
 At the anode (oxidation):
6O2– → 3O2(g)+12e–
Oxygen gas is liberated.
 The metals at the top of the reactivity series are highly reactive. They cannot be obtained from their
compounds by heating with carbon, because these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.
Hence, for the extraction of such metals electrolytic reduction method is used.Refining of Metals
Refining of metals – removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in metallurgy and is
based on the difference between the properties of metal and gangue.

Electrolytic Refining
 Metals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are refined electrolytically.
Anode: impure or crude metal
Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of metal salt
 From anode (oxidation): metal ions are released into the solution
At cathode (reduction): the equivalent amount of metal from the solution is deposited
Impurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.
Electronic Configuration
Group 1 elements – Alkali metals
Element Electronic Configuration
Lithium(Li) 2,1
Sodium(Na) 2,8,1
Potassium(K) 2,8,8,1
Rubidium(Rb) 2,8,18,8,1
Group 2 elements – Alkaline earth metals
Element Electronic Configuration
Beryllium(Be) 2,2
Magnesium(Mg) 2,8,2
Calcium(Ca) 2,8,8,2
Stronium(Sr) 2,8,18,8,2

How Do Metals and Non-Metals React?

Metals lose valence electron(s) and form cations.
Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.
The cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus forming an ionic bond.
For example: In calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by opposite-charged calcium and chloride ions.
The calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar). By
doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.

The two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain the electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are neutral compounds that are made up of positively charged cations and negatively
charged anions. Binary ionic compounds (ionic compounds containing only two types of elements) are
named by first writing the name of the cation, then the name of the anion.
The electrostatic attractions between the opposite-charged ions hold the compound together.
Example: MgCl2, CaO, MgO, NaCl etc.

Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic compounds

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).

2. Have high melting and boiling points.
3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution and when melted.
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.

Physical Nature
Ionic solids usually exist in regular, well-defined crystal structures.

Electric Conduction of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free and act as
charge carriers.
 In solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attraction and are not free to move;
hence do not conduct electricity.
For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl do not conduct electricity when solid, but when
dissolved in water or in a molten state, they will conduct electricity.

Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of energy to break.
Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually very high.
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This occurs due to the
polar nature of water.
For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl− ions bound together through electrostatic
forces of attraction. When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with water, the partially positive-charged
ends of water molecules interact with the Cl− ions, while the negatively charged end of the water molecules
interacts with the Na+ ions. This ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assists in the
breaking of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction within the crystal and, ultimately, in the solubility of
the crystal.
Corrosion
Alloys
 Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of a metal with other metals or nonmetals. Alloy formation
enhances the desirable properties of the material, such as hardness, tensile strength and resistance to
corrosion.
 Examples of a few alloys:
Brass: copper and zinc
Bronze: copper and tin
Solder: lead and tin
Amalgam: mercury and other metal
Corrosion
 Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or chemicals in the
surrounding environment.
 Rusting:
4Fe(s)+3O2(from air)+xH2O(moisture)→2Fe2O3. xH2O(rust)
 Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s)+H2O(moisture)+CO2(from air)→CuCO3.Cu(OH)2(green)
 Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s)+H2S(from air)→Ag2S(black)+H2(g)
Prevention of Corrosion
Prevention:
1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: The application of paint or oil or grease on metal surfaces keep out
air and moisture.
2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.
3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a protective layer and
prevents corrosion.
4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by the use of an electric current. This
method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.
Examples: silver plating, and nickel plating.
5. Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on articles made of iron or
steel, it acts as the cathode undergoes a reaction (sacrifice) instead of iron and protects the articles.
 WORKSHEET
I. Multiple Choice Questions:
1. The number of valence electrons in outermost shell of the atom of a non-metal
a. 1, 2, or 3 b. 3, 4, or 5 c. 5, 6, or 7 d. 5, 6 or 8
2. The image shows an incomplete chemical equation of the reaction between iron and oxygen. Which
option shows the products formed during the reaction?
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → ___________
a. 4Fe(s) b. 12FeO(s) c. 3Fe4O2(s) d. 2Fe2O3(s)
3. Which option classifies the substance based on their physical properties?
Lustrous Good conductor of electricity Malleable Bad conductor of electricity
a. Graphite and Ag Copper Iron Rubber
b. Copper Rubber Iron Graphite and Silver
c. Copper Graphite and Silver Iron Rubber
d. Copper Graphite and Silver Rubber Iron
4. A student writes two incomplete chemical reactions.
X – P4(s) + 5O2 →
Y – 2Mg(s) + O2 →
Which option completes the reaction to form a balanced chemical equation?
a. X – P5O4(s), Y – MgO(s) b. X – 4PO4(s), Y – MgO(s)
c. X – P5O4(s), Y – MgO(s) d. X – P5O4(s), Y – MgO(s)
5. A student adds and equal amount of CuSO4 in two beakers. He adds zinc in the beaker P and silver in
beaker Q. The student observes that the colour of the solution in beaker P changes while no change is
observed in beaker Q. which option arranges metals in correct increasing order of reactivity?
a. Ag < Zn < Cu b. Ag < Zn < Cu c. Ag < Zn < Cu d. Ag < Zn < Cu
6. A student learns that Na and Mg react with Cl 2 to form NaCl and MgCl2. The melting point of NaCl
is 1074 K while melting point of MgCl2 is 981 K. Why does NaCl and MgCl2 have different melting
points?
a. MgCl2 is soluble in kerosene and petrol.
b. NaCl is formed by combining Na and 1 molecule of Cl2.
c. NaCl has strong inter-ionic bonding than MgCl2.
d. MgCl2 is formed by combining one molecule of Mg.
7. Aqua regia is called as royal water because it dissolved gold. Its composition is 1 : 3 of concentrated
a. H2SO4 : HNO3 b. HNO3 : H2SO4 c. HNO3 : HCl d. HCl : HNO3
8. A student adds some metallic ash in water taken in a test tube. The ash gets completely dissolved in
water and solution changes colour. What should be done to test the product of solution?
a. Evaporate solution to get crystals. b. Test the basicity using red litmus paper.
c. Test the acidity by blue litmus paper. d. Measure the temperature using a thermometer.
9. Reaction between X and Y, forms compound Z. X loses electron and Y gains electron. Which of the
following properties is not shown by Z?
a. Has high melting point b. Insoluble in water
c. Conducts electricity in molten state d. Occurs as solid
10. Metal cubes of same size were each dropped in a beaker containing dil. HCl. What are the possible
identities of the metal cubes in the beaker?
 A B C
a. Mg Fe Cu
b. Na K Cu
c. Pb Mg Ag
d. Zn Mg Au
11. Copper becomes green when exposed to air for a long time due to
a. formation of CuO on the surface
b. formation of basic copper carbonate on surface
c. formation of copper hydroxide on the surface
d. none of the above
12. In stainless steel, iron metal is alloyed with
a. Cu and Cr b. Cr and Ni c. Cr and Sn d. Cu and Ni
13. The process of heating sulphide ore in the presence of air is called
a. roasting b. calcination c. smelting d. electrolytic refining
14. The process in which carbonate ore is heated strongly in absence of air is called
a. roasting b. calcination c. smelting d. reduction
15. In electrolytic refining of copper, the electrolyte used is
a. CuO b. Cu(OH)2 c. CuSO4 d. acidified CuSO4(aq)
II. Answer the following.
1. Read the statements.
(P) Stainless steel does not rust (Q) Iron, nickel and chromium form an alloy.
Does statement (Q) present a valid explanation for statement (P)? Justify your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. A metal element, M has the following properties:
 Floats on water
 Can be cut with a knife
 Occurs naturally as its chloride, or formula MCl
 Its oxide dissolves in water to form the hydroxide
a. State the method of manufacture of the metal M.
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Name the major by-product obtained in the process.
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Give reasons for the following.
a. School bells are made up of metals.
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Electric wires are made up of copper.
 _________________________________________________________________________________
4. Give two examples each of the metals that are good conductors and poor conductors of heat
respectively.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Name the following.
a. a metal, which is preserved in kerosene. ____________________
b. a lustrous coloured non-metals. ____________________
c. a metal, which can melt while kept on palm. ____________________
d. a metal, which is a poor conductor of heat. ____________________
6. The atomic number of an element is 20.
a. Write its electronic configuration. ____________________
b. State whether this element is a metal or a non-metal. ____________________
c. What is its valency? ____________________
d. Write the name and formula of the compound which this element forms with chlorine.
__________________________________________________________________________
7. a. Draw the electron-dot structures of the following compounds. i. KCl ii. CaO

b. The electronic configuration of two elements X and Y are given below:

X – 2, 7 Y – 2, 8, 1
What type of bond will be formed between the atoms of X and Y?

8. a. Write the electron dot structures of potassium and chlorine.

b. Show the formation of KCl by the transfer of electrons.
c. Name the ions present in this compound, KCl.
9. State the constituents of solder. Which property of solder makes it suitable for welding electrical
wires?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
10. a. Write electron dot structure for chlorine and calcium. Show the formation of calcium chloride by
the transfer of electrons.
b. Identify the nature of the above compound and explain three physical properties of such
compounds.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
11. An ore on heating in air produces sulphur dioxide. Which process would you suggest for its
concentration? Describe briefly any two steps involved in the conversion of this concentrated ore
into related metal.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
12. What is cinnabar? How is metal extracted from cinnabar? Explain briefly.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
13. a. Differentiate between roasting and calcination. Explain the two with the help of suitable chemical
equations. How is zinc extracted from its ore?
Calcination Roasting

b. Name two metals that can be used to reduce metal oxide to metals.
_________________________________________________________________________________
14. a. Write steps involved in the extraction of pure metals in the middle of the activity series from their
carbonate ores.
b. How is copper extracted from its sulphide ore? Explain the various steps supported by chemical
equations. Draw labelled diagram for the electrolytic refining of copper.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
15. Read the Assertion and Reason statements carefully and choose the correct answer.
a. Both the assertion and the reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
b. The assertion and the reason are correct but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
c. Assertion is true but the reason is false.
d. The statement of the assertion is false but the reason is true.
i. Assertion: Sodium oxide is an amphoteric oxide.
Reason: Those oxides which react with acid as well as base are amphoteric oxides. ________
ii. Assertion: Nitrogen is a non-metal.
Reason: Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons. ________
iii. Assertion: Copper does not react with dil. H2SO4.
Reason: Copper is more reactive than hydrogen. ________
iv. Assertion: Highly reactive metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their molten ore.
Reason: Highly reactive metals can be extracted by chemical reduction. ________
v. Assertion: Silver becomes black in colour when exposed to atmosphere.
Reason: Silver reacts with H2S gas to form Ag2S which is black in colour. ________
vi. Assertion: The metals and alloys are good conductors of electricity. ________
Reason: Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and it is not a good conductor of electricity.
vii. Assertion: If Na2O reacts with HCl, it will form NaCl and H2O.
Reason: Sodium reacts with air to form sodium oxide. ________
viii. Assertion: Metals are reducing agents.
Reason: Metals form positive ions by loss of electrons. ________
ix. Assertion: Lead reacts with H2SO4 to form lead sulphate and further reaction stops.
Reason: Lead sulphate is insoluble in water and forms a coating over lead metal preventing
further reaction. ________
x. Assertion: The colour of an aqueous solution of copper sulphate turns colourless when a
piece of lead is added to it.
Reason: Lead is more reactive than copper and hence displaces copper from its salt solution.
xi. Assertion: K is more reactive than Na. ________
Reason: K is smaller in size than Na.
xii. Assertion: Certain elements show properties of both metals and non-metals and are called
metalloids.
Reason: Silicon and germanium are metalloids and they resemble with metals as well as non-
metals. ________
xiii. Assertion: MgCl2 is a covalent compound.
Reason: Metals and non-metals react by mutual transfer of electrons. ________
xiv. Assertion: Sodium is less reactive than lead.
Reason: Sodium is kept in kerosene. ________
xv. Assertion: Na, Ca, Mg are obtained by electrolysis of their molten oxides.
Reason: These metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon. ________
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Chemical substances containing carbon are referred to as carbon compounds. Except for
hydrogen, there are more carbon compounds than any other chemical element. Compounds of carbon with
double bonds and triple bonds are called unsaturated compounds, while those with carbon-carbon single
bonds are called saturated compounds.
COVALENT BONDING
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion
 To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses four of
its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C 4+ ion hence formed, will be highly
unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.
 If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of the noble
gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required. Moreover, in
C4+ ions it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon
shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.
Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a nonmetal. The
electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents
Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is primarily formed
between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with similar electronegativity.
Lewis Dot Structure
Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around it represent the
valence electrons of the element.

Lewis structures of elements with atomic numbers 5-8

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2

Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire the nearest
noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths

A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them, i.e., one electron
from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.
A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them, i.e., one pair of
electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines between the two atoms.
A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them, i.e., two pairs of
electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two atoms.
Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two bonds or a single
bond.
Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen atom and form three
covalent bonds.

 Ammonia has one lone pair.

 All three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies more towards
N atom.
 This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive charge.

In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and form two
covalent bonds.

 Water has two lone pairs.

 The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 The O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies more
towards O atom.
 This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive charge.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atoms, as
shown below.
Friendly Carbon
Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds
Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic configuration and unique
strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation, and the tendency to form multiple bonds with
other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon compounds.
Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent bonds with the other
atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and rings of different sizes. It is shown by
carbon, sulphur and silicon.
S8
In its native state, sulphur shows catenation of up to 8 atoms in the form of S 8 molecule. It has a puckered
ring structure.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

Tetravalency and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds demonstrate its
versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings when joined to other carbon atoms.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules. Organic compounds,
on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic compounds that do not form bonds.
Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a versatile element that can
be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s versatility is best appreciated through
properties like tetravalency and catenation.

 Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four, so it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
 Catenation: The property of a carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to form
long carbon chains is called catenation.

Mp, Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids
Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar chemical
properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.

Diamond
Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected to four neighbouring
carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a crystal. These crystal units lie in
different planes and are connected to each other, resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the
diamond.
Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

Graphite
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving each carbon atom
with one free valency. This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in a single plane, and such rings are
stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.
Graphite:

1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.

C60
C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer ball.
Chains, Branches and Rings
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are known as
alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General formula = C nH2n
where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula =
CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties are known as
isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called structural isomers
and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.

Benzene
Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.
Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula C6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged in a six-
membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3 double bonds, which are separated by a single bond.
Hence, this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable resonance structures
exist for the ring.
Functional Groups and Nomenclature
Functional Groups
An atom or a group of atoms which, when present in a compound, gives specific physical and chemical
properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a functional group.
Classification of Functional Groups
Main Functional Groups:
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as alcohols. For
example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as aldehydes. For
example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two alkyl groups are
known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence, they are also
called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.
(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom is substituted
by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane
(CH3Br), etc.

Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, and similar chemical
characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their molecular formula by
−CH2.
Examples of homologous series
 Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
 The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
 Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
 It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive compound.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided on some rules for naming carbon
compounds. This was done to maintain uniformity throughout the world. Names which are given on this
basis are popularly known as IUPAC names.

Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the same functional
group. Their physical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, density, etc., show a regular gradation
with the increase in molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a specific chemical change.
We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A chemical change always results in the
formation of one or more types of matter that are distinct from the matter that existed before the change.

Combustion Reactions
Combustion means the burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of air or oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2
For example,
Naphthalene also undergoes combustion in the presence of oxygen to afford carbon dioxide gas and water.
The chemical equation for this reaction is as follows.
12O2 + C10H8 → 4H2O + 10CO2

Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame, while unsaturated hydrocarbons give a smoky flame. In the
presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.
A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel during combustion, rising in fine particles
and adhering to the sides of the chimney or pipe conveying the smoke especially: the fine powder consisting
chiefly of carbon that colours smoke called soot.

Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the loss of one or more
electrons.

Addition
 The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of the
combining molecules are called addition reactions.
 The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction, hydrogen is
added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like nickel, palladium or
platinum.

Substitution
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by different atoms
or groups of atoms is called a substitution reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen atoms are replaced by other
elements.
CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.
Uses:
1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.
How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?
(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, and damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.
Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium
Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction supports the acidic
character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)

Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a molecule. These
reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction is known as
dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.
CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O
(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in a cold climate, and therefore, it is named glacial acetic acid.

Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of conc.H 2SO4, a sweet-
smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and water are
formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O
(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap molecule is
generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and −COO−Na+ ionic
group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a concentrated sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of
oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

 Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate hydrogen
gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)
 It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO 2 gas. For example, when
ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
Soaps and Detergents
Cleansing Action of Soap
  When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form spherical shape
micelles.

 The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric,
while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to water molecules.
 The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and detach
them from the fibres of the fabric.

Hard Water
 Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides, and
sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react with
soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids.
 2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl
 These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the cleaning ability of
the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.

WORKSHEET

I. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. – CHO represents the functional group;
a. esters b. carboxylic acid c. alcohols d. aldehydes
2. A functional group mainly determines the
a. physical properties b. chemical properties c. both d. none of these
3. Solubility of alcohol in water is due to
a. low density of alcohol b. volatile nature of alcohol
c. ionisation d. hydrogen bonding
4. The difference in the formula and molecular masses of CH3OH and C2H5OH IS
a. CH3 and 16 u b. CH2 and 14 u c. CH4 and 18 u d. CH3 and 16 u
5. Which of the following statements about graphite and diamond are true?
a. They have the same crystal structure b. They have the same degree of hardness
c. Thy have the same electrical conductivity d. They can undergo the same chemical
reactions
6. Which of the following is ethanol?
a. CH3CHO b. CH3COOH c. CH3CH2OH d. CH3COOCH3
7. Which of the following contains covalent bond?
a. MgCl2 b. CaF2 c. Al2O3 d. HCl
8. The number of covalent bonds is C4H10 is
 a. 10 b. 8 c. 13 d. 12
9. Which amongst the following will conduct electricity?
a. C6H12O6 b. KCl(s) c. C2H5OH d. NaCl(aq)
10. The self-linkage property (catenation) is maximum in
a. carbon b. silicon c. sulphur d. phosphorous
11. CH3CH2OH CH3COOH, alkaline KMnO4 acts as
a. oxidixing agent b. reducing agent c. catalyst d. dehydrating agent
12. The IUPAC name of the following structure is

a. Pentanone b. Butyric acid c. Butanone d. Butanoic acid

13. In the compound given below, which functional group is present?

a. alcohol b. aldehyde c. ketone d. carboxylic acid

14. There are some organic compounds in the list below:
C6H10, C7H16, C8H16, C2H2, C5H8
Now choose the correct option.
a. They are only alkene in the list b. All the compounds in the list are alkanes
c. There is no alkyne in the list d. There are saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbon in the list
15. At student studies that vinegar, which is diluted solution of ethnoic acid freezes during winter. What
does this suggest about physical properties of acetic acid?
a. It has low boiling point b. It has low melting point
c. It has very high boiling point d. It has a very high melting point
16. A student burns naphthalene. He observed it give yellow flame with lots of smoke and sooty deposits
around it. What type of hydrocarbon naphthalene contains?
a. Unsaturated, as black smoke represents complete combustion.
b. Unsaturated, as sooty deposit represents unburnt hydrocarbons.
c. Saturated, as it gives yellow flame which represents complete combustion.
d. Saturated, as burning of any substance represents complete combustion.
17. The ionic part of synthetic detergent is
a. –OSO-3Na+ b. –COO-Na+ c. –COO-H+ d. –COO-CH+3
18. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of
a. alcohol b. fatty acids c. sulphonic acid d. esters
19. Which of the following is correct about detergents?
a. They are 100% biodegradable. b. They work well with hard water.
c. They do not create pollution. d. They do not work with hard water.
20. A student studies that soap solution results in micelle formation which helps to remove dirt. It has
unique orientation which helps in keeping the dirt out of the water as shown in the image. Which
helps the dirt to risen away?
a. Suspension of the dirt in micelle.
b. A collection of water molecules is the centre of micelles.
c. Attraction between ionic part and dirt to remove it.
d. Mixing of soap molecules along with dirt so as to make it heavier.
II. Answer the following.
1. a. Name the following compound:

_________________________
b. Write the name and structure of an alcohol with three carbon atoms units molecule.

2. a. How many covalent bonds are present in pentane C5H12?

b. Write molecular formula of an alkyne containing 10 atoms of hydrogen.

3. “Carbon forms strong bonds with most other element making the compounds exceptionally stable.”
Justify the statement.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. The table show the electronic structures of 4 elements.
Element Electronic Structure
P 2, 6
Q 2, 8, 1
R 2, 8, 7
S 2, 8, 8
a. Identify which element(s) will form covalent bonds with carbon.
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. “Carbon reacts with an element in the above table to form several compounds.” Give suitable
reason.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Write the electron dot structure of methane and ethene.
6. Write the names and molecular formula of two organic compounds having functional group suffixed
as ‘-oic acid’. With the help of a balanced chemical equation and explain what happens when any
one of them reacts with sodium hydroxide.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. A carbon compound of molecular formula C 5H10O contains a ketone functional group. Draw the
structures of three isomers of this compound having a ketone group.

8. Ethanol is heated with alkaline potassium permanganate to give a compound X.

a. How many carbon atoms will compound X contain?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Compound X is now reacted with ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give a compound
Y.
X + C2H5OH Y
i. Name the type of compound formed in the above reaction with respect to the functional group it
contains.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
ii. State one characteristic property of compounds of the type of compound Y.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
iii. State one use of compounds of this type.
 _________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural isomers.
a. In the case of saturated hydrocarbons, what is the MINIMUM number of carbon atoms needed in a
molecule for it to have a structural isomer?
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Draw the structure isomers of the saturated hydrocarbon having the minimum number of carbon
atoms mentioned in (a).

10. Manasi wrote the names of four compounds as the first members of their respective homologous
series. Methanol, Methanal, Methanone, Methanoic acid.
a. Which name has she written incorrectly? Justify your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. What name should she have written instead?
_________________________________________________________________________________
11. What is an oxidising agent? What happens when an oxidising agent is added to propanol? Explain
with the help of a chemical equation.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
12. Read the Assertion and Reason statements carefully and choose the correct answer.
a. Both the assertion and the reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
b. The assertion and the reason are correct but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
c. Assertion is true but the reason is false.
d. The statement of the assertion is false but the reason is true.
i. Assertion: Vegetable oils are healthier than animal fats.
Reason: Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains. ____________
ii. Assertion: Ammonia is an ionic compound.
 Reason: Covalent compounds are formed by sharing of electrons. ____________
iii. Assertion: Methane is simplest saturated hydrocarbon which is a major component of natural
gas.
Reason: Methane belongs to alkene. ____________
iv. Assertion: Ethanol is present in alcoholic drinks.
Reason: Ethanol has formula CH3OH. ____________
v. Assertion: Ethanoic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol in presence of conc. H2SO4
Reason: Esters are used in ice creams and cold drinks. ____________
vi. Assertion: Vegetable oils are unsaturated, react with hydrogen in presence of nickel to form
vegetable ghee.
Reason: This reaction is saponification. ____________
vii. Assertion: Soaps are 100% biodegradable but do not work well with hard water.
Reason: Some detergents are not bio-degradable but work well with hard water.
___________
viii. Assertion: Esterification is a process in which a sweet smelling substance is produced.
Reason: When esters react with sodium hydroxide, an alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic
acid are obtained. ____________
ix. Assertion: Butane exhibits isomerism.
Reason: Butane is a saturated hydrocarbon. ____________
x. Assertion: Carbon forms strong and stable covalent bonds.
Reason: Carbon is tetravalent and the carbon atom is small in size. ____________